Water-Lubricated Photothermal Surfaces for Anti-Icing and Deicing

Gao, Chunlei; Liu, Yongzhi; Du, Yongyi

doi:10.3390/lubricants14050201

Open AccessReview

Water-Lubricated Photothermal Surfaces for Anti-Icing and Deicing

by

Chunlei Gao

^1,*

,

Yongzhi Liu

² and

Yongyi Du

³

¹

School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Taizhou Vocational and Technical College, Taizhou 318000, China

²

School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China

³

School of Physics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

^*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Lubricants 2026, 14(5), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants14050201

Submission received: 13 April 2026 / Revised: 11 May 2026 / Accepted: 13 May 2026 / Published: 14 May 2026

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Frictional Interfaces)

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Abstract

Ice accumulation on critical infrastructure surfaces threatens operational safety in aviation, power transmission, and transportation systems. Conventional anti-icing and deicing strategies, such as chemical deicers and energy-intensive active heating, have inherent drawbacks. These include environmental pollution, high energy consumption, and low efficiency. In recent years, photothermal-responsive extremely water-repellent surfaces have attracted widespread attention. They can harvest renewable solar energy and achieve efficient anti-icing and deicing through tailored interfacial wetting properties. This review summarizes photothermal extremely water-repellent surfaces based on the “water as a lubricating layer” strategy. This strategy reduces ice adhesion strength and enables low-energy deicing. It works by forming a continuous lubricating film via photothermally induced interfacial meltwater. We discuss photothermal conversion mechanisms and strategies to enhance performance for stable lubricating film formation. We also analyze the stagewise physics of anti-icing and deicing, focusing on the interfacial tribological behavior of the water film. Key engineering challenges are addressed, including mechanical durability and all-weather applicability. Finally, we clarify future research directions for industrial translation. This review aims to provide theoretical insights and technical pathways for developing next-generation anti-icing and deicing surfaces that are efficient, eco-friendly, and sustainable.

Keywords:

water lubrication; interfacial lubrication; photothermal surfaces; ice adhesion; solar-thermal conversion

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Ice accumulation on critical infrastructure surfaces severely threatens the operational safety and reliability of aviation [1,2], power transmission [3,4], and renewable energy generation systems [5,6]. Conventional anti-icing/deicing technologies, including chemical deicers [7], mechanical removal [8,9], and energy-intensive active heating [10], have inherent drawbacks such as environmental pollution, high cost, and low efficiency, thereby driving an urgent need for passive, energy-autonomous, and sustainable ice protection solutions.

As shown in Figure 1, superhydrophobic surfaces (SHSs) have emerged as a core research direction for passive anti-icing, as they reduce ice adhesion by minimizing solid–liquid contact [11,12]. Their anti-icing performance was first experimentally verified in 2009 [13,14], and subsequent studies have confirmed that rationally designed micro–nano-structures can shorten the contact time of supercooled droplets and delay ice nucleation and growth [15,16,17,18]. However, conventional SHSs are prone to failure under high humidity and extreme supercooling due to the Cassie-to-Wenzel wetting transition, which triggers a sharp rise in ice adhesion [12,19,20]. Moreover, the detachment of low-adhesion ice still relies on unstable external forces such as wind and gravity [21].

Two alternative strategies based on interfacial lubrication have emerged to address these limitations. Slippery liquid-infused porous surfaces (SLIPSs) reduce interfacial friction through a continuous lubricant film [22,23]. Low-interfacial-toughness elastomeric coatings, in contrast, promote ice detachment by inhibiting crack propagation [21,24]. However, they face irreversible lubricant depletion and high deicing force requirements, respectively, highlighting the need for a sustainable in situ lubrication strategy.

In parallel, the development of “armored” SHSs [25] with exceptional durability provided a stable platform for the functional integration of photothermal (PT) materials. The combination of photothermal materials and extremely water-repellent surfaces overcomes the limitations of purely passive protection afforded by conventional icephobic surfaces via solar photothermal conversion [26,27,28,29,30,31].

Figure 1. Timeline of key advances in extremely water-repellent surfaces for anti-icing and deicing (2009–2026). The field evolved in three stages: (1) Foundational theory: coalescence-induced jumping (2009) [13], icephobicity of superhydrophobic coating (2009) [14], low-temperature rebound (2010) [15], delayed icing on MN-surfaces (2012) [16], reducing the contact time (2013) [17], pancake bouncing on SHSs (2014) [18]. (2) Durability and design breakthroughs: SLIPS (2011) [22], low–modulus elastomers (2016) [24], and low–interfacial–toughness materials (2019) [21]. (3) Photothermal–responsive systems: photothermal trap (2018) [26], robust SHSs (2020) [25], phase-change photothermal surface (2021) [28], transparent photothermal surface (2022) [27], scalable photothermal coating (2024) [29], full life cycle deicing (2025) [30], all-season applications (2026) [31]. Figures reproduced from [13,16,21,27,29,30,31] with the permission of APS, Wiley-VCH GmbH, AAAS, Wiley-VCH GmbH, Springer Nature, Wiley-VCH GmbH, and Wiley-VCH GmbH, respectively.

The core advantage of photothermal extremely water-repellent surfaces lies in the reconstruction of the ice–substrate interface through the “water as a lubricating layer” strategy. Under solar irradiation, localized photothermal heating preferentially melts the thin ice layer in contact with the substrate, forming a continuous in situ lubricating film of liquid water. This film transforms high-adhesion solid–solid contact into low-friction solid–liquid–solid interfacial lubrication contact, drastically reducing ice adhesion and enabling gravity-driven passive deicing at sub-zero temperatures [32].

This strategy converts meltwater into a lubricating medium, thereby addressing the external-force dependence of SHS and the lubricant depletion of SLIPS. It is widely accepted that interfacial lubrication is the core pathway to ultra-low ice adhesion, but critical gaps remain in the quantitative regulation, long-term stability, and standardized evaluation of the lubricating water film.

This review systematically summarizes research progress on photothermal extremely water-repellent anti-icing surfaces based on the water-lubricating film strategy, with a consistent focus on interfacial lubrication behavior. The organization of this review is as follows: Section 2 discusses photothermal conversion mechanisms and material design strategies. Section 3 analyzes the stagewise anti-icing/deicing mechanisms with a focus on interfacial lubrication. Section 4 addresses key engineering challenges. Section 5 outlines future directions.

2. Photothermal Materials for Water-Lubricated Anti-Icing

Photothermal materials are essential for the “water-as-lubricant” anti-icing strategy. Their photothermal efficiency, interfacial heating uniformity, and stability directly govern how quickly, continuously, and reliably a lubricating water film forms at the ice–substrate interface. Localized interfacial heating, not bulk ice melting, is key to forming a continuous water film with minimal energy use [32,33]. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of photothermal mechanisms, major material systems, and design strategies, with an emphasis on how materials engineering enables stable and efficient deicing through the controlled formation of a water film.

2.1. Photothermal Mechanisms and Material Types

For anti-icing and deicing applications involving “water as a lubricating layer”, three mainstream photothermal conversion mechanisms have been developed, categorized by their dominant energy-dissipation pathways and representative material systems (Figure 2a). The classification, working principles, and representative material morphologies are summarized in Figure 2.

2.1.1. Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance

Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) arises from the collective oscillation of free electrons in nanostructures under light excitation, generating intense, ultrafast, and highly localized interfacial heating (Figure 2b) [32]. The fast thermal response and spatial confinement of heat generation inherent to this mechanism avoid the energy waste associated with bulk ice melting, aligning well with the low-energy core requirement of interfacial lubrication. Plasmonic materials used for anti-icing cover a broad compositional spectrum. Noble metals such as Au and Ag were among the first to be explored, but attention has increasingly shifted toward more practical alternatives, copper-based nanomaterials (Cu nanowires, CuS) and refractory transition-metal nitrides, particularly TiN [3,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44].

Noble metal nanostructures (e.g., Au) can achieve near-unity broadband solar absorption through hybrid LSPR modes [34], but their high cost, limited scalability, and insufficient long-term stability restrict engineering deployment. Transition-metal nitride ceramics, particularly titanium nitride (TiN), have emerged as leading alternatives owing to their excellent optical properties, chemical inertness, and mechanical robustness. Superhydrophobic composite coatings employing TiN nanoparticles as the photothermal unit exhibit an 81.9 °C temperature rise under 1-sun irradiation while maintaining good wear resistance and stable performance [41]. Achieving uniform dispersion of plasmonic nanoparticles across large areas, however, remains difficult. Non-uniform heating can produce discontinuous water films that locally pin ice and trigger lubrication failure.

Figure 2. Classification and fundamental mechanisms of photothermal materials. (a) The AM 1.5 Global solar spectrum, highlighting the significant energy portion (49.9%) in the near-infrared (NIR) region. (b) Mechanism of plasmonic localized heating with representative material electron images. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH, Institute of Physics, Wiley-VCH GmbH, and Springer Nature [32,36,38,43,44]. (c) Non-radiative relaxation pathways in semiconductors with corresponding material morphologies. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH, NAS, Wiley-VCH GmbH, Wiley-VCH GmbH, and American Chemical Society [32,45,46,47,48]. (d) Molecular vibrational relaxation (thermal vibration) mechanism exemplified by organic/polymeric materials. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH, NAS, Wiley-VCH GmbH, Royal Society of Chemistry, and Springer Nature [32,49,50,51,52]. (e) Schematic and materials demonstrating synergistic photothermal effects combining multiple mechanisms. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH, Wiley-VCH GmbH, and Springer Nature [30,53,54].

2.1.2. Non-Radiative Relaxation

In semiconductor photothermal materials, photon-to-heat conversion proceeds predominantly through non-radiative relaxation (Figure 2c). Photoexcited carriers dissipate absorbed photon energy as lattice heat via electron-phonon coupling, thereby avoiding radiative emission losses. The conversion efficiency is intrinsically governed by the material’s electronic band structure [55]. Representative semiconductor materials for anti-icing applications include metal oxides (Fe₃O₄), polydopamine (PDA), polyaniline, and polypyrrole (PPy) [27,45,46,47,48,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65].

Early anti-icing photothermal coatings employed semiconductor materials such as Fe₃O₄, though few studies elucidated the intrinsic structure-activity relationship between electronic structure and non-radiative decay [45,56,57,59]. A key breakthrough was achieved in titanium suboxide (TixO_2n−1) systems. Metallic λ-Ti₃O₅ exhibits a solar absorptivity of 96.4%, owing to nearly dispersionless flat bands induced by Ti-Ti dimers near the Fermi level. These flat bands create a high joint density of states (JDOS), which broadens light absorption and accelerates non-radiative relaxation of hot carriers [66]. Defect engineering must therefore strike a delicate balance: sufficient density to enhance absorption, yet low enough to avoid photooxidation during prolonged outdoor exposure.

2.1.3. Molecular Thermal Vibration

In carbon-based photothermal materials, absorbed photon energy is dissipated as heat via vibrational relaxation, wherein lattice vibrations (phonon emission) serve as the primary energy dissipation channel (Figure 2d). This mechanism prevails in materials with strong electron–phonon coupling and low radiative recombination rates, and the broadband solar absorption and stable heat-generation characteristics of carbon-based systems render them well adapted to fluctuating outdoor solar irradiation [32]. Carbon-based materials used in anti-icing applications range from disordered carbons like candle soot and carbon black to graphitic forms such as CNTs, graphene, and graphite [28,49,50,51,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82].

Candle soot, with its fractal-like hierarchical structure, traps sunlight through multiple internal reflections, resulting in a temperature increase of 53 °C under 1-sun, ice-free operation at −50 °C [49]. Extending carbon-based photothermal functionality to lubricant-infused systems, a slippery photothermal surface fabricated by infusing silicone oil into a CNT/PDMS microporous array reaches over 160 °C under 1 W near-infrared irradiation while maintaining stable slippery performance [76]. Transparent applications pose a particular challenge. Strong visible absorption, essential for carbon-based photothermal performance, inherently conflicts with the high transmittance required for windows and optical devices.

2.1.4. Synergistic Photothermal Effects

While the three mechanisms discussed above offer distinct advantages, they also exhibit inherent limitations when employed in isolation. LSPR-based systems are typically constrained to specific wavelength ranges, semiconductor defect engineering often involves a trade-off with chemical stability, and carbon-based materials face challenges in achieving visible transparency. Many advanced photothermal systems integrate multiple energy dissipation pathways within a single material platform, thereby achieving broader spectral absorption and enhanced conversion efficiency (Figure 2e).

Multi-mechanism synergy is illustrated by the graphene@NiO/Ni surface, which combines photothermal, electrothermal, and magnetothermal conversion in a single hierarchical architecture. The graphene@NiO layer achieves over 90% solar absorption and reaches 64.7 °C under 1-sun illumination, while the inner Ni layer enables magnetothermal heating to 121.3 °C within 2 min [30]. Compositional engineering of MXenes offers an alternative route to enhanced performance: a double-transition-metal MXene exhibits elevated joint densities of states near the Fermi level, thereby achieving a surface temperature of 44 °C under 1-sun. Cu-MOF surfaces add another dimension: a narrow band gap (0.88 eV), π–π conjugation, and hierarchical light trapping together deliver over 98% solar absorption and a 65.5 °C temperature rise under 1-sun [54]. Precise control over each energy dissipation pathway is essential. Long-term operational stability will be equally critical for translating these synergistic designs into practical applications.

2.1.5. Comparative Analysis of Photothermal Mechanisms

The four photothermal conversion mechanisms above differ in their ice-melting pathways, heating behavior, and energy efficiency, which directly govern the formation and stability of the interfacial lubricating water film, the core of our proposed anti-icing strategy.

To clarify the applicability, advantages, and limitations of each mechanism for water-lubricated anti-icing, we systematically compared their performance, as summarized in Table 1.

Different photothermal mechanisms direct specific ice-melting paths and application scopes. Plasmonic heating achieves localized interfacial melting but has narrow absorption and scalability issues. Semiconductor non-radiative relaxation offers a wide range of materials, though photostability remains a concern. Molecular thermal vibration in carbon-based materials provides full-spectrum heating even in low-light conditions, but their inherent opacity limits their use in transparent applications. Synergistic systems surpass the limits of single mechanisms yet demand precise control of each channel. Matching the mechanism to operating conditions determines whether the interfacial water film remains stable for effective anti-icing/deicing.

2.2. Performance Enhancement Strategies

Stable interfacial lubrication in practical anti-icing demands the collaborative optimization of multiple properties, most notably optical absorption and photothermal conversion efficiency [32]. Moreover, through rational system design, the heat generated by photothermal materials should be fully utilized for anti-icing and deicing [88]. To address the inherent performance trade-offs in practical scenarios, this section proposes four core design strategies that prioritize maintaining stable interfacial lubrication (Figure 3).

2.2.1. Morphology Control of Nanomaterials

The optical absorption and photothermal efficiency of nanomaterials are intrinsically governed by their morphology. Rational morphology control enables LSPR spectral tuning, enhanced light trapping via multiple internal reflections, and optimization of the effective dielectric response. Morphological engineering strategies broadly fall into two categories: (1) precise shaping of individual nanostructures and (2) controlled assembly into ordered three-dimensional architectures.

The longitudinal LSPR mode of high-aspect-ratio nanoparticles is tuned across the visible-NIR range by varying the aspect ratio, thereby enabling spectral matching to solar irradiance for efficient light absorption (Figure 3(a1)) [89]. Alternatively, galvanic replacement of Ag templates with HAuCl₄ produces Au-Ag nanocages with LSPR peaks spanning 600–1200 nm and hollow interiors suitable for photothermal conversion (Figure 3(a2)) [90]. Beyond individual particle engineering, template-assisted deposition of gold onto nanoporous alumina creates a graded, close-packed distribution of nanoparticles. This yields an average absorbance of ~99% from 400 nm to 10 μm through densely hybridized LSPR modes and multiple internal reflections [91]. Future efforts should target high-throughput techniques that preserve key morphological features essential for broadband absorption and interfacial lubrication.

2.2.2. Doping and Defect Engineering

Doping and defect engineering tailor the electronic band structure of semiconductors to extend optical absorption into the visible-NIR region, thereby enhancing photothermal conversion (Figure 3b) [55]. The introduction of heteroatoms or lattice vacancies creates additional energy states within the band gap or modifies the band edges. This expands the spectral response beyond the intrinsic absorption edge and promotes non-radiative relaxation pathways that convert absorbed photon energy into heat [55].

High-pressure hydrogenation of anatase TiO₂ introduces isolated Ti³⁺ defect centers that remain stable at room temperature, thereby enabling efficient photothermal conversion without noble-metal cocatalysts [92]. Structural disorder offers an alternative route to band-structure modulation, and ordered mesoporous black TiO₂ prepared via atmospheric H₂ annealing develops a disordered surface layer that narrows the band gap from 3.15 eV to 2.82 eV, substantially boosting visible-light absorption [93]. The key challenge remains establishing predictive relationships between defect configurations and photothermal efficiency to guide rational material design.

2.2.3. Hierarchical Micro/Nanostructure Engineering

Hierarchical micro/nanostructure engineering synergistically optimizes light capture, photothermal conversion, and surface wettability through the rational integration of multi-scale morphological features [94]. Microscale roughness, combined with nanoscale textures, forms structural light traps that promote multiple internal reflections and extend the optical path length, thereby enhancing broadband solar absorption. These architectures also entrap air pockets within the hierarchical textures, stabilizing the Cassie-Baxter state to impart superhydrophobicity and facilitate spontaneous meltwater removal.

Superblack wood, fabricated via delignification and carbonization at 1500 °C, transforms cell walls into vertically aligned carbon microfiber arrays with subwavelength dimensions, achieving a hemispherical reflectance of only 0.36% across the visible-NIR spectrum (Figure 3c) [52]. Building on this principle, superhydrophobic selective solar absorbers (SHSSA) integrate micro-cactus arrays, nano-spike textures, and plasmonic TiN nanoparticles to realize high solar absorptance (~90%), low infrared emittance (42%), and a temperature rise of 61 °C under 1-sun, enabling icephobicity down to −60 °C [40]. Robust composite coatings take this further. In CNT/TiN@polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) porous networks, plasmonic coupling between TiN and CNTs lowers visible reflectance to 0.66% and drives heating to 70.1 °C under 1-sun. The improved filler–matrix interface also imparts mechanical durability [95]. The long-term stability of hierarchical structures under repeated icing/deicing cycles remains a key challenge.

2.2.4. System Integration Design

System integration design rationally matches material components with structural characteristics to achieve multifunctional performance within a single platform. Rather than optimizing individual properties in isolation, this approach synergistically couples broadband light absorption with interfacial thermal management, superhydrophobicity, and mechanical durability. The key lies in engineering a layered or hierarchical architecture where each component fulfills a distinct role while collectively enabling efficient photothermal conversion and stable interfacial lubrication (Figure 3(d1,d2)).

A photothermal trap laminate exemplifies this integrated design philosophy (Figure 3(d1)). Comprising a cermet selective absorber (α = 95%, ε ≈ 3%), an aluminum thermal spreader, and a foam insulation backing, the trap confines solar heat at the ice–substrate interface while suppressing transverse thermal losses. The thin absorber and spreader ensure rapid thermal response and lateral heat conduction, generating a lubricating melt layer within seconds under 1-sun illumination [26]. A complementary integration strategy employs solution-processed all-ceramic plasmonic metamaterials (Figure 3(d2)). An ultrathin TiN nanoparticle film (~120 nm) is assembled on a TiN reflector and capped with a SiO₂ anti-reflection coating. The synergy of in-plane plasmon coupling and out-of-plane Fabry–Pérot resonances yields a solar absorptance of 95% and an infrared emittance of only 3% at 100 °C, enabling a steady-state temperature of 91 °C under 1-sun and stable operation up to 727 °C [39]. Extending such integrated designs to curved substrates and ensuring long-term stability under cyclic stresses remain key challenges.

3. Anti-Icing and Deicing Mechanisms

The anti-icing/deicing process of photothermal extremely water-repellent surfaces comprises three consecutive stages: droplet dynamics control (pre-icing), ice nucleation suppression with thermal management (during icing), and low-adhesion ice detachment (post-icing) [33]. The “water as a lubricating layer” strategy is central to the deicing stage. Localized photothermal heating generates a continuous meltwater film at the ice–substrate interface, converting high-adhesion solid–solid contact into low-friction solid–liquid–solid contact [32]. This mechanism drastically reduces ice adhesion strength, enabling efficient deicing with minimal energy consumption. Figure 4 summarizes the stagewise mechanisms, working principles, and performance verification. This chapter provides a systematic analysis of these anti-icing and deicing mechanisms.

For superhydrophobic surfaces, droplet rebound and delayed ice nucleation are passive properties rather than photothermal effects [15,96]. They help maintain a Cassie state, which is useful for the “water as a lubricating layer” strategy: the meltwater can then form a continuous film. SLIPSs work through an infused lubricant layer [22,97]. Ordinary hydrophobic surfaces lack the air-trapping texture. The passive icephobicity of superhydrophobic surfaces has been discussed in detail [98,99,100].

3.1. Droplet Dynamics Control

The droplet rebound and coalescence-induced jumping described here are specific to superhydrophobic surfaces [13,45]. Dynamic regulation of supercooled droplets is the primary anti-icing barrier. It minimizes droplet retention prior to ice nucleation, thereby inhibiting icing at its source [15,45,96]. Even if icing occurs, this mechanism creates stable interfacial conditions that facilitate the formation of a uniform lubricating water film during subsequent photothermal deicing.

3.1.1. Supercooled Droplet Rebound

Supercooled droplet rebound is the key active anti-icing mechanism in the pre-ice nucleation stage. It minimizes the liquid–solid contact time (τ_c), enabling droplet detachment before heterogeneous ice nucleation at the interface [15,17]. This process is governed by the time-scale competition between droplet retraction and ice nucleation (Figure 4(a1)). Stable rebound requires a robust Cassie non-wetting state, ultra-low adhesion, and structural integrity.

Basic studies have confirmed that SHS with ordered micro–nano-structures can maintain an ice-free state at −25 to −30 °C via droplet rebound [15]. Relevant studies have revealed the fragility of droplet pinning and the wetting transition under extreme supercooling [12]. These issues can be alleviated through microstructure design. Latest advances further break through the limits of extreme-environment adaptability. Biomimetic microstructures achieve continuous droplet repellency with ultra-low interfacial adhesion [96]. The current core challenge is maintaining structural stability under repeated droplet impacts, especially in low-temperature, high-humidity environments.

3.1.2. Coalescence-Induced Droplet Jumping

Coalescence-induced droplet jumping is a passive, energy-free pre-icing mechanism. It harnesses the surface energy released during the coalescence of adjacent condensed microdroplets on SHS, propelling the merged droplet away from the substrate [13]. As shown in Figure 4(a2), this spontaneous removal reduces the residence time and surface coverage of condensed water, thereby delaying ice nucleation and frost propagation, while preserving the superhydrophobic interface for subsequent formation of a lubricating water film. Stable jumping requires a robust Cassie-Baxter state with minimal contact-line pinning, enabling merged droplets to overcome adhesion and gain sufficient upward kinetic energy [101].

Foundational studies have verified that condensed droplets on SHS can achieve jumping velocities up to 1 m·s⁻¹ [13]. This established the inertial-capillary scaling of jumping velocity and the core mechanism of surface-energy-to-kinetic-energy conversion. Subsequent research translated this mechanism into scalable engineered surfaces with ~30% enhanced condensation heat transfer. However, a critical limitation was identified: high supersaturation (S > 1.12) leads to surface flooding and a Wenzel-state transition, which completely suppresses jumping behavior [101]. To address this instability, a hierarchical photothermal SHS that integrates coalescence-induced jumping and efficient photothermal absorption has been developed. It maintains a dry-area fraction above 80% during condensation [45]. As shown in Figure 4(a3), it achieves ice-free performance even at −50 °C and high humidity. The key unresolved challenge is maintaining stable jumping performance under high-humidity and low-temperature conditions.

3.2. Ice Nucleation and Thermal Management

Ice nucleation inhibition and interfacial thermal management form the second anti-icing barrier. Through surface-structure design and material optimization, this stage raises the thermodynamic energy barrier for heterogeneous ice nucleation and regulates the interfacial temperature distribution [64,102,103]. These measures delay ice crystal formation and propagation, while providing a thermodynamic basis for the rapid, uniform formation of a lubricating water film during subsequent photothermal deicing.

3.2.1. Ice Nucleation Suppression

Suppressing or delaying heterogeneous ice nucleation is key to passive anti-icing. It minimizes active nucleation sites and maximizes the free-energy barrier through surface chemistry and topography. At the same time, it maintains the integrity of the superhydrophobic interface, thereby supporting the stable formation of the lubricating water film during subsequent photothermal deicing [102,103,104].

Early approaches leveraged the Cassie-Baxter state to reduce solid–liquid contact area, achieving significant icing delays via trapped air pockets (Figure 4(b1)) [16]. Further dual-energy-barrier designs achieve icing delays over 27,000 s at −15 °C through sequential liquid pinning that decouples wetting transition and stabilizes the Cassie state [102]. However, this passive strategy is vulnerable to high humidity and prolonged cooling, as condensate infiltration or a Wenzel-state transition leads to rapid ice formation [103].

To address this, research has shifted to actively elevating the nucleation energy barrier. Nanoscale interfacial engineering with feature sizes matching the critical ice nucleus significantly increases the free-energy barrier, enabling supercooled water to remain unfrozen for ≥1 h at −25 °C without energy input. This confirms that interfacial size, not just wettability, is key to controlling ice nucleation [104]. The key remaining challenge is the low-cost, large-area fabrication of dual-energy-barrier surfaces.

3.2.2. Heat Transfer and Temperature Distribution

Interfacial heat transfer and temperature distribution directly regulate ice nucleation and ice crystal growth. They also determine the formation efficiency of the interfacial lubricating water film under photothermal irradiation, serving as the key link between passive anti-icing and active photothermal deicing [4,16,54,64,103,105]. As illustrated in Figure 4(b2), hierarchical micro–nano-structures play a dual role in thermal management by reducing heat transfer to delay ice nucleation while enhancing localized heating to facilitate meltwater film formation.

Early studies exploited the passive thermal-barrier effect of superhydrophobic structures to delay freezing, but these structures are vulnerable to wetting failure in long-term cold, humid environments [16]. The integration of photothermal materials introduces active thermal regulation: interfacial heating inhibits ice nucleation and prolongs droplet liquid-phase duration (Figure 4(b3)). For example, photothermal trap coatings suppress ice nucleation even at −40 °C under sunlight [28]. Recent work has also revealed a self-recovery mechanism for the thermal barrier during cycling, further improving cyclic performance [103]. Accurately characterizing the coupled relationship between photothermal conversion and heat loss remains a key challenge.

3.3. Low-Energy Deicing via Water Lubrication

The “water as a lubricating layer” strategy achieves low-energy deicing via a sustainable in situ meltwater film, avoiding the wetting failure of SHS and the lubricant depletion of SLIPS [12]. Localized photothermal heating melts the ice–substrate interface, forming a water film that reduces ice adhesion to <10 kPa (Figure 4(c1)) and enables passive detachment by gravity or wind [27]. From a tribological perspective, full-film fluid lubrication requires a continuous water film exceeding the surface roughness; otherwise, boundary lubrication leads to high adhesion.

3.3.1. Defrosting and De-Snowing

Unlike bulk ice, frost and snow have loose, porous structures [5,29,106], which result in only shallow interlocking with surface micro–nano-structures and thus weak adhesion [36]. Under sunlight, the surface of photothermal materials can heat up rapidly, promoting the rapid melting of frost layers/snow. The melted water rapidly shrinks and curls at the hydrophobic interface (Figure 4(c2)). Taking advantage of the surface’s low adhesion, it spontaneously strips away, achieving residue-free and highly efficient defrosting/de-snowing [36].

Nevertheless, the loose porous structure of frost and snow causes multiple scattering of incident sunlight. This reduces the effective light flux reaching the underlying photothermal coating. The defrosting duration is directly correlated with the initial frost thickness, with thinner frost layers corresponding to significantly shorter defrosting times [29]. The effects of frost/snow thickness on sunlight reflection, light absorption, and photothermal conversion efficiency remain unclear and warrant systematic investigation.

3.3.2. Shell-like Ice Detachment

One concern is that once ice forms, the Cassie-Baxter state is often lost due to water infiltration or frost, leading to much higher ice adhesion [98,99,100]. But in photothermal systems using SHS, the “water as a lubricating layer” strategy can actively preserve or restore the non-wetting state. Under sunlight, localized heating melts ice at the interface [107]. During photothermal melting, air pockets trapped in the surface texture can be re-established in two ways.

First, bubble release. Meltwater contains dissolved gases. As melting occurs, these gases form micro-bubbles that migrate upward and become trapped beneath the melting front, thereby rebuilding the air cushion [42,103]. Second, spontaneous dewetting, in which capillary forces (Laplace pressure) generated by the hierarchical micro-/nanostructures drive meltwater out of the surface textures, re-establishing air pockets and restoring the Cassie-Baxter state [108].

Once the Cassie state is established, photothermal surfaces can efficiently remove shell-like ice. Instead of melting the whole ice volume, they generate a thin water film at the ice–substrate interface under sunlight (Figure 4(c3)). This interfacial melt layer dramatically reduces ice adhesion and enables the still-frozen ice shell to slide off under gravity, wind, or mild vibration, thereby minimizing the energy required for complete ice removal [26,96].

A photothermal trap laminate comprising a selective absorber, a thermal spreader, and an insulating backing was developed to confine solar heat at the interface, thereby initiating ice sliding within seconds of illumination [26]. The stable Cassie state maintained during the melting process is essential for preventing meltwater penetration and residual pinning. On triple-scale etched/oxidized TiN-coated (E/O@TiN) surfaces, downward-captured bubbles from melting ice rebuild interfacial air pockets, driving spontaneous dewetting back to the non-wetted Cassie state (Figure 4(c4)). Owing to this property, millimeter-thick ice blocks detach cleanly from a 15° tilted E/O@TiN surface within 500 s under 1 sun (Figure 4(c5)) [42].

Nevertheless, thick ice layers attenuate incident sunlight and delay interfacial melting, while high forced convection narrows the operational temperature range [26]. Additionally, cyclic refreezing of meltwater risks gradual degradation of Cassie-state stability [42].

3.3.3. Self-Driven Meltwater Management

Residual meltwater refreezes at sub-zero temperatures, damaging the SHS and preventing the formation of a lubricating water film in subsequent cycles. Self-driven meltwater removal leverages surface superhydrophobicity and interfacial forces to achieve spontaneous detachment without external intervention, ensuring reversible recovery of the initial interfacial state and cyclic sustainability [36].

The core mechanism is the spontaneous recovery of the Cassie-Baxter state during the ice-water phase transition. Meltwater remains non-wetting and easily rolls off under minimal driving forces [103]. Hierarchical copper nanowire assemblies combine efficient photothermal conversion, high lateral thermal conductivity, and superhydrophobicity. They enable complete spontaneous shedding of melted frost with nearly 100% defrosting efficiency and zero residue (Figure 4(c6)) [36].

Thermoresponsive paraffin-based phase-change coatings undergo a solid–liquid transition under photothermal or electrothermal stimulation. This transition breaks the mechanical interlocking between meltwater and surface micro–nanostructures. It also achieves thorough surface drying and reversible recovery of the Cassie–Baxter state [46]. Key challenges include validating performance under real-world conditions and ensuring long-term durability over hundreds of icing/melting cycles.

4. Key Challenges and Development Strategies

Despite laboratory progress, photothermal extremely water-repellent anti-icing surfaces based on the “water as a lubricating layer” strategy face three industrial bottlenecks: mechanical durability, all-weather applicability, and optical transparency [32,33,109]. These directly hinder the stable formation of the interfacial lubricating water film. The main obstacles include structural degradation under mechanical stress, insufficient deicing capability in low- or no-light conditions, and the inherent trade-off between solar absorption and visible transparency. This chapter discusses these challenges and the corresponding material/structural design strategies, with a focus on how they regulate water film stability and lubrication performance.

4.1. Mechanical Durability

Mechanical durability is the primary bottleneck for practical applications of photothermal superhydrophobic surfaces, and the challenge here is more fundamental than for conventional coatings. The surface texture and embedded photothermal nanoparticles are structurally integrated, so abrasion, impact, or shear stress destroys both at once. Loss of the texture triggers a Wenzel-state transition and ice pinning, while loss of the photothermal material cuts off the interfacial heating that sustains the lubricating water film [88,110]. This coupled failure mode makes durability a multi-objective challenge that must simultaneously preserve surface topography, low surface energy, and photothermal functionality.

Current wear-resistant designs address this through three routes: high-strength matrix encapsulation, hierarchical self-similar structures that regenerate functionality after wear, and protective armor frameworks that shield fragile nanostructures from external stress. In parallel, self-healing strategies offer a complementary approach by restoring damaged surface chemistry and microstructure through extrinsic healing agents or intrinsic dynamic bonds. Wear-resistant design and self-healing together form the core of current efforts to extend coating lifetime (Figure 5). The following subsections examine each of these two directions in detail.

4.1.1. Wear-Resistant Design

Current wear-resistant design strategies for durable icephobic coatings fall into three categories: (1) high-strength matrix design [59,62,111,112,113,114]; (2) hierarchical self-similar structure [29,70]; and (3) protective microstructure armor strategy [4,43,115].

High-strength matrix design achieves uniform stress distribution and protects micro–nano-structures through high-toughness, high-adhesion polymer matrices (Figure 5a). Several approaches fall under this category. High-adhesion resins, for instance, can anchor functional coatings, for example, a sandpaper-inspired epoxy matrix in which semi-embedded SiC microparticles shield a spray-coated TiN nanoparticle layer [111]. Composite encapsulation operates differently: cross-linked PDMS fills cracks in CeO₂ coatings, thereby maintaining structural integrity [113]. For flexible substrates, mussel-inspired polydopamine anchoring layers offer an effective solution [114]. Core challenges include optimizing filler–matrix interfacial compatibility to prevent delamination under cyclic loading and mitigating degradation caused by UV irradiation and thermal cycling.

Figure 5. Material and structural strategies for enhancing durability. (a) Sandpaper-inspired armor structure (SiC/TiN) with SEM showing wear resistance, enabling durable solar-driven deicing. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [111]. (b) THMC design with wear-resistant structure and retained photothermal heating after abrasion. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [70]. (c) Photothermal SHS with honeycomb macrostructure and micro-spines for mechanical robustness and deicing on transmission lines. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [4]. (d1) Adhesion strength variation during 50 alternating abrasion/repair cycles on the CCP surface. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [51]. (d2) MXene-SOPS-coated glass surface before (worn) and after healing. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [116]. (d3) Plasma etching and healing process schematic.

Hierarchical self-similar structure strategy avoids overreliance on matrix strength [117]. A self-similar reservoir design enables in situ regeneration of superhydrophobic and photothermal properties after surface wear, extending coating service life. As shown in Figure 5b, a representative example is the bioinspired THMC film [70], which has a hierarchical self-similar structure. It retains a water contact angle of 148.7° and a photothermal temperature of 79.9 °C after 300 cm of linear abrasion, demonstrating effective in situ regeneration of hydrophobicity and stable photothermal performance. The core challenge is maintaining functional uniformity through the coating thickness.

A protective microstructure armor strategy decouples mechanical robustness from interfacial nonwettability via rigid microscale frameworks, thereby protecting fragile functional nanostructures and preserving superhydrophobic and photothermal properties under shear stress. As shown in Figure 5c, a honeycomb-protected microspine array (MAHC) was designed to enhance mechanical durability [4]. The rigid honeycomb framework reduces the maximum stress on the microspines by approximately 66.7%, enabling the surface to maintain superhydrophobicity and photothermal deicing after 200 linear abrasion cycles. The core challenge lies in the high cost of large-scale manufacturing and limited adaptability to complex curved-surface components.

In summary, these three strategies address different failure modes. High-strength matrix designs provide uniform protection through tough binders but rely on strong filler-matrix bonding to avoid delamination under cyclic loading. Hierarchical self-similar structures regenerate functionality in situ after wear, though maintaining uniformity through the coating thickness remains difficult. Protective armor strategies physically shield fragile nanostructures and withstand severe shear or impact loads, but their fabrication complexity and limited adaptability to curved surfaces limit their deployment. Combining these approaches, for instance by integrating an armor framework with a self-similar reservoir, may offer both immediate protection and long-term regeneration.

4.1.2. Self-Healing Surfaces

Self-healing photothermal coatings restore damaged surface structure, wettability, and photothermal performance, overcoming a key bottleneck for outdoor applications. Current strategies fall into two categories: (1) extrinsic healing, which relies on pre-embedded reparative agents [60,118,119,120]; and (2) intrinsic healing, which uses dynamic characteristics of the coating matrix (photothermally activated polymer chain reconfiguration or reversible bond dynamics), where the photothermal effect accelerates healing even at sub-zero temperatures [61,77,81,116,121].

For extrinsic healing, a reservoir of reparative agents is built into the coating. A typical system uses a porous cellulose acetate substrate with a carbon nanotube (CNT) photothermal layer and paraffin wax as the agent (Figure 5(d1)). Under 1-sun, the CNT layer melts the paraffin, which flows into scratches and resolidifies, completing healing within 16 s. This system works even at −22 °C under near-infrared irradiation and maintains its performance after 50 abrasion-repair cycles [51].

Intrinsic healing is further divided into two types. The first relies on photothermal activation of polymer chain reconfiguration in the absence of external agents. For example, a transparent coating with ultrathin MXene multilayers and an omniphobic slippery layer (Figure 5(d2)) heats to 76.5 °C under 1.5 sun, inducing chain migration that repairs scratches within 2 h and restores slippery properties at −30 °C [116]. The second type uses dynamic reversible bonds in the polymer matrix. A coating based on a PDMS-IPDI-TFB supramolecular network (hydrogen and imine bonds) and PDA nanoparticles (Figure 5(d3)) recovers superhydrophobicity within 15 min under 1-sun after plasma etching [61].

Across both extrinsic and intrinsic approaches, a common trade-off persists: balancing mechanical robustness with healing efficiency. Extrinsic systems repair damage rapidly but rely on a limited supply of embedded healing agents, while intrinsic systems can heal repeatedly through dynamic bonds at the cost of reduced mechanical stiffness. For anti-icing surfaces subjected to repeated freeze–thaw cycles and abrasion, combining embedded agents for rapid initial repair with dynamic bonds for sustained long-term recovery may offer the most robust solution. Importantly, self-healing performance must be validated under realistic icing conditions, not only at room temperature, to close the gap between laboratory studies and field deployment.

4.1.3. Durability Evaluation

Evaluating the mechanical durability of photothermal superhydrophobic coatings remains challenging, and the field currently lacks standardized protocols. Common laboratory methods include linear abrasion with sandpaper under controlled load, tape-peeling to assess coating–substrate adhesion, and sand- or water-impact tests to simulate particle erosion [122].

A more comprehensive evaluation calls for wind tunnel tests that combine icing–deicing cycling with mechanical stress, though these require significant infrastructure [122]. As noted in recent reviews, inconsistencies in testing conditions and the absence of universally accepted standards make cross-study comparisons difficult [107,122]. Developing accelerated aging protocols that couple mechanical wear with UV exposure and freeze–thaw cycling remains a pressing need for predicting real-world service life [32,107].

4.2. All-Weather Applicability

The inherent intermittency of solar irradiation is the key limitation of purely photothermal deicing systems [55,122,123]. Under insufficient illumination conditions (nighttime, overcast days, or extremely low temperatures), a stable lubricating water film cannot form, resulting in the failure of interfacial lubrication and loss of deicing capability. Representative designs for all-weather anti-icing/deicing are summarized in Figure 6.

4.2.1. Photo-Electrothermal Coupling

As shown in Figure 6a, photo-electrothermal coupling combines solar-driven photothermal conversion with electrical Joule heating for all-weather anti-icing/deicing. This dual-heat-source system ensures stable interfacial heating and continuous formation of a lubricating water film under fluctuating illumination, while maximizing solar energy utilization and minimizing energy consumption [6].

Conductive materials for electrothermal heating can be divided into carbon-based [55,56,57,58,59,60,61] and metal-based [2,124,125,126] systems (Figure 6(b1,b2)). A one-step femtosecond-laser solid-phase synthesis strategy was developed to fabricate high-entropy alloy nanoparticles anchored on laser-induced graphene (HEAs/LIG) composites. The HEAs/LIG heater exhibits excellent voltage-responsive temperature tunability, as verified by the stepwise voltage-ramping test (Figure 6(c1)). Its engineering application potential in extreme cold environments is further demonstrated through an aircraft deicing scenario (Figure 6(c2)) [127]. For metal-based systems, silver nanowire (Ag NW) networks offer faster temperature rise and higher heating efficiency. For instance, an armored surface structure protecting the Ag NW conductive layer enables rapid deicing (132.3 °C at 0.25 W/cm² within 14 s at −20 °C) [2]. Metal nanowire networks are particularly advantageous for fabricating transparent photoelectric-thermal deicing materials due to their high conductivity, efficient Joule heating, and optical transmittance [123]. Figure 6d further demonstrates all-weather deicing performance enabled by this photo-electrothermal synergy.

Key challenges include improving heating uniformity under extreme conditions, reducing energy consumption at ultra-low temperatures, and developing scalable fabrication methods for robust multilayer coatings without compromising mechanical flexibility.

Figure 6. Design paradigms for all-weather applicability. (a) Photothermal and electrothermal response. (b1) Laser-ablated graphene network. Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature [128]. (b2) Cu nanowires. Reproduced with permission from MDPI [126]. (c1) Temperature curve of an electric heater as a function of time during a stepwise voltage rise. Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature [127]. (c2) Electric deicing on the aircraft in winter. Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature [127]. (d) All-weather deicing performance. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [32]. (e) Latent heat storage and release of PCMs. Reproduced with permission [33]. (f1) CNT-coated PP-Wood. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [129]. (f2) Microencapsulated PCMs with Cu₄S₇ shell. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [38]. (g1) Temperature variation at −25 ℃ under light on/off. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [129]. (g2) Condensation and frost formation with light cycling. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [104]. (h) All-weather deicing performance.

4.2.2. Phase Change Materials

Phase change materials (PCMs) address solar intermittency through high latent heat storage. As shown in Figure 6e, PCMs store excess photothermal energy during illumination and release it at night or during low-temperature periods, thereby extending the anti-icing window to non-illuminated times while maintaining the interface temperature above the melting point to support the stable formation of a lubricating water film [28,33].

As shown in Figure 6(f1,f2), to prevent liquid leakage during phase transitions, PCMs are typically confined within porous scaffolds [28,46,51,129] or sealed inside micro- or nanocapsules [37,38,63,78,130]. For example, a biomimetic layered coating with a photothermal superhydrophobic top layer and a PCM bottom layer delays ice nucleation by releasing latent heat. A solar-driven expanded graphite/paraffin/PDMS composite achieves a freezing delay of over 2 h at −40 °C after 1-sun irradiation [28], and photothermal storage microcapsules maintain anti-icing function even in complete darkness [37,38,63]. Figure 6(g1) shows the temperature variation in a PCM-loaded surface under light on/off cycles at −25 °C, where a distinct plateau near the freezing point indicates latent heat release [129]. This latent heat release is responsible for the delayed ice nucleation observed in Figure 6(g2), where condensation freezing is postponed even under light-off conditions [104]. Figure 6h further demonstrates all-weather deicing performance enabled by PCM integration [28].

Beyond thermal effects, the volume change during PCM phase transition generates local shear stress at the ice-coating interface, reducing ice adhesion strength and promoting low-force ice detachment [131]. Key challenges include optimizing the PCM microstructure to simultaneously maximize heat-transfer efficiency and interfacial ice-detachment shear stress.

4.3. Transparent Photothermal Materials

In applications such as photovoltaic panels, automotive windows, and optical sensors, an inherent trade-off exists: high solar absorptance is required to promote the formation of a lubricating water film, while simultaneously high visible-light transmittance is needed. This trade-off has driven the development of two primary classes of transparent photothermal materials [5,35,104,132]. Figure 7a presents both the ideal spectral design and the multilayer structure of a typical transparent photothermal SHS.

Transparent photothermal superhydrophobic composites combine near-infrared (NIR) selective absorption nanomaterials with a hydrophobic matrix. These nanomaterials include zero-dimensional or one-dimensional metal nanomaterials [34,35], MXene [97,116], PPy NPs [27], titanium oxide layers [133], and cesium-doped tungsten trioxide (CWO) NPs [5] (Figure 7b). This combination reduces visible light scattering while maintaining superhydrophobicity and anti-icing performance. For example, the Cs_xWO₃/silver nanowire composite film achieves a visible light transmittance of over 70% and excellent UV-NIR absorption [124]. As shown in Figure 7c, the moiré-structured film has a visible-light transmittance of 93% and enables efficient photovoltaic anti-icing at −20 °C [5].

Liquid-infused transparent slippery interfacial materials offer another approach. The ultrathin MXene multilayer film integrated with an all-hydrophobic slippery coating exhibits a transmittance of over 77% at 550 nm. It also provides efficient photothermal conversion (about a 31 °C temperature rise under 1-sun irradiation) and photothermal self-healing [116]. A monolayer self-assembled MXene film (2.5 nm thick) achieves 82.5% visible transmittance and 25.1 °C photothermal rise under 1 sun; when combined with a slippery surface, it enables rapid ice shedding (85 s at −20 °C) and anti-fogging [97].

The main challenges are twofold: balancing visible transparency with solar absorption and superhydrophobic durability, and ensuring enough photothermal input to sustain lubricating film formation. Additionally, low-cost and scalable fabrication methods for large-area, flexible substrates remain to be developed.

Figure 7. Toward highly transparent photothermal anti-icing surfaces. (a) Ideal spectra and multilayer structure of the transparent solar thermal metasurface. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [35]. (b) Representative nanomaterials for transparent photothermal anti-icing materials. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [5,27,116,133]. (c) Large-scale application and demonstration of a transparent photothermal film (moire-TP) for deicing solar panels in real-world conditions. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [5].

5. Future Directions

To achieve the industrial deployment of extremely water-repellent photothermal anti-icing surfaces based on the “water as a lubricating layer” strategy, critical breakthroughs in five core areas are required. All these breakthroughs focus on two core priorities: deepening the fundamental understanding of interfacial water lubrication mechanisms and advancing engineering applications of this technology [10]. The future development directions and potential engineering applications are projected in Figure 8.

5.1. Multi-Dimensional Design

The core goal of future material design is the stable formation and long-term maintenance of the interfacial lubricating water film. As shown in Figure 8(a1), the core implementation path is the rational engineering of hierarchical micro/nanostructures to synergistically enhance photothermal conversion efficiency and mechanical wear resistance [95,122]. Such designs help resolve the trade-off between performance and structural complexity, adapt better to weak-light conditions, and lower full-cycle energy consumption [103,134].

As complementary and expandable strategies shown in Figure 8(a2), future material design should further incorporate the following four dimensions: (1) machine-learning-assisted multi-objective optimization of hierarchical structures [135,136]; (2) synergistic regulation of multi-mode anti-icing/deicing mechanisms [10,137,138]; (3) in situ dynamic sensing of icing and interfacial states [139]; and (4) all-season, full-lifecycle service performance design [30,31]. Priority should be given to establishing a quantitative evaluation system for the wear resistance of photothermal micro- and nanostructures.

5.2. Fabrication for Practical Application

Practical deployment of photothermal, superhydrophobic, and anti-icing materials requires scalable, low-cost fabrication techniques applicable to complex substrates. Among various methods, roll-to-roll processing stands out as a particularly promising route for large-area fabrication due to its high throughput, continuous operation, and compatibility with flexible substrates (Figure 8(b1)) [5,140].

As shown in Figure 8(b2), conformal materials are essential for non-planar substrates such as electrical insulators, aircraft wings, and turbine blades [1,29,141,142]. Flexible films can maintain superhydrophobicity even under large deformation [70,112]. Substrate-adaptive techniques, including spray coating, can work well on uneven surfaces [29,59]. Key challenges include long-term durability under environmental stress and the trade-off between conformality and performance.

5.3. In Situ Characterization

To fully understand the interfacial phenomena, characterization techniques must be capable of synchronously capturing molecular-scale ice nucleation (Figure 8(c1)), microscale droplet/ice dynamics, and the formation of the lubricating water film under real environmental conditions [106,143]. Complementary in situ measurements of microscopic heat transfer (Figure 8(c2)), coupled with controlled light irradiation, are also required [144,145].

These combined characterization techniques will reveal how localized photothermal heating dynamically regulates the ice-freezing pathway and interfacial lubrication behavior. Moreover, they will establish a quantitative structure-activity relationship among photothermal signal characteristics, lubricating film thickness, and ice adhesion performance.

5.4. Performance Evaluation Standards

Future research should prioritize developing a standardized performance evaluation system aligned with tribological lubrication standards to bridge the gap between laboratory validation and real-world applications. Currently, most studies rely on lab-scale icing tests with inconsistent conditions, which hinders fair comparison across different material systems and impedes industrial translation.

The implementation path covers three core dimensions: (1) dedicated wind tunnel tests combining controllable icing clouds with tunable solar radiation (Figure 8(d1)) [1,146]; (2) long-term outdoor exposure tests across different climatic zones to obtain real-service performance data [26,96]; and (3) multi-field coupled dynamic fatigue tests to accelerate the evaluation of long-term material performance under dynamic service conditions (Figure 8(d2)) [20,146]. Core evaluation indicators should focus on maintaining interfacial water-film lubrication performance throughout the entire service cycle and on the tribological properties of the ice–substrate interface under actual operating conditions.

Figure 8. Future perspectives and outstanding challenges. (a1) The schematic design principle of the armored superhydrophobic ceramic surface. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [141]. (a2) Four core dimensions for future material design. (b1) Scalable preparation of robust MXene films. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [5]. (b2) Electrical insulators (left) and an unmanned aerial vehicle (right) with complex curved surface structures. (c1) Heterogeneous ice nucleation and growth processes under low temperature and low-pressure conditions. Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature [143]. (c2) Thermographic images showing the halo pattern evolution and the heat transfer landscape during the freezing of a supercooled water drop. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [145]. (d1) Schematic diagram of the open wind tunnel. (d2) Schematic diagram of the outdoor ice removal test of the material during the dynamic process. (e) Applications for photothermal anti-/deicing materials.

5.5. Toward Practical Applications

The industrial deployment of photothermal superhydrophobic anti-icing materials requires a critical shift from lab-scale efficacy validation toward robust, system-level engineering, centered on stabilizing the interfacial lubricating water film under real-world service conditions. As depicted in Figure 8e, these materials should be well-suited to complex dynamic environments, including core industrial scenarios (e.g., wind turbines, photovoltaic panels, transmission lines, aircraft) and civil applications (e.g., buildings, automotive windows, optical devices) [2,4,5,6,97,133,147].

To accelerate practical adoption, future research should focus on three priorities: (1) enhancing full-life-cycle environmental stability against UV degradation, chemical corrosion, and thermal cycling; (2) balancing high performance with low-cost, large-area manufacturing; and (3) developing scenario-adaptive system integration and intelligent control for on-demand, low-energy operation.

6. Conclusions

Photothermal-responsive extremely water-repellent surfaces based on the “water as a lubricating layer” strategy represent a paradigm shift in anti-icing/deicing technology and interfacial lubrication engineering. By converting solar energy into localized interfacial heat, these surfaces enable in situ formation of a continuous lubricating water film at the ice–substrate interface, transforming high-adhesion solid–solid contact into low-friction solid–liquid–solid lubrication. This intrinsic mechanism drastically reduces ice adhesion, enabling low-energy, high-efficiency full-cycle ice protection, while overcoming the bottlenecks of conventional SHS (external-force-dependent ice detachment) and slippery liquid-infused surfaces (irreversible lubricant depletion).

Significant progress has been made in developing high-efficiency photothermal materials, hierarchical micro-/nanostructures, and multifunctional systems, achieving notable anti-icing/deicing performance under laboratory conditions. However, critical bottlenecks remain for industrial translation: (1) the quantitative relationship between water film formation and lubrication failure is still unclear; (2) mechanical durability and service stability are inadequate; (3) all-weather adaptability of purely photothermal systems is limited; (4) systematic field validation and standardized evaluation protocols are lacking.

Future breakthroughs should focus on (1) multi-dimensional material design; (2) scalable, conformal, and low-cost fabrication; (3) advanced in situ characterization of interfacial lubrication; (4) standardized performance evaluation; and (5) scenario-optimized system integration. With continued progress, this technology is expected to enable large-scale applications in aerospace, power transmission, transportation, building energy efficiency, and optical devices, providing sustainable solutions to ice-accumulation hazards in extreme environments.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.G.; writing—original draft preparation, C.G.; writing—review and editing, C.G., Y.L. and Y.D.; supervision, C.G. and Y.L.; funding acquisition, C.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the General Scientific Research Project of the Zhejiang Provincial Department of Education (Grant No. Y202558549), the Taizhou Municipal Science and Technology Program (Grant No. 25gya18), and the High-level Talent Introduction Research Initiation Grant Program of Taizhou Vocational and Technical College (Grant No. 2025GCC04, No. 2025GCC10).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

SHS	Superhydrophobic Surface
SLIPS	Slippery Liquid-Infused Porous Surface
LSPR	Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance
NIR	Near-Infrared
JDOS	Joint Density of States
CNT	Carbon Nanotube
PDMS	Polydimethylsiloxane
PCM	Phase Change Material

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Figure 3. Strategies for enhancing photothermal performance. (a1) Tuning of localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) spectra via control of nanorod aspect ratio. Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature [89]. (a2) UV-vis absorbance modulation of noble metal nanostructures through compositional engineering. (b) Band structure engineering (doping, defect creation) to broaden optical absorption in semiconductors. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [32]. (c) Superblack wood for efficient light trapping and minimization of reflection. Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature [52]. (d1) Schematic of the photothermal trap on the base substrate, showing its laminate structure and heat transfer mechanisms. (d2) Schematic of the SSA and cross-sectional SEM image of the prepared SSA. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [39].

Figure 4. Anti-icing/deicing mechanisms of photothermal extremely water-repellent surfaces. (a1) Supercooled droplet impacting a cold tilted surface: freezes on a hydrophobic surface but rebounds on SHS. (a2) Removal of condensed droplets via coalescence-induced jumping. Reproduced with permission from the National Academy of Sciences [45]. (a3) Long-term anti-frosting performance on Cu and H30 surfaces. Reproduced with permission from the National Academy of Sciences [45]. (b1) Dual-energy-barrier design: closed micropores trap air pockets within three-phase interfaces. (b2) Heat transfer pathways on SHS: solid–liquid conduction (Q_c), droplet-air radiation (Q_r), and convection (Q_c). (b3) Icing delay on surfaces before and after abrasion cycles. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [4]. (c1) Ice adhesion strength on a photothermal coating with/without sunlight. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [27]. (c2) Melting of a frost layer on a tilted photothermal trap. (c3) A water layer formed after the start of melting on the photothermal trap. (c4) Wettability transitions on E/O@TiN during icing (blue) and melting (orange). Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [42]. (c5) Solar deicing on a tilted surface under 1-sun. Reproduced with permission from Wiley-VCH GmbH [42]. (c6) Under sunlight, droplets roll on nanowires (no residue) but pin on other nanostructures (water film remains after deicing). Reproduced with permission from the Institute of Physics [36].

Table 1. Comparative analysis of photothermal conversion mechanisms and their primary contributions to ice melting pathways.

Mechanism	Key Advantages	Key Limitations	Photothermal Performance
LSPR (Visible to NIR)	(1) Confined interfacial heating with minimal energy waste; (2) absorption tunable through morphological engineering	(1) Narrow intrinsic absorption bandwidth for individual nanostructures; (2) uniform dispersion over large areas remains challenging	Au-TiO₂: ∆T * = 45 °C, T_A * = 30 °C, t * = 300 s [83]; TiN-PTFE: ∆T = 35 °C, T_A = 25 °C, t = 100 s [84].
Non-Radiative Relaxation (Visible to NIR)	(1) Broadband absorption achievable; (2) extensive material library over oxides, chalcogenides, and conducting polymers	(1) Photooxidation under prolonged outdoor exposure; (2) the low thermal conductivity of typical semiconductor matrices limits interfacial heat transfer	Fe₃O₄-PDMS: ∆T = 55 °C, T_A = 25 °C, t = 200 s [59]; CuFeMnO₄: ∆T = 20 °C, T_A = 26 °C, t = 150 s [85].
Molecular Thermal Vibration (Full spectrum)	(1) Reliable heat generation under varying solar irradiation; (2) abundant and low-cost raw materials	(1) Poor visible transparency; (2) lower photothermal conversion efficiency per unit mass than LSPR or non-radiative-relaxation materials	CNT-Xerogel: ∆T = 70 °C, T_A = −30 °C, t = 100 s [86]; CNT-PDMS: ∆T = 55 °C, T_A = 25 °C, t = 360 s [87].
Synergistic Photothermal Effects (UV to NIR)	(1) Surpasses the absorption bandwidth and efficiency limits of individual mechanisms; (2) adapts to varying light conditions and ice types	Multi-component synthesis and precise control over each energy dissipation pathway remain challenging	Cu-MOF: ∆T = 65.5 °C, T_A = 25 °C, t = 250 s [54]; graphene@NiO: ∆T = 64.7 °C, T_A = −15 °C, t = 360 s [30].

* ∆T, temperature rise above ambient; T_A, ambient temperature; t, time under 1-sun illumination.

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Gao, C.; Liu, Y.; Du, Y. Water-Lubricated Photothermal Surfaces for Anti-Icing and Deicing. Lubricants 2026, 14, 201. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants14050201

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Gao C, Liu Y, Du Y. Water-Lubricated Photothermal Surfaces for Anti-Icing and Deicing. Lubricants. 2026; 14(5):201. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants14050201

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Gao, Chunlei, Yongzhi Liu, and Yongyi Du. 2026. "Water-Lubricated Photothermal Surfaces for Anti-Icing and Deicing" Lubricants 14, no. 5: 201. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants14050201

APA Style

Gao, C., Liu, Y., & Du, Y. (2026). Water-Lubricated Photothermal Surfaces for Anti-Icing and Deicing. Lubricants, 14(5), 201. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants14050201

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Water-Lubricated Photothermal Surfaces for Anti-Icing and Deicing

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Photothermal Materials for Water-Lubricated Anti-Icing

2.1. Photothermal Mechanisms and Material Types

2.1.1. Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance

2.1.2. Non-Radiative Relaxation

2.1.3. Molecular Thermal Vibration

2.1.4. Synergistic Photothermal Effects

2.1.5. Comparative Analysis of Photothermal Mechanisms

2.2. Performance Enhancement Strategies

2.2.1. Morphology Control of Nanomaterials

2.2.2. Doping and Defect Engineering

2.2.3. Hierarchical Micro/Nanostructure Engineering

2.2.4. System Integration Design

3. Anti-Icing and Deicing Mechanisms

3.1. Droplet Dynamics Control

3.1.1. Supercooled Droplet Rebound

3.1.2. Coalescence-Induced Droplet Jumping

3.2. Ice Nucleation and Thermal Management

3.2.1. Ice Nucleation Suppression

3.2.2. Heat Transfer and Temperature Distribution

3.3. Low-Energy Deicing via Water Lubrication

3.3.1. Defrosting and De-Snowing

3.3.2. Shell-like Ice Detachment

3.3.3. Self-Driven Meltwater Management

4. Key Challenges and Development Strategies

4.1. Mechanical Durability

4.1.1. Wear-Resistant Design

4.1.2. Self-Healing Surfaces

4.1.3. Durability Evaluation

4.2. All-Weather Applicability

4.2.1. Photo-Electrothermal Coupling

4.2.2. Phase Change Materials

4.3. Transparent Photothermal Materials

5. Future Directions

5.1. Multi-Dimensional Design

5.2. Fabrication for Practical Application

5.3. In Situ Characterization

5.4. Performance Evaluation Standards

5.5. Toward Practical Applications

6. Conclusions

Author Contributions

Funding

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of Interest

Abbreviations

References

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