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Microorganisms
Volume 14
Issue 1
10.3390/microorganisms14010012
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Review

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: Tracking the Progression from IAV (H5N1) to IAV (H7N9) and Preparing for Emerging Challenges

by
Mahmoud H. El-Bidawy
1,
Imran Mohammad
1,
Md. Rizwan Ansari
1,
Mohammed Ibrahim Hajelbashir
2,
Mohammed Sarosh Khan
1,
Muhammad Musthafa Poyil
1,
Md. Nadeem Bari
1,
Abdullah M. R. Arafah
1,
Mohammad Azhar Kamal
3,* and
Shaheena Tabassum Mohammad Ahsan
1
1
Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
2
Department of Pediatric, College of Medicine, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Microorganisms 2026, 14(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms14010012
Submission received: 16 October 2025 / Revised: 7 December 2025 / Accepted: 9 December 2025 / Published: 19 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases)
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) viruses, particularly IAV (H5N1), continue to pose a major global threat due to their widespread circulation and high mortality rates in birds. Management of HPAI is complicated by challenges in conserving migratory bird populations, sustaining poultry production, and uncertainties in disease dynamics. Structured decision-making frameworks, such as those based on the PrOACT model, are recommended to improve outbreak response and guide critical actions, especially when HPAI virus (HPAIV) detections occur in sensitive areas like wildlife refuges. Surveillance data from late 2024 to early 2025 show persistent HPAI activity, with 743 detections across 22 European countries and beyond, and notable outbreaks in poultry in nations like Hungary, Iceland, and the UK. The proximity of poultry farms to water sources increases environmental contamination risks. Meanwhile, HPAI A(IAV (H5N1)) and other H5Nx viruses have been detected in a wide range of mammalian species globally, raising concerns about mammalian adaptation due to mutations like E627K and D701N in the PB2 protein. Human infections with IAV (H5N1) have also been reported, with recent cases in North America highlighting zoonotic transmission risks. Molecular studies emphasize the importance of monitoring genetic variations associated with increased virulence and antiviral resistance. Preventive strategies focus on biosafety, personal protective measures, and vaccine development for both avian and human populations. Ongoing genetic characterization and vigilant surveillance remain critical to managing the evolving threat posed by HPAI viruses.
Keywords: highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI); IAV (H5N1); IAV (H7N9); zoonotic transmission; One Health approach; viral evolution; global surveillance highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI); IAV (H5N1); IAV (H7N9); zoonotic transmission; One Health approach; viral evolution; global surveillance

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MDPI and ACS Style

El-Bidawy, M.H.; Mohammad, I.; Ansari, M.R.; Hajelbashir, M.I.; Khan, M.S.; Poyil, M.M.; Bari, M.N.; Arafah, A.M.R.; Kamal, M.A.; Ahsan, S.T.M. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: Tracking the Progression from IAV (H5N1) to IAV (H7N9) and Preparing for Emerging Challenges. Microorganisms 2026, 14, 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms14010012

AMA Style

El-Bidawy MH, Mohammad I, Ansari MR, Hajelbashir MI, Khan MS, Poyil MM, Bari MN, Arafah AMR, Kamal MA, Ahsan STM. Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: Tracking the Progression from IAV (H5N1) to IAV (H7N9) and Preparing for Emerging Challenges. Microorganisms. 2026; 14(1):12. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms14010012

Chicago/Turabian Style

El-Bidawy, Mahmoud H., Imran Mohammad, Md. Rizwan Ansari, Mohammed Ibrahim Hajelbashir, Mohammed Sarosh Khan, Muhammad Musthafa Poyil, Md. Nadeem Bari, Abdullah M. R. Arafah, Mohammad Azhar Kamal, and Shaheena Tabassum Mohammad Ahsan. 2026. "Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: Tracking the Progression from IAV (H5N1) to IAV (H7N9) and Preparing for Emerging Challenges" Microorganisms 14, no. 1: 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms14010012

APA Style

El-Bidawy, M. H., Mohammad, I., Ansari, M. R., Hajelbashir, M. I., Khan, M. S., Poyil, M. M., Bari, M. N., Arafah, A. M. R., Kamal, M. A., & Ahsan, S. T. M. (2026). Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza: Tracking the Progression from IAV (H5N1) to IAV (H7N9) and Preparing for Emerging Challenges. Microorganisms, 14(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms14010012

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