Next Article in Journal
Positional Consumption, Behavioral Biases, and Progressive Consumption Tax
Next Article in Special Issue
The Cultural Integration Experiences of Syrian Migrants in Turkey: A Qualitative Study on Belonging, Adaptation, and Intercultural Communication
Previous Article in Journal
Emergent Bilingual Newcomers: Fostering Culturally Responsive Welcoming Practices and Integration into School and Community
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Social Sciences
Volume 15
Issue 3
10.3390/socsci15030204
socsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Early Childhood Intervention for Children with Disabilities and Syrian Refugee Children in Türkiye: Practices, Policies, and Recommendations

by
Aysun Yaralı Akkaya
1,*,
Toby Long
2 and
Zehra Yılmaz
3
1
Public Administration and Women Studies Center, Mersin University, Mersin 33100, Türkiye
2
Thrive Center for Children, Families, and Communities, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20007, USA
3
International Relations Department, Van Yüzüncü Yıl University, Van 65100, Türkiye
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Soc. Sci. 2026, 15(3), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15030204
Submission received: 2 November 2025 / Revised: 8 March 2026 / Accepted: 14 March 2026 / Published: 21 March 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beyond Arrival: Policies and Practices of Refugee and Immigrant Integration)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Early childhood intervention and education play a central role in promoting equity, developmental outcomes, and long-term well-being for all children, particularly those experiencing those with disabilities or refugee status. In Türkiye, children at this intersection face compounded barriers to inclusive early childhood education (ECE). This paper examines how disability, and forced migration intersect to shape access to early childhood services in Türkiye, analyzing legal frameworks, programs, implementation gaps, and contextual factors. A review of policy documents, research, and program evaluations, reveals that while Türkiye has established foundational policies and achieved progress, structural barriers and governance fragmentation limit equitable service provision. The study adopts an intersectional framework and Guralnick’s Developmental Systems Model to identify leverage points for reform. The findings underscore the critical need for integrated service systems, strengthened cross-sectoral coordination, and targeted support mechanisms for families experiencing intersecting vulnerabilities in Türkiye, a country that ranks among the top five hosts of the world’s largest refugee populations.

1. Introduction

Early childhood represents a foundational period of human development, during which children’s cognitive, social, emotional, and physical capacities are shaped (Brown and Jernigan 2012; Bruder 2010). Although Türkiye has taken important steps to support early childhood development (ECD), substantial gaps remain in the reach, coordination, and quality of early childhood intervention (ECI), especially for children with disabilities or who are refugees.
Goal 4 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) emphasizes ensuring that all children have access to quality early childhood education (ECE) and preschool education by 2030 (United Nations (UN) 2025). Current data reveals significant disparities in Türkiye: less than 1% of children aged 0–2 access group-based care services, while 25% of children aged 3–5 receive early childhood education (AÇEV 2016). These gaps are particularly pronounced for children with disabilities and refugee children.
This paper explores the current landscape of ECI and inclusive ECE in Türkiye through a developmental systems lens, highlighting intersectional challenges, assessing legal frameworks, and recommending strategies for a more equitable system. Drawing on Guralnick’s Developmental Systems Model, the analysis highlights how fragmented governance structures, uneven service provision, and limited cross-sector coordination constrain developmental outcomes. By situating ECI and ECE within a systems-based framework, the paper identifies leverage points for policy reform and service integration necessary to promote equity.
Two research questions guide this review. First, to what extent do Turkish ECI and inclusive ECE policies and legal frameworks address the intersecting needs of children with disabilities who have refugee backgrounds? Second, how do structural, institutional, and governance-related factors shape access to early childhood services for this population? In addressing these questions, the analysis primarily focuses on children under temporary protection, most notably Syrian refugees, and other registered refugee and asylum-seeking groups, where relevant.

2. Theoretical Framework: A Developmental Systems Perspective

The first six years of life are critical for brain development, with up to 90 per cent of brain growth occurring before the age of five (Brown and Jernigan 2012). This period of rapid neurological development is particularly responsive to experiences within naturally occurring learning environments. A substantial body of research demonstrates that early childhood intervention (ECI) yields long-term benefits, particularly for children at risk of developmental delays or living under adverse conditions, including improved educational outcomes, enhanced social integration, reduced reliance on specialized services later in life, and strengthens family well-being (Heckman 2011; Bruder 2010; Shonkoff and Garner 2012; Snell et al. 2023).
In the Turkish context, research indicates that ECE and parental support programs have lasting positive effects on individuals’ educational attainment, labor market participation, social integration, and family life (Kağıtçıbaşı et al. 2009). The expansion of early childhood services contributes to female labor force participation by creating employment opportunities in childcare and related sectors, thereby supporting broader gender equality objectives (Brixi et al. 2022). Additionally, studies suggest that for every Turkish lira invested in ECE, there is an estimated seven-lira return to society, reflecting long-term gains in productivity, health, and social cohesion (UNICEF 2012).
Evidence also indicates that for refugee children and those facing compounded vulnerabilities, ECE reduces inequalities of opportunity and interrupts the intergenerational transmission of disadvantage (OECD 2025). The prevalence of disability among children who are refugees living in Türkiye is over 4% (TUIK 2023; UNHCR 2024); thus, the intersection of disability and refugee status heightens developmental risks during early childhood. These intersecting vulnerabilities underscore the necessity of early, inclusive, and culturally responsive interventions capable of addressing both developmental and contextual challenges.
Services for young children are most effective when conceptualized as an integrated system of relationships, environments, and institutional supports that collectively influence child development. Contemporary early childhood development literature emphasizes that effective services extend beyond discrete interventions and require coordinated policy frameworks, governance structures, and service delivery systems that enable families’ access to comprehensive and individualized support (Black et al. 2017; Britto et al. 2017). From this perspective, a systems-oriented approach has become central to the design and analysis of early childhood policies and programs.
Guralnick’s (2001, 2011) Developmental Systems Model (DSM), is the theoretical framework of this study. The DSM emphasizes that child development is shaped through dynamic interactions across three interrelated levels: (1) child development, including biological risk, disability status, and individual learning characteristics; (2) family patterns of interaction, such as caregiving practices, parent–child relationships, and access to social support; and (3) family resources, including material conditions, social networks, community services, and policy-level supports (Guralnick 2001; Guralnick and Bruder 2019). These elements are embedded within and influenced by broader systems, including health, education, social protection, labor, and migration policies, and operate through reciprocal and cumulative processes.
In this study, DSM informs the formulation and interpretation of the research questions and provides the analytical lens through which ECI and inclusive ECE policies and practices for children with disabilities and refugees in Türkiye are examined. Particular attention is given to how institutional and governance-related factors shape implementation gaps.

3. Methods

This study aims to examine and critically analyze ECI and inclusive ECE policies, legislation, and practices in Türkiye that address the intersection of disability and refugee status. An analytical review of policy documents, governance structures, and implementation challenges was completed, an approach particularly suitable for examining heterogeneous sources, including academic literature, legal documents, and policy reports, and for positioning national experiences within broader international discussions.
The data sources for this study include two categories. First, the academic literature draws upon English-and Turkish-language sources identified through systematic keyword searches conducted in Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Turkish academic databases such as DergiPark. Academic sources were selected based on their relevance to ECI, ECE, disability, refugee status, and policy implementation in the Turkish context.
Second, policy documents and gray literature were collected through a targeted document review of publicly available materials published by national and international institutions working on early childhood development, disability, and migration. Inclusion criteria for these documents included: (a) relevance to ECI or inclusive ECE; (b) focus on children with disabilities and/or refugee populations; (c) applicability to the Turkish context; and (d) publication by recognized public authorities or international organizations. Accordingly, the review includes reports, strategy documents, and legal texts published by institutions such as United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and relevant Turkish public bodies, including the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) and the Ministry of Family and Social Services (MoFSS).
Combinations of keywords related to ECI, ECE, disability, and migration were used in the searches. The keywords were early childhood intervention, early childhood education, disability, children with disabilities, refugee children, forced migration, inclusive education, and Türkiye. Searches were conducted in English and Turkish. The review focused on publications produced between 2000 and 2024, reflecting a period in which ECI and inclusive ECE policies expanded significantly in Türkiye and globally. Sources were included if they met the following criteria:(a) focused on ECI, inclusive ECE, disability, and/or refugee or forcibly displaced children; (b) addressed policy, legislation, governance, or service delivery; (c) were relevant to the Turkish context or provided international or comparative frameworks applicable to Türkiye; (d) had been published in peer-reviewed journals, official policy documents, or authoritative institutional reports. Sources focusing solely on older age groups, beyond early childhood (defined in this study as children aged 0–6), addressing migration or disability issues without reference to early childhood, or unrelated to policy, governance, or service delivery, were excluded.
The selected sources were analyzed using a thematic and policy analysis framework. The documents were examined to identify recurring themes related to governance structures, service coordination, institutional capacity, legal authorities, and implementation gaps. Particular attention was paid to how disability and refugee status shape access to early childhood services and the structural and systemic factors affecting policy implementation.
The methodological limitations of this study include the heterogeneity of policy documents and uneven data availability on refugee children with disabilities, which constrain standardized quality appraisal and comparative analysis. The analysis deliberately focuses on secondary sources, particularly policy documents and institutional reports. This approach prioritizes policy-level interpretation over primary empirical data and therefore does not capture micro-level implementation dynamics. These limitations reflect the nature of policy-oriented review research rather than methodological weaknesses, and the findings should be interpreted as analytically informed rather than statistically generalizable.

4. Results

4.1. Legal and Policy Framework in Türkiye

Within Guralnick’s Developmental Systems Model, legal and policy frameworks function as macro-level system inputs that shape the availability, accessibility, and quality of ECI services. Policies influence family resources by determining eligibility, financing, coordination mechanisms, and accountability structures. Analyzing Türkiye’s legal framework through a systems lens reveals how strong rights-based legislation can coexist with fragmented implementation when governance and coordination mechanisms are weak.
The Turkish Constitution of 1982 (Turkish Republic 1982) establishes the foundational legal basis for children’s educational rights. Article 41 emphasizes the state’s duty to protect children and ensure their healthy development, and Article 42 defines the right to education, free of charge, as a constitutional right for all citizens. Additionally, Child Protection Law No. 5395 (Republic of Türkiye 2005a) guarantees the rights of children in need of protection, including children with disabilities.
Law No. 2916 on Children in Need of Special Education (Republic of Türkiye 1983) and the 1987 Circular on Preschool Education of Children with Special Needs, promote access to early education for children with disabilities (Pınar 2008). The most comprehensive legal regulation, however, is Decree Law No. 573 on Special Education (Republic of Türkiye 1997), which defined for the first time terms such as individual with special needs, inclusion, early childhood education, family education and participation, and the Individualized Education Plan (IEP). This landmark legislation made special education available at the preschool-age level and has been reinforced multiple times since 1997 through the Ministry of National Education’s Special Education Services Regulations (MoNE 2000, 2006, 2018).
The Law on Disabled Persons (Law No. 5378) (Republic of Türkiye 2005b) and the 2006 Regulation on Special Education define early childhood education as a family-centered process for children aged 0–36 months, implemented in institutional or home-based settings under the coordination of special education services boards. This legislation specifies that education will be carried out in schools and institutions or at home, when necessary, with planning and coordination conducted by special education services boards.

4.2. International Commitments

Türkiye has ratified a wide range of international conventions that shape its domestic legal and policy framework in the areas of child rights, disability, and gender equality, such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations (UN) 1989, 2007), the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations (UN) 2007), and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women-CEDAW (United Nations (UN) 1979), which includes provisions supporting maternal care, childcare responsibilities, and early childhood education. Together, these international commitments provide an overarching normative framework that recognizes early childhood services as a matter of rights rather than charity.
At the national level, these commitments are reflected in a series of policy documents addressing disability and early childhood. Türkiye’s National Action Plan for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2023–2025) adopts a rights-based and socially inclusive approach aimed at enabling persons with disabilities to realize their full potential as equal citizens. Similarly, the 2030 Barrier-Free Vision emphasizes the importance of prevention and early intervention in early childhood through a holistic approach. While these policy documents acknowledge the importance of early childhood intervention and inclusion, they primarily articulate strategic goals rather than creating enforceable obligations or clearly defined institutional responsibilities.
Legal provisions related to migration and refugee protection further shape the context in which refugee children with disabilities access early childhood services in Türkiye. The Law on Foreigners and International Protection (Republic of Türkiye 2013) recognizes migrants as a vulnerable group and stipulates access to health and education services, explicitly prioritizing children with disabilities and developmental difficulties. The Temporary Protection Regulation (Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Türkiye 2014) guarantees access to health, education, and social services for Syrian children under temporary protection. European Union-funded programs implemented in response to the mass displacement of Syrians have also expanded direct ECI and ECE services for Syrian refugee children in Türkiye.
Despite this extensive legal and policy foundation, Türkiye lacks a unified, enforceable legal mandate for early childhood education and intervention covering the period from birth to age six. Türkiye has yet to impose a binding obligation on public authorities to provide comprehensive ECI/ECE services, unlike a growing number of European countries and the United States. As a result, access to early childhood services for refugee children with disabilities remains highly contingent on institutional capacity, local implementation practices, and inter-sectoral coordination.

4.3. Current Data on Early Childhood Education

Early childhood education services in Türkiye cover children aged 0–68 months and are implemented by the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Turkey (MoNE), the Ministry of Family and Social Services (MoFSS), the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Diyanet), local governments, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). In addition, employers subject to labor laws, Special Provincial Administrations, and private individuals and legal entities also contribute to efforts in this area.
According to the 2023–2024 academic year data from the MoNE (2024), early childhood education enrollment in Türkiye increases with age, with enrollment rates of 51.89% for three-year-olds, 64.04% for four-year-olds, and 84.26% for five-year-olds. However, these data offer limited insight into the inclusion of children with disabilities. Although 10,668 preschool-aged (3–5) children are reported to be receiving special education services, the lack of disaggregated data on disability within mainstream early childhood education programs makes it difficult to assess the extent of inclusion for children with disabilities.
In the 2023–2024 academic year, a total of 1,954,202 students were enrolled in Early Childhood Education (ECE) services in Türkiye across MoNE (1,437,000), non-MoNE-affiliated public institutions, including those operated by the Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) and municipalities (163,968), MoNE-affiliated private schools (271,410) and 81,816 attended non-MoNE-affiliated private institutions, such as crèches and care centers under the Ministry of Family and Social Services, including workplace-based crèches established in accordance with the Labour Law.
Approximately 4.14 percent (2.8 million) of children aged 0–9 may be eligible to receive special education services or support (Er Sabuncuoğlu and Diken 2010). Based on United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA 2021) projections, of the roughly 450,000 refugees with disabilities in the country, a significant portion are children, though precise figures are obscured by diagnostic and registration barriers.

4.4. Early Childhood Intervention Programs

Early childhood intervention in Türkiye is characterized by a diverse but highly fragmented set of programs delivered through education, health, and social service sectors. While this diversity reflects significant institutional engagement, it also points to challenges related to coordination, standardization, and continuity of services, particularly for children with disabilities and refugee backgrounds (Diken et al. 2012; Er Sabuncuoğlu and Diken 2010; Avcı-Tozar et al. 2023). In addition to classroom-based educational supports, there are early childhood intervention (ECI) programs specifically for children with disabilities, migrant, and refugee children to support their development and reduce potential risks (Table 1). Although these programs demonstrate the breadth of early childhood intervention initiatives available in Türkiye, their implementation varies considerably in terms of coverage, target populations, and integration with mainstream early childhood education services (Er Sabuncuoğlu and Diken 2010; Diken et al. 2012).
There are also segregated, disability-specific programs for infants and toddlers with disabilities, developmental delays, or who are at risk. These include MoNE-approved programs such as select university programs, healthcare facilities, and private rehabilitation centers like Guidance and Research Centers (RAM). The RAM Centers provide diagnostic evaluations and assessments to identify children’s specific needs and referrals to appropriate special education institutions. RAM also provides interpreter support for language barriers.
Through collaborations with international organizations, the MoNE has implemented inclusive education initiatives for migrant and refugee children. These initiatives, such as Promoting Integration of Syrian Children into the Turkish Education System (PICTES) and the Accelerated Learning Program, support school integration and provide tailored educational pathways for refugee children, including those with special educational needs (UNICEF n.d.; MoNE 2020).
Family Health Centers provide services to children with disabilities through regular health checks, vaccination programs, and growth and development monitoring. Additionally, physiotherapy and rehabilitation services are provided at state university hospitals. Migrant Health Centers (MHC) provide basic health services for refugee and migrant children, with developmental disorders and disabilities identified early and referred to relevant rehabilitation centers (Ministry of Health of Türkiye 2025; WHO 2021).
The Ministry of Family and Social Services coordinates care, education, and rehabilitation services for children in need of protection (Republic of Türkiye 1983). Using a family-centered approach, it is responsible for the opening and supervision of nurseries and childcare centers and public awareness on the importance of child development.
A variety of civil society organizations support the implementation of ECI and ECE throughout Türkiye, including international organizations such as UNICEF, disability-specific organizations such as SERÇEV (Association for Children with Cerebral Palsy), and professional organizations such as the Pediatric Physiotherapists Association. A critical civil society organization working in ECE and parental support is the Mother Child Education Foundation (AÇEV 2024). Established in 1993, the foundation’s goal is to ensure that every child receives education in their early years and that disadvantaged children have access to preschool education. AÇEV implements a variety of projects, including the Preschool Education Program, implemented in the Eastern and Southeastern regions of Türkiye and adapted to include Syrian children.

4.5. Programs for Syrian Refugee Integration

To ease the adaptation process of Syrian children starting school, a variety of trauma-informed education initiatives have been financed through a combination of national public resources and international funding mechanisms, particularly European Union refugee support instruments and UNICEF-led education programs. Currently, five programs are implemented in various regions across Turkey that host a large refugee population:
  • Integration Programs (2015): Syrian students began attending Turkish state schools, leading to the closure of many of the Syrian-specific Temporary Education Centers (MoNE 2014; UNICEF 2019). Refugee children are now enrolled directly in Turkish public schools as part of the national education system.
  • Supporting the Integration of Syrian Children into the Turkish Education System Project (PICTES) (MoNE 2016): Supports the integration of Syrian children into the Turkish education system through language support, guidance services, and school integration mechanisms.
  • Psychosocial Support Program (2017): Provides psychosocial support for teachers and students through school guidance and counseling units as a regular component of educational provision.
  • Summer School Program (2019): Provides preschool education opportunities during summer months (UNICEF Türkiye 2021).
  • Compliance Classes (2020): These transitional classes remain active in many provinces to support language acquisition and school adjustment for newly enrolled refugee students.

5. Discussion: The Intersection of Disability and Refugee Status

Türkiye continues to host one of the largest refugee populations in the world and remains the country hosting the largest Syrian refugee population globally. As of January 2025, approximately 2.6 million Syrians reside in Türkiye (UNHCR 2025). Earlier data indicate that, as of 2023, nearly 3.2 million Syrians were under temporary protection, alongside approximately 296,000 refugees and asylum-seekers of other nationalities (IOM 2024). A significant proportion of this population consists of children; more than 1.7 million are under the age of 18 (UNICEF Türkiye 2021). Among Syrians in Türkiye, 2,758,039 individuals are children, including 398,248 aged 0–4 years and 941,422 aged 5–17 years (Refugees Association 2025).
Accessing accurate data on refugee children with disabilities in Türkiye remains extremely challenging due to documentation gaps, language barriers, and the complex nature of disability identification in crisis contexts. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) reports that nearly 10 percent of refugee households include a person with a disability (The Research Centre on Asylum and Migration 2022), while a district-level study in Sultanbeyli found a 24.7 percent prevalence rate of disability and mental health issues among Syrian refugees (Memişoğlu et al. 2021). Although child-disaggregated figures are unavailable, these findings strongly suggest a substantial population of refugee children with disabilities residing in Türkiye.
These intersecting factors reduce access to ECI through multiple mechanisms, including language barriers, social exclusion, inconsistent documentation, limited awareness of services, economic constraints, and cultural differences shaping disability perceptions and help-seeking behavior (Groce et al. 2011).
Beyond disability-related barriers, refugee children in Türkiye face elevated levels of psychological distress due to war exposure, displacement, and adaptation challenges (Sönmez and Süleymanov 2017). For children with disabilities, these risks are compounded. Empirical research documents heightened trauma exposure, increased stigma, service disruptions, and social isolation (Alpak et al. 2015). Thus, disability and refugee status mutually reinforce vulnerability.

5.1. Workforce Shortages, Care Labor, and Gender Inequality

Türkiye faces persistent shortages of trained early childhood professionals, including special education teachers, therapists, and psychologists (Er Sabuncuoğlu and Diken 2010; Özdoğru 2022). Geographic disparities, high turnover rates, and limited professional development opportunities constrain both service quality and accessibility. In addition, insufficient training in culturally responsive practices limits professionals’ capacity to effectively support refugee children (UNICEF Türkiye 2024).
These structural shortages shift caregiving responsibilities back to families—predominantly to women. Early childhood care work in Türkiye is highly feminized and undervalued (Whitebook et al. 2018; Education International 2021). Traditional gender norms reinforce women’s primary responsibility for caregiving, limiting labor market participation and intensifying socio-economic vulnerability within refugee households (Sunar and Fişek 2005; Bozok 2018). Gender inequality, therefore, operates as a structural mediator between disability, displacement, and service access.

5.2. Quality Assurance, Monitoring, and Regulatory Gaps

Early childhood services in Türkiye are delivered through a fragmented mix of public, private, and non-governmental providers, resulting in uneven enforcement of quality standards. Regulatory gaps in monitoring and the absence of standardized evaluation mechanisms disproportionately affect refugee children, who are more likely to rely on under-resourced or privately operated services (Pekkurnaz et al. 2021). For refugee children with disabilities, variability in rehabilitation and early intervention services further intensifies vulnerability. The absence of systematic outcome evaluation limits the ability to assess whether services adequately address complex developmental and psychosocial needs (Göl-Güven 2017).

5.3. International Crises, Natural Disasters, and Climate Impact

In addition to structural weaknesses, crisis dynamics further destabilize service continuity. Wars, migration flows, pandemics, and natural disasters disproportionately affect vulnerable children, particularly those with disabilities (World Bank 2023). The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated how crises can severely disrupt already fragile systems, limiting access to health and education services (UNICEF and European Commission 2021). Türkiye and international partners have implemented multilingual services, mobile health teams, and conditional cash transfer programs to mitigate crisis-related barriers (UNHCR 2023). However, short-term emergency measures cannot substitute for long-term institutional capacity building. Sustainable, child-centered crisis management frameworks integrating protection, coordination, and monitoring remain urgently needed.

5.4. Territorial, Socioeconomic, and Cultural Barriers to Access

Persistent implementation gaps are reinforced by territorial and socioeconomic inequalities. Service availability varies regionally, with major cities concentrating specialized services (World Bank 2018). Border regions hosting large refugee populations face an elevated need but limited capacity. When public provision is insufficient, families must rely on private services, generating high out-of-pocket costs and additional financial burdens (Dedeoğlu and Adar 2022). Inadequate social protection mechanisms further increase exclusion risks. Cultural and linguistic barriers compound these structural constraints. Limited interpreter availability, stigma surrounding disability, and insufficient culturally adapted assessment tools restrict early identification and intervention (Öner et al. 2020). Taken together, territorial, socioeconomic, cultural, and institutional weaknesses interact to produce cumulative disadvantage. Disability and forced migration intersect at the level of service access, generating layered exclusions that cannot be adequately addressed through single-axis policy approaches. This synthesis clarifies how systemic features of Türkiye’s early childhood intervention framework shape unequal outcomes for children located at the intersection of disability and refugee status.

6. Conclusions

This study examined Türkiye’s early childhood intervention (ECI) system through a developmental systems and intersectional lens, focusing on how disability and refugee status interact within institutional and policy environments. By synthesizing legal frameworks, programmatic developments, and implementation challenges, the analysis assessed whether formal commitments translate into equitable developmental opportunities (Table 2).
Türkiye has established an increasingly comprehensive legal and programmatic foundation for early childhood intervention. This review demonstrates that formal inclusion frameworks do not automatically produce equitable access. The central finding of this study is that inequality in Türkiye’s ECI system is generated by systemic fragmentation, uneven implementation capacity, and weak coordination across governance levels rather than a lack of policy.
Children with disabilities and refugee children face layered vulnerabilities when family support systems, service providers, and institutional structures operate in isolation. From a developmental systems perspective, exclusion emerges through cumulative breakdown across interconnected service environments. Fragmented governance, workforce shortages, territorial disparities, regulatory inconsistencies, and limited culturally responsive provision collectively constrain the effectiveness of existing legal commitments.
This study contributes to the literature by demonstrating that the convergence of disability and forced migration functions as a structural amplifier of system weaknesses within early childhood intervention. Rather than treating disability and refugee status as separate policy categories, the findings illustrate how their interaction exposes the limits of sectorally organized service models under prolonged crisis conditions. Türkiye’s case underscores that legal reform without systemic integration risks reproducing inequities under the appearance of formal inclusion. Based on the results of this study, the following recommendations are offered:
Guided by Guralnick’s Developmental Systems Model, the following recommendations target (1) child-focused services, (2) family-centered supports, and (3) system and policy-level coordination mechanisms. The recommendations emphasize the creation of an integrated early childhood intervention system capable of responding to the complex and intersecting needs of children with disabilities and refugee children in Türkiye. The recommendations require sustained political commitment, adequate resources, and coordinated action across multiple sectors and stakeholders. Success will depend on strong leadership, effective implementation management, and ongoing monitoring and adjustment based on experience and evidence.
Legal Framework: A first priority is establishing a clear legal mandate for early childhood services for children from birth to age six. Such legislation should define explicit service entitlements, establish enforceable quality standards across all providers, clarify accountability mechanisms, and specify funding responsibilities to ensure consistent implementation (Tomris and Çelik 2022; Bakkaloğlu and Akalın 2012).
Coordinated, Integrated System: Create formal cross-ministerial coordination mechanisms with joint governance, unified eligibility criteria, integrated case management, and shared information systems. Pilot integrated service centers in high-need areas providing multiple services under one roof with coordinated intake and family support (Start Early Education Initiative 2022; Dedeoğlu and Adar 2022; Dedeoğlu et al. 2021; UNICEF 2024; Bakkaloğlu and Akalın 2012). International experiences suggest that effective coordination depends on clear mandates and shared procedures, which can be adapted to Türkiye’s existing administrative structure.
Early Childhood Intervention Services: Increase service availability in underserved areas through targeted investment, innovative delivery models, and public–private partnerships. Ensure physical accessibility of facilities and appropriateness of programming for diverse needs. Address affordability through subsidies, sliding-scale fees, or universal free provision, especially for children aged 0–3, emphasizing family-centered, home-based interventions, community-based playgroups, parent education programs, and mobile service units to reach families in remote and underserved areas (Toper et al. 2019; Kağıtçıbaşı et al. 2001; Friedrich and Smolka 2012; Alliance CPHA 2020). Given Türkiye’s long-term role as a host country, specialized services for refugee populations should be integrated into mainstream ECI provision rather than treated as temporary or parallel initiatives (UNHCR and AAR Japan 2017; UNICEF Türkiye 2023).
Quality Assurance: Ensuring service quality requires the development and consistent implementation of national quality standards, grounded in evidence-based intervention approaches, standardized assessment and evaluation procedures, and clearly defined minimum qualifications for service providers, supported by regular monitoring and evaluation systems (Cook and Odom 2013; Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Türkiye 2014; OECD 2020; Kalkan and Akman 2009). Integrated service delivery models that coordinate health, education, and social services, establish single points of contact for families, and implement shared information systems would further enhance service coherence and accessibility (Guralnick and Bruder 2019; WHO 2019; World Bank 2018).
Workforce Capacity: Expand professional preparation programs (pre and in-service) for early childhood educators and specialists. Prioritize training in inclusive practices, cultural competence, and working with families under stress. Create career pathways and improve compensation to attract and retain qualified professionals, especially bilingual and culturally diverse providers. (Işıkçı 2024; Start Early Education Initiative 2022; AÇEV 2016; Chen et al. 2009). Recruitment and retention strategies, including competitive compensation, career development opportunities, incentives for service in rural and remote areas, and professional recognition, are critical to addressing chronic workforce shortages (Mississippi Study 2025; Prenatal-to-3 Policy Impact Center 2025; Learning Policy Institute and Public Leadership Institute 2025; Learning Policy Institute 2025; Leaver et al. 2021). Multidisciplinary collaboration should be reinforced through joint training, shared competency frameworks, and team-based service delivery models (Guralnick and Bruder 2019; Işıkçı 2024; Sergi et al. 2025).
Culturally Appropriate Services: Policy responses must also ensure that ECI services are culturally and linguistically responsive. This includes adapting assessment tools and interventions, recruiting bilingual and bicultural staff, and strengthening community liaison and outreach programs (Fiestas and Peña 2018; Karabacak et al. 2025; Işıkçı 2024). Comprehensive language support services—such as professional interpretation, multilingual materials, and bilingual service providers—are particularly important for refugee families (Karabacak et al. 2025). Engaging refugee and minority communities through advisory committees, peer support programs, and community-based service models can further enhance trust and service utilization (UNHCR 2018; ECA 2020; AÇEV 2016; Erdemir 2022).
Crises Sensitive Policies: Given Türkiye’s exposure to prolonged forced migration and recurrent crises, ECI policies should include emergency response protocols, rapid assessment and referral procedures, mobile intervention teams, and coordination with humanitarian actors (UNESCO 2023). Building system resilience through flexible service models, emergency funding mechanisms, and staff training in crisis response and trauma-informed approaches.
Regulatory Oversight: Establish continuous quality improvement processes and strengthen regulatory oversight and quality assurance by reinforcing licensing and accreditation requirements, regular inspection and monitoring procedures, and enforcement mechanisms across all service providers (OECD 2015). Public–private partnerships should be governed by clear performance standards, quality monitoring procedures, and sustainable financing arrangements to ensure equitable service provision.
Financing: Sustainable funding mechanisms, including dedicated budget lines, multi-year commitments, and needs-based allocation formulas, would improve equity and stability within the ECI system (World Bank 2018). Integrated information systems and strengthened research and evaluation capacity can support child tracking, outcome monitoring, and the identification of best practices, thereby enabling continuous improvement and more effective use of resources (UNICEF 2017; OECD 2020; IDMC 2023).
In conclusion, Türkiye possesses a significant institutional foundation for building a more integrated and equitable ECI system. The critical policy challenge moving forward is ensuring that legal mandates, financing mechanisms, workforce development, quality assurance, and crisis resilience operate within a coherent governance architecture. Strengthening these systemic connections represents a necessary step toward transforming policy commitments into sustainable and equitable developmental outcomes. Future research should prioritize empirical evaluation of implementation processes and child-level outcomes to assess whether structural reforms translate into measurable gains for refugee children with disabilities

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.Y.A. and T.L.; methodology, A.Y.A.; formal analysis, A.Y.A.; investigation, A.Y.A. and Z.Y.; writing, original draft preparation, A.Y.A.; writing, review and editing, A.Y.A., T.L. and Z.Y.; supervision, T.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are derived from publicly available official documents and pol-icy materials cited in the reference list. All sources are accessible through the respective govern-mental and institutional websites referenced in the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. AÇEV. 2016. Summer Preschool Program for Syrian Children: A Practitioner’s Guide for Improving School Readiness. Istanbul: Mother Child Educatio Foundation. Available online: https://www.acev.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/3.Syrian-Children.CaseStudy.pdf (accessed on 8 August 2025).
  2. AÇEV. 2024. Mother Child Education Program & Preschool Parent Child Education Program: Evidence-Based Home-Based Early Childhood Interventions. Istanbul: Mother Child Education Foundation. Available online: https://www.acev.org/en/what-we-do/our-programs (accessed on 8 August 2025).
  3. Alliance CPHA. 2020. Supporting Street-Based Children Through Mobile Service Units in Egypt. New York: Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action. Available online: https://alliancecpha.org/en/child-protection-online-library/child-labour-case-study-supporting-street-based-children-through (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  4. Alpak, Gülçin, Ahmet Ünal, Feridun Bülbül, Eser Sağaltıcı, Yasin Bez, Abdurrahman Altındağ, Alican Dalkılıç, and Haluk A. Savas. 2015. Post-traumatic stress disorder among Syrian refugees in Turkey: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice 19: 45–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Avcı-Tozar, Zeynep., Emine Ayyıldız, and Haccer Sümeyra Bilici Albayrak. 2023. “Everyone wants her child to be the nicest person”: Syrian mothers’ views on schooling of their young children. Journal of Early Childhood Studies 7: 201–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Bakkaloğlu, Hatice, and Selma Akalın. 2012. Parental Views on the Transition Process of Children with Special Needs from Early Intervention to Preschool. Paper presented at the First Interdisciplinary National Early Intervention Conference, Antalya, Turkey, November 9–12. [Google Scholar]
  7. Black, Maureen M., Susan P. Walker, Lia C. H. Fernald, Christopher T. Andersen, Ann M. DiGirolamo, Chunling Lu, Dana C McCoy, Günther Fink, Yusra R. Shawar, Jeremy Shiffman, and et al. 2017. Early childhood development coming of age: Science through the life course. The Lancet 389: 77–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Bozok, Mehmet. 2018. Fatherhood in Turkey: Between Parenthood, Masculinity, and Working Life. Istanbul: Mother and Child. Education Foundation. Available online: https://www.acev.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/EbeveynlikErkeklikCalismaHayati.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2025).
  9. Britto, Pia R., Stephen J. Lye, Kerrie Proulx, Aisha. K. Yousafzai, Stephen G. Matthews, Tyler Vaivada, Rafael Perez-Escamilla, Nirmala Rao, Patrick Ip, Lia C. H. Fernald, and et al. 2017. Nurturing care: Promoting early childhood development. The Lancet 389: 91–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Brixi, Hana, Amanda Devercelli, Michal Rutkowski, and Jaime Saavedra. 2022. Expanding Access to Childcare Helps Women, Children, and Economies. World Bank Blog. Available online: https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/education/expanding-access-childcare-helps-women-children-and-economies (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  11. Brown, T. Timothy, and Terry L. Jernigan. 2012. Brain Development During the Preschool Years. Neuropsychology Review 22: 313–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Bruder, Mary Beth. 2010. Early Childhood Intervention: A Promise to Children and Families for Their Future. Exceptional Children 76: 339–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Chen, Doro W., John Nimmo, and Heather Fraser. 2009. Becoming a culturally sensitive early childhood educator: A tool to support the thinking of teachers embarking on an anti-prejudice journey. Multicultural Perspectives 11: 101–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Cook, Bryan G., and Samuel L. Odom. 2013. Evidence-based practices in early intervention/early childhood special education. Exceptional Children 79: 135–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Dedeoğlu, Saniye, and Aslı Şahankaya Adar. 2022. Caring piously: New institutionalisation of childcare services in Turkey. Social Policy and Society 19: 517–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Dedeoğlu, Saniye, Aslı Şahankaya Adar, and Yasemin Sırali. 2021. Supporting Women’s Employment Through Institutional Collaboration on Early Childhood Care and Education. Özen Tümer, Ebru Özberk Anlı, Ayşe Emel Akalın, Nergis Calbay, & İzgi Güngör, Prep. Ankara: ILO. Available online: https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@europe/@ro-geneva/@ilo-ankara/documents/publication/wcms_799678.pdf (accessed on 2 May 2025).
  17. Diken, İbrahim, Avşar Ardıç, Özlem Diken, and James E. Gilliam. 2012. Exploring the Validity and Reliability of Turkish Version of Gilliam Autism Rating Scale-2: Turkish Standardization Study. Education and Science 37: 318–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. ECA. 2020. Special Report 06/2024: The Facility for Refugees in Turkey. Luxembourg: European Court of Auditor. Available online: https://www.eca.europa.eu/en/publications?ref=SR-2024-06 (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  19. Education International. 2021. Early Childhood Education: A Global Snapshot. Available online: https://www.ei-ie.org/en/item/24940:early-childhood-education-a-global-snapshot-2021 (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  20. Ekici, Barış, Müdriye Yıldız-Bıçakçı, Elif Nur Gurkan, Öykü Su Unay, and Burak Tatlı. 2019. Parent-mediated intensive intervention method in autism: Neuroplay. Children’s Magazine 19: 153–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Erdemir, Ersoy. 2022. Summer preschools for Syrian refugees and host community children in Turkey: A model of contextually sensitive early intervention. Early Education and Development 33: 912–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Er Sabuncuoğlu, Melek, and İbrahim H. Diken. 2010. Early childhood intervention in Turkey: Current situation, challenges and suggestions. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education 2: 149–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Fiestas, Christine E., and Elizabeth D. Peña. 2018. The Dynamic Assessment of Narratives: A Bilingual Study. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology 17: 97–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Friedrich, Lena, and Adelheid Smolka. 2012. Concepts and effects of parent education programs for supporting early childhood education in immigrant families. Journal of Family Research 24: 178–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Göl-Güven, Mine. 2017. Ensuring quality in early childhood education and care: The case of Turkey. Early Child Development and Care 188: 557–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Groce, Nora, Maria Kett, Raymond Lang, and Jean-Francois Trani. 2011. Disabilities and poverty: The need for a more nuanced understanding of implications for development policy and practice. Third World Quarterly 32: 1493–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Guralnick, Michael J. 2001. A developmental systems model for early intervention. Infants & Young Children 14: 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Guralnick, Michael J. 2011. Why early intervention works: A systems perspective. Infants & Young Children 24: 6–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Guralnick, Michael J., and Mary Beth Bruder. 2019. Early intervention. In Handbook of Intellectual Disabilities: Integrating Theory, Research, and Practice. Edited by Johnny L. Matson. Cham: Springer Nature, pp. 717–741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Güleç-Aslan, Yeşim, Gönül Kırcaali-İftar, and Yıldız Uzuner. 2009. A case study on the home-based implementation of the Behavioral Education Program for Children with Autism (OÇİDEP). Journal of Special Education 10: 26–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Heckman, J. James. 2011. The economics of inequality: The value of early childhood education. American Educator 35: 31–47. Available online: https://www.americanbarfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/abf_researchinglaw_summer2011.pdf (accessed on 3 August 2025).
  32. IDMC. 2023. Global Report on Internal Displacement 2023. Geneva: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. Available online: https://www.internal-displacement.org/global-report/grid2023/ (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  33. IOM. 2024. MPM Migrant Presence Monitoring—Situation Report (May, 2024). Ankara, Türkiye: IOM. Available online: https://dtm.iom.int/report-product-series/migrant-presence-monitoring-situation-report (accessed on 17 May 2025).
  34. Işıkçı, Gözdenur. 2024. The Journey of Early Childhood Teachers Working with Refugee Children: Their Experiences, Strengths, and Needs. Doctoral thesis, METU, Ankara, Türkiye. [Google Scholar]
  35. Kağıtçıbaşı, Çiğdem, Diane Sunar, and Sevda Bekman. 2001. Long-term effects of early intervention: Turkish low-income mothers and children. Applied Developmental Psychology 22: 333–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Kağıtçıbaşı, Çiğdem, Diane Sunar, Sevda Bekman, Nail Baydar, and Zeynep Cemalcilar. 2009. Continuing effects of early intervention in adult life: The Turkish Early Enrichment Project 22 years later. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 30: 764–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Kalkan, Elif, and Berrin Akman. 2009. Examining preschools’ quality in terms of physical conditions. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences 1: 1573–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
  38. Karabacak, Nermin, Nurtaç Üstündağ Koçakuşak, Ruken Akar Vural, and Şenel Poyrazlı. 2025. Why Curricu Lum And Culturally Responsive Teaching Is Important In The Education Of Refugee Children: Some Suggestions From The Field. Social Policy and Society 24: 537–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Kılıç, Kevser, and Fatma Ülkü Yıldız. 2023. The impact of the Portage-supported mother education program on the self-care development of a child with autism. Ankara University Faculty of Educational Sciences Special Education Journal 24: 485–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Learning Policy Institute. 2025. 2023–2024 Annual Report: Strengthening Early Learning Systems and Tackling Teacher Short Ages. Available online: https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/media/4585/download?inline&file=2023-2024-LPI-Annual-Report.pdf (accessed on 3 August 2025).
  41. Learning Policy Institute, and Public Leadership Institute. 2025. Competitive and Equitable Compensation: Chapter 5. In Building a Strong and Diverse Teaching Profession: Teaching Profession Playbook. Available online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5f4048bbd7dba74d40ec9c46/t/608edfd555f6f13a4cecb5e9/1619976159553/Teaching+Profession+Playbook+-+Partnership+for+the+Future+of+Learning+-+050121.pdf (accessed on 17 February 2026).
  42. Leaver, Clare, Owen Ozier, Pieter Serneels, and Andrew Zeitlin. 2021. Recruitment, effort, and retention effects of performance contracts for civil servants: Experimental evidence from Rwandan primary schools. American Economic Review 111: 2213–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Memişoğlu, Fulya, Altan Özkil, and Tuna Kılınç. 2021. Protection Needs of Refugees with Disabilities in Turkey. İGAM/DRC. Available online: https://igamder.org/uploads/belgeler/Protection%20Needs%20of%20Refugees%20with%20Disabilities%20Research%20Report.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2025).
  44. Ministry of Health of Türkiye. 2025. Project for Supporting Migrant Health Services in Turkey (SIHHAT); SIHHAT Project. Ankara: Ministry of Health of Türkiye. Available online: https://sihhatproject.saglik.gov.tr/TR-107805/saglik-hizmetleri.html (accessed on 5 February 2026).
  45. Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Türkiye. 2014. Temporary Protection Regulation; Official Gazette, Issue 29153; Ankara: Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Türkiye. Available online: https://www.goc.gov.tr/kurumlar/goc.gov.tr/gecicikorumayonetmeligi.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2025).
  46. Mississippi Study. 2025. Compensation challenges in early childhood education: An analysis of Mississippi’s childcare workforce. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy 19: 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. MoNE. 2000. Special Education Services Regulation; Ankara: Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye. Available online: https://www.aile.gov.tr/eyhgm/mevzuat/ulusal-mevzuat/yonetmelikler/ozel-egitim-hizmetleri-yonetmeligi/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed on 5 August 2025).
  48. MoNE. 2006. Special Education Services Regulation; Official Gazette. No. 26184; Ankara: Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye. Available online: https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2019/02/20190220-1.htm (accessed on 5 August 2025).
  49. MoNE. 2014. Circular No. 2014/21 on Education and Teaching Services for Foreign Nationals; Ankara: Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye, Directorate General for Basic Education. Available online: https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/ (accessed on 6 August 2025).
  50. MoNE. 2016. Supporting the Integration of Syrian Children into the Turkish Education System Project (PICTES); Ankara: Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye. Available online: https://piktes.gov.tr/home/indexeng (accessed on 5 July 2025).
  51. MoNE. 2018. Special Education Services Regulation; Official Gazette, No. 30471; Ankara: Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye. Available online: https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2018/07/20180707-13.htm (accessed on 5 July 2025).
  52. MoNE. 2020. General Directive No. 2020/7 Concerning Adjustment Integration Classes During the 2019–2020 Academic Year; Ankara: Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye.
  53. MoNE. 2024. National Education Statistics: Formal Education 2023/2024; Ankara: Strategy Development Presidency. Available online: https://sgb.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2024_10/11230736_meb_istatistikleri_orgun_egitim_2023_2024.pdf (accessed on 18 February 2026).
  54. OECD. 2015. Starting Strong IV, Monitoring Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Publishing. Available online: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2015/10/starting-strong-iv_g1g530b3/9789264233515-en.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2025).
  55. OECD. 2020. Integrating Data Across Early Childhood Education and Care: Using Data to Inform Policy and Improve Practice. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Publishing. Available online: https://dataqualitycampaign.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/DQC-Use-Case-Early-Childhood.pdf?utm_source (accessed on 4 August 2025).
  56. OECD. 2025. Reducing Inequalities by Investing in Early Childhood Education and Care. Starting Strong. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Publishing. Available online: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/reducing-inequalities-by-investing-in-early-childhood-education-and-care_b78f8b25-en.html (accessed on 4 August 2025).
  57. Öner, Özgür, Akfer Karaoğlan Kahiloğulları, Berrin Acarlar, Altin Malaj, and Esra Alatas. 2020. Psychosocial and cultural needs of children with intellectual disability and their families among the Syrian refugee population in Turkey. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 64: 644–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Özdoğru, Asil Ali. 2022. Improving The Quality Of The Early Childhood Care And Education Workforce in Turkey. In Global Perspectives on Teacher Performance Improvement. Edited by Osama Al-Mahdi and Ted Purinton. New York: IGI Global, pp. 23–38. [Google Scholar]
  59. Pekkurnaz, Didem, Meltem A. Aran, and Nazlı Aktakke. 2021. Does quality matter in determining childcare prices? Evidence from private childcare provision in Turkey. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy 15: 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Pınar, Elif Sazak. 2008. The Development of Early Childhood Special Education in the World and in Turkey. Ankara University Faculty of Educational Sciences Special Education Journal 7: 71–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Prenatal-to-3 Policy Impact Center. 2025. Prenatal-to-3 Policy Clearinghouse Evidence Review: Child Care Workforce Retention Incentives. Nashville: Peabody College of Education and Human Development, Vanderbilt University. Available online: https://pn3policy.org/policy-clearinghouse/child-care-workforce-retention-incentives/ (accessed on 4 August 2025).
  62. Refugees Association. 2025. Statistical Data on Refugee Children in Türkiye: Age Group Distribution 0–17 Years. Available online: https://multeciler.org.tr/turkiyedeki-suriyeli-sayisi/ (accessed on 4 August 2025).
  63. Republic of Türkiye. 1983. Social Services Law No. 2828. Official Gazette No: 18059, Dated May 27. Available online: https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/mevzuatmetin/1.5.2828.pdf (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  64. Republic of Türkiye. 1997. Decree Law No. 573 on Special Education. Official Gazette No. 23111, Dated June 6. Available online: https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/mevzuat?MevzuatNo=573&MevzuatTur=4&MevzuatTertip=5 (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  65. Republic of Türkiye. 2005a. Child Protection Law No: 5395. Official Gazette No. 5395, Published in the Official Gazette No: 25866, Dated on July 3. Available online: https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/mevzuat?MevzuatNo=5395&MevzuatTur=1&MevzuatTertip=5 (accessed on 4 August 2025).
  66. Republic of Türkiye. 2005b. Law on Disabled Persons and Amendments to Certain Laws and Decree Laws (Law No. 5378). Official Gazette, No. 25868, Dated: July 7. Available online: https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/mevzuat?MevzuatNo=5378&MevzuatTur=1&MevzuatTertip=5 (accessed on 4 August 2025).
  67. Republic of Türkiye. 2013. Law on Foreigners and International Protection (Law No. 6458), Official Gazette, No. 28615. Dated on April 4. Available online: https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/mevzuat?MevzuatNo=6458&MevzuatTur=1&MevzuatTertip=5 (accessed on 3 August 2025).
  68. Sergi, Katerina, John Stephan McCown, Mary Rebecca Read-Wahidi, İsmail H. Yigit, Callie Poole, and Heather Hanna. 2025. Compensation challenges in early childhood education: An analysis of Mississippi’s childcare workforce. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy 19: 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Shonkoff, Jack P., and Andrew S. Garner. 2012. The Lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics 129: 232–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Snell, Joshua, Joshua Yeaton, Julie Mirault, and Jonathan Grainger. 2023. Parallel Word Reading Revealed by Fixation-Related Brain Potentials. Cortex 162: 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Sönmez, Pelin, and Abulfaz Süleymanov. 2017. Within the Framework of the Culture of Living Together: An Evaluation of the European Union and Turkey’s Policies towards Syrians through the Case of Sultanbeyli. Migration Journal 4: 41–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Start Early Education Initiative. 2022. The Systematic Analysis of the Early Childhood Education Sub-Sector in Türkiye. Available online: https://erkencocuklukegitimi.org/assets/catalogs/the-systematic-analysis-of-the-early-childhood-education-sub-sector-in-turkiye.pdf (accessed on 8 March 2026).
  73. Sucuoğlu, Nimet Bülbin, Ayşe Dolunay Sarıca, Hatice Bakkaloğlu, and Bahar Keçeli-Kaysılı. 2014. The Small Steps Early Intervention Program Course for Paraprofessionals: What paraprofessionals have to say. Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences (JFES) 47: 375–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Sunar, Diane, and Güler Okman Fişek. 2005. Contemporary Turkish families. In Families in Global Perspective. Edited by Uwe Gielen and Jaipaul Roopnarine. Boston: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson, pp. 169–83. [Google Scholar]
  75. Şengül-Erdem, Hatice. 2021. DIR/Floortime: An early intervention model in autism spectrum disorder. Kalem Journal of Education and Human Sciences 11: 1, 21–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Şen Karadağ, Öznur, and Tarık Tuncay. 2022. Examining the relationships between the Family Education Program (FEP) and parenting skills from the perspective of the beneficiaries: A study with a control group. Journal of Social Policy Studies 22: 11–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. The Research Centre on Asylum and Migration. 2022. Protection Needs of Refugees with Disabilities in Turkey. Ankara: İGAMDER. Available online: https://igamder.org/uploads/belgeler/Turkiyede%20Engelli%20Multecilerin%20Koruma%20Ihtiyaclari%20Arastirmasi.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2025).
  78. Tomris, Gözde, and Seçil Çelik. 2022. Early childhood special education: Theoretical and legal foundations, recent trends in the world and in Turkey. Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences (JFES). early view. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Toper, Özlem, İbrahim H. Diken, Sezgin Vuran, and Gerald Mahoney. 2019. The effects of home-based responsive teaching curriculum on interactional behaviors of mothers and their children with autism spectrum disorder: A mixed design study in Turkey. International Journal of Progressive Education 15: 33–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Turkish Republic. 1982. Constitution of the Republic of Turkey (No. 2709, 18/10/1982). Available online: https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/MevzuatMetin/1.5.2709.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2025).
  81. Turkish Statistical Institute (TUIK). 2023. Statistics on Children. Available online: https://www.tuik.gov.tr/media/announcements/Turkiye_Cocuk_2023EN.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2025).
  82. UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). 2023. The Mother Child Education Programme (MOCEP): A Culturally Sensitive, Home-Based ECE Initiative in Türkiye. Hamburg: UIL LitBase. [Google Scholar]
  83. UNFPA. 2021. UNFPA Türkiye and SGDD-ASAM, together with the European Union, Are Providing Support to Refugee People with Disabilities. Available online: https://turkiye.unfpa.org/tr/news/unfpa-t%C3%BCrkiye-ve-sgdd-asam-avrupa-birli%C4%9Fi-ile-birlikte-engelli-m%C3%BCltecilere-destek-oluyor (accessed on 2 February 2026).
  84. UNHCR. 2018. Refugee Education 2030 Strategic Framework. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/legacy-pdf/5d651da88d7.pdf (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  85. UNHCR. 2023. Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2023. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/2024-06/global-trends-report-2023.pdf (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  86. UNHCR. 2024. What Is Happening in Syria and in Neighboring Countries? Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/emergencies/syria-emergency (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  87. UNHCR. 2025. Mid-Year Trends Report 2025. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/media/mid-year-trends-2025 (accessed on 2 February 2026).
  88. UNHCR, and AAR Japan. 2017. Providing Specialized Child Protection for Special Needs Refugee Children. Available online: https://www.unhcr.org/tr/en/news/providing-specialized-child-protection-special-needs-refugee-children (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  89. UNICEF. 2012. Early Childhood Development and Disability: A Discussion Paper. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund. Available online: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/75355 (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  90. UNICEF. 2017. Programme Guidance for Early Childhood Development. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/evaluation/media/816/file/UNICEF-Adapted-UNEG-Evaluation-Report-Standards.pdf (accessed on 16 February 2026).
  91. UNICEF. 2019. Data for Children Strategic Framework. New York: UNICEF. Available online: https://data.unicef.org/resources/data-children-strategic-framework/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed on 3 August 2025).
  92. UNICEF. 2024. National Education Sector Coordination Terms of Reference—Türkiye Country Office. Available online: https://okuladonus.org/documents/national-education-sector-working-group-tors-unicef-country-office-19-jan2024.pdf (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  93. UNICEF. n.d. Quality Inclusive Education: Supporting MoNE to Provide Inclusive Learning Environments for All Children. Ankara: UNICEF. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/turkiye/en/quality-inclusive-education (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  94. UNICEF, and European Commission Directorate General for Neighbourhood and Enlargement Negotiations. 2021. Mitigating the Impact of COVID-19 on the Most Vulnerable Children and Families in the Western Balkans and Türkiye. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/eca/mitigating-impact-covid-19-children-and-families-western-balkans-and-turkiye (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  95. UNICEF Türkiye. 2021. Early Childhood Education (ECE) Summer School Programme: Learning Through Play for Vulnerable Refugee and Local Children. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/turkiye/en/stories/early-childhood-education-ece-summer-school-programme-reaches-every-child-through-play (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  96. UNICEF Türkiye. 2023. A Partnership for Refugee Children in Turkey. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/turkiye/en/stories/partnership-refugee-children-turkey (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  97. UNICEF Türkiye. 2024. Education Sector Needs Overview Report (May 2024). Ankara: UNICEF Türkiye. [Google Scholar]
  98. United Nations (UN). 1979. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Available online: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-elimination-all-forms-discrimination-against-women (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  99. United Nations (UN). 1989. Convention on the Rights of the Child. General Assembly resolution 44/25. Available online: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-child (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  100. United Nations (UN). 2007. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Available online: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Ch_IV_15.pdf (accessed on 1 August 2025).
  101. United Nations (UN). 2025. Sustainable Development Goals 4 (Quality Education). Available online: https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4 (accessed on 3 August 2025).
  102. Whitebook, Marcy, Caitlin McLean, Lea J. E. Austin, and Bethany Edwards. 2018. Early Childhood Workforce Index—2018. Berkeley: Center for the Study of Child Care Employment, University of California. Available online: https://cscce.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Early-Childhood-Workforce-Index-2018.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed on 3 August 2025).
  103. WHO. 2019. Rehabilitation in Health Systems: Guide for Action. Geneva: World Health Organization. Available online: https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/325607 (accessed on 2 August 2025).
  104. WHO. 2021. Turkey Country Story: Leaving No One Behind—WHO’s Support to Refugee and Migrant Health Services. Geneva: World Health Organization. Available online: https://www.who.int/about/accountability/results/who-results-report-2020-mtr/country-story/2021/turkey (accessed on 2 February 2026).
  105. World Bank. 2018. Investing in Early Childhood Development: Review of the World Bank’s Recent Experience. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available online: https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/260661530745571831/investing-in-early-childhood-development-review-of-the-world-banks-recent-experience (accessed on 3 August 2025).
  106. World Bank. 2023. Childcare Regulation and Women’s Participation in the Labor Force. Women, Business and the Law Blog. Available online: https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/impactevaluations/childcare-regulation-and-womens-participation-labor-force?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed on 3 August 2025).
  107. Yazçayır, Gülcihan, Yaren Önal, Gamze Akkaya, and Yunus Emre Semiz. 2022. Examination of Educators’ Experiences Regarding Early Childhood Special Education Programs. Uludağ University Faculty of Education Journal 35: 699–721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Yazıcı, Dila Nur. 2018. The Effect of The Keyhole Early Intervention Program on Parents and Children’s Output. Ankara: Hacettepe University, Institute of Educational Sciences. Available online: https://research.hacettepe.edu.tr/en/studentTheses/keyhole-erken-m%C3%BCdahale-program%C4%B1n%C4%B1n-ebeveyn-ve-%C3%A7ocuk-%C3%A7%C4%B1kt%C4%B1lar%C4%B1-%C3%BCze-3/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed on 2 August 2025).
Table 1. ECI Programs.
Table 1. ECI Programs.
ProgramDescriptionSource
Portage Program Home-based early intervention services(Kılıç and Yıldız 2023), https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.1087754
Small Steps Early Intervention ProgramStructured developmental support(Sucuoğlu et al. 2014), https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/auebfd/issue/38378/445002 (accessed on 15 June 2025)
Mother Education Program (AEP)Parent training and empowerment(Şen Karadağ and Tuncay 2022) https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/spcd/issue/68921/897645 (accessed on 24 September 2025)
Neuroplay Early Intervention ProgramSpecialized neurological support(Ekici et al. 2019),
https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1306163 (accessed on 16 September 2025)
Behavioral Education Program for Children with Autism Education of children with ASD.(Güleç-Aslan et al. 2009), https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/159155 (accessed on 13 September)
Floortime ProgramProgram to support child’s communication and social-emotional development through child-directed activities(Şengül-Erdem 2021), http://kalemacademy.com/Cms_Data/Contents/KalemAcademyDB/Folders/SayiMakaleleri/~contents/7CU2R2PG8N22YRSV/002_10-23863kalem-2021-176.pdf (accessed on 21 September 2025)
Keyhole ProgramFamily-centered for children newly diagnosed with autism(Yazıcı 2018), https://openaccess.hacettepe.edu.tr/xmlui/handle/11655/5693 (accessed on 22 August 2025)
Interaction-Based Early Childhood Intervention Program (ETEÇOM)Relationship-based practice used to improve the quality of the caregiver’s interaction with the child.(Yazçayır et al. 2022),
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/uefad (accessed 2 August 2025).
Table 2. Key Findings.
Table 2. Key Findings.
ComponentStrengthsChallenges
Strong Legal FoundationA comprehensive legal framework that establishes rights and entitlements for children with disabilities and refugee children. Framework lacks unified implementation mechanisms and enforceable standards.
Programmatic DiversityMultiple programs and services exist across different ministries and organizations.
  • Coordination and integration across systems is weak. Creating inefficiencies in service delivery
  • Gaps persist in service coverage, particularly for children under age three, rural populations, and refugee communities.
  • Quality varies significantly across providers and regions.
Implementation Commitment to education and service provision
  • Insufficient human resources,
  • Fragmented service delivery,
  • Inadequate funding,
International LearningInternational best practices demonstrate that comprehensive, integrated, and well-resourced early childhood intervention systems can achieve better outcomes for vulnerable children and families.Lacks infrastructure, personnel, and regulatory to fully implement international best practices
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Yaralı Akkaya, A.; Long, T.; Yılmaz, Z. Early Childhood Intervention for Children with Disabilities and Syrian Refugee Children in Türkiye: Practices, Policies, and Recommendations. Soc. Sci. 2026, 15, 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15030204

AMA Style

Yaralı Akkaya A, Long T, Yılmaz Z. Early Childhood Intervention for Children with Disabilities and Syrian Refugee Children in Türkiye: Practices, Policies, and Recommendations. Social Sciences. 2026; 15(3):204. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15030204

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yaralı Akkaya, Aysun, Toby Long, and Zehra Yılmaz. 2026. "Early Childhood Intervention for Children with Disabilities and Syrian Refugee Children in Türkiye: Practices, Policies, and Recommendations" Social Sciences 15, no. 3: 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15030204

APA Style

Yaralı Akkaya, A., Long, T., & Yılmaz, Z. (2026). Early Childhood Intervention for Children with Disabilities and Syrian Refugee Children in Türkiye: Practices, Policies, and Recommendations. Social Sciences, 15(3), 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci15030204

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop