An Assistive Technology for Braille Users to Support Mathematical Learning: A Semantic Retrieval System

: Mathematical learning from digital libraries and the web is a challenging problem for people with visual impairments and blindness. In this paper, we focus on developing the mathematical learning skills of braille users with a new assistive technology developed to retrieve semantically mathematical information from the web. This kind of research is still in the study phase. This paper presents an overview of assistive technologies for braille users followed by a description of the proposed system, which works in four phases. In the ﬁrst phase, we translate a query math formula in braille into MathML code, and then we extract the structural and semantic meaning from the MathML expressions using multilevel presentation. In the classiﬁcation phase, we choose a multilevel similarity measure based on K-Nearest Neighbors to evaluate the relevance between expressions. Finally, the query result is converted to braille math expressions. Experiments based on our database show that the new system provides more efﬁcient results in responding to user queries.


Introduction
Assistive technologies help people with visual impairments to improve their lives. They remove many barriers to use computer technologies for studying, reading, writing digital documents, interacting with each other, and retrieving information on the web and/or in digital libraries. People with visual impairments use speech synthesizers to access the displayed information on the computer screen or braille display (e.g., MAVIS, LaBraDoor, LAMBDA) to write electronic documents, send emails, and take notes, or hearing by screen readers (e.g., Safari+ VoiceOver, Chrome, MathPlayer, MathTalk, JAWS). However, these assistive technologies have some limitations to access all kinds of information like images, tables, graphs, and mathematical notations [1,2].
People with visual impairments face serious difficulties in dealing with and studying mathematics and sciences. They are limited in accessing printed and digital formats of mathematical documents, as math expressions are highly symbolic and nonlinear. Having access to the content of digital mathematical documents (Word, PDF, and web pages) should be in braille or by voice to be easily used by people with sight disabilities in their studies and communications.
Another constraint for people with visual impairments is that mathematical braille code is not universal, as literary braille and each country has its own code. To illustrate, Nemeth [3] and GS Braille are used in North America, India, Malaysia, and other countries. RNIB (Royal National Institute for the Blind) [4] is used in the United Kingdom, Marburg in Germany, and CMU (In English: Unified Mathematical Code) in Spain, while Middle Eastern countries use Nemeth Braille. Braille code is not a language and it has limits in the conversion of certain information like mathematical notations. As opposed to text, mathematical expressions are not directly convertible into braille code because mathematical notations have two dimensional writings, while braille code is one-dimensional.

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Screen readers are software applications that allow people with visual impairments to listen to or read the content of a text. It converts the text displayed on the computer screen into speech synthesizer or braille, and the former requires just a simple audio output. However, braille transcription requires additional hardware called refreshable braille displays. In the literature, there are many software solutions, like JAWS (Job Access With Speech), NVDA (Nonvisual Desktop Access), VoiceOver, and Windows Eyes [8]. • A refreshable braille display is an electromechanical system used by people with blindness to read with their fingers like braille hardcopy to decipher the information displayed on the screen. This device can display up to 80 characters on the screen into ephemeral pins, and it changes continuously when the user moves the cursor via control keys. This hardware can also send commands to the computer through the function keys and the routing cursor. With this feature, the blind can perform research, takes notes, and communicate with other people. This device can be used simultaneously or along with a speech-synthesizer system. • Scanner and Optical Character Recognition allows visually impaired people to scan and read printed books. By connecting this hardware with the computer, the printed document can be scanned and converted into an electronic file that is displayed as text on the computer screen. This text can be read and/or listened to by the blind using refreshable braille displays and screen reader software, respectively. The disadvantage of this material lies in the limitation of digitizing all types of information like images, mathematical notations, and tables.
searching. In this subject, Reference [23] presents similarity search for mathematics with different query languages, such as Presentation MathML, Content MathML, Presentation and Content MathML, and Tex. the authors used the NTCIR math task database to evaluate this system. WikiMirs is a mathematical information-retrieval system for Wikipedia proposed in the literature [24]. It is based upon both textual and structural similarities. This system includes four main modules, specifically, a preprocessor, tokenizer, indexer, and ranker. Experimental results that depend on Wikipedia dataset version 01-  show that WikiMirs retrieves more accurate results and ranks formulae better in Wikipedia compared with two other search engines, Wikipedia Search and Egomath [25].
MathWebSearch (MWS) presented in the literature [26] is a content-based full-text search engine. It provides low-latency answers to full-text queries that contain formulae and text. MWS combines exact and powerful formula unification with the full-text search capabilities of ElasticSearch for a simultaneous full-text search for mathematical documents. NTCIR Math Task Dataset was used to evaluate the MWS.
A Mathematical Retrieval System proposed in reference [27] used a novel indexing and matching model, and it is based on both textual and spatial similarities. This system includes six components, namely, user interface for WebPages or PDF documents, a preprocessor that converts formulae markups from different sources into Presentation MathML, a tree construction that constructs semioperator trees from MathML, a tokenizer that extracts all terms, an indexer that uses Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF) and level to each term in the inverted index files, and a ranker that finds the matched terms in the index files. The same dataset collected from publicly available WebPages and PDF documents was used to compare the results of this system with MIaS and WikiMirs. This system provides more efficient mathematical-formulae index and retrieval.
The math search presented in Reference [28] proposed a lattice-based approach based on Formal Concept Analysis (FCA). The latter has been used for information retrieval [29][30][31] as it is a powerful data-analysis technique. This system includes several phases. The first encompasses the conversion of a math query into uniform format as Presentation MathML, then the extraction of features from MathML, after the construction of a mathematical concept lattice with the extracted features, and finally the relevant expressions that are retrieved and ranked when the query and the document share the same attributes. The dataset collected in this paper is 489 math expressions with different functions.
S. Yang et al. [32] presented a math information-retrieval system using a novel data structure called FDS (Formal Description Structure) index. They realized exact matching between a math query and the candidate formula data rather than the document. The query-mode algorithms used in this system are: global query mode, local query mode, and operational query mode. For evaluating the efficiency of this proposed system, they constructed a dataset with 2557 mathematical expressions collected from several mathematics documents, and they compared the results of this system with two search engines, WikiMirs and EgoMath.
T. Schellenberg et al. [33] presented a math information-retrieval system based on layout substitution trees indexing from a LaTeX dataset. They used a TF-IDF technique to rank or retrieve search results. To evaluate the performance and efficiency of this system, the authors used the same document database and search queries in the Zanibbi and Yuan systems. The results ranked by both systems are comparable.
In this paper, like sighted people, we have proposed our assistive technology for people with blindness to help them study, access, and retrieve mathematical expressions from the web and/or digital libraries.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: • Mathematical braille notation, used in France. The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth.

Mathematical Braille Codes
Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth. Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.

Symbols French UMC Nemeth
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth. Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.

Symbols French UMC Nemeth
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth. Braille is a tactile writing system using raised dots for the visually impaired and those with strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident.

Symbols French UMC Nemeth
Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth. strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident. Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth. strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident. Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth. strong visual disabilities. The system is named after its inventor, the Frenchman Louis Braille (1809-1852) who lost his sight after an accident. Mathematical braille is diverse and not universal. There are several braille bodes, for instance: The following table (Table 1) shows the differences between the symbols of mathematical braille codes: the French notation, UMC, and Nemeth. Table 1. Differences between mathematical braille codes: French notation, Unified Mathematical Code (UMC) and Nemeth.

Symbols French UMC Nemeth
The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: The standard braille with six points allows only few combinations in order to code the characters. To mitigate this problem in computing, they added two points at the end to have eight-point braille. This addition allows making 256 combinations (28), which exactly corresponds to the ASCII table used in computing. In this paper, we use standard braille with six points.

Mathematical Braille Converters
There are numerous braille converters in the literature, like: • Labradoor: (LaTeX-to-braille-door) It converts a LaTeX document including mathematical formulae as well as literary text in braille notation. This project is one of the first attempts at automating the conversion of standard-form mathematical text to print the works in braille, and it is used to produce mathematical texts for secondary-education and university students. Labrador uses only Marburg Braille notation and there is no conversion with other national codes. : This is an integrated system aiming to make printed scientific documents, including mathematical formulae, accessible. The system consists of three applications' components: an OCR system named "InftyReader", a publisher named "InftyEditor", and conversion tools in various formats. The vocal interface ChattyInfty [36] allows partially sighted users to access and publish the expressions with a speech output.

•
Math2Braille: open-source software that allows the conversion of MathML files into braille. The process of converting MathML into braille relies on protocols and procedures that were developed in a previous project on access to music.

Retrieval Mathematical Equations System for People with Visual Impairments and Blindness
Due to the complexity of our system, we have taken a bottom-up approach to better represent our work. We start by drawing up the overall schema of our system and we dissect its components. Figure 1 illustrates the general architecture of our proposed system. The system allows people with visual impairments and blindness to semantically search the mathematical equations from the web or digital libraries. The development of this architecture is inspired from classification systems [37].

Transcription of Braille Expression into MathML Code
The difficulties of understanding a braille code lead us to use the Accessible Equation Editor (AEE) [38] extension to edit the equations in Nemeth Braille Code. With this extension, we can transcribe equations into braille, which is used as a request equation of our system. The query conversion interface is shown in Figure 2. The system takes place in two modes, specifically, offline mode or indexing mode described by the discontinued line, and online mode described by arrows. In offline mode, the mathematical equations of the database are converted into MathML [6] code. Afterward, there comes the semantic analysis of the equations in presentation MathML and the construction of the tree substructure for every formula, and then the extraction of the characteristics through this tree substructure in the form of features vectors. Finally, these vectors are stored in the database.
In online mode, the user launches a request equation in braille code. The request is firstly pretreated in MathML using a presentation markup that analyzes it semantically and then, based on that, builds the tree substructure of the request and the extraction of characteristics in the form of the features vectors. Finally, there is the classification of similar vectors to the request in the database. The results of the classification are converted into braille and presented to the user. We explain in detail the various phases of the system in the following sections.

Transcription of Braille Expression into MathML Code
The difficulties of understanding a braille code lead us to use the Accessible Equation Editor (AEE) [38] extension to edit the equations in Nemeth Braille Code. With this extension, we can transcribe equations into braille, which is used as a request equation of our system. The query conversion interface is shown in Figure 2.

Transcription of Braille Expression into MathML Code
The difficulties of understanding a braille code lead us to use the Accessible Equation Editor (AEE) [38] extension to edit the equations in Nemeth Braille Code. With this extension, we can transcribe equations into braille, which is used as a request equation of our system. The query conversion interface is shown in Figure 2.  The preprocessing of braille queries into uniform mathematical representation plays an important role in the field of mathematical research. There are several markup languages like LaTeX, and presentation and content MathML. MathML is recommended by W3C and it is the most common format for web presentation. Currently, it is used by numerous systems to retrieve mathematical expressions on the web [27,28] and by other applications, such as a MathML to Nemeth translator [14].
In our system, we use presentation MathML to code the semantic and notational structure of mathematical equations (Figure 3). This formula representation is marked and limited by two markups, <math> and </math>. common format for web presentation. Currently, it is used by numerous systems to retrieve mathematical expressions on the web [27,28] and by other applications, such as a MathML to Nemeth translator [14].
In our system, we use presentation MathML to code the semantic and notational structure of mathematical equations (Figure 3). This formula representation is marked and limited by two markups, <math> and </math>.

Semantic-Tree Construction
The structures of the mathematical formulae are naturally hierarchical. They are read and understood in a hierarchical way. The structure of the upper level is more important than those of the lower levels. The upper level generally determines the category and skeleton of the mathematical formula, while the knots of the lower levels usually keep variables or constants that do not bring sense to the content of the formula structure.

Semantic-Tree Construction
The structures of the mathematical formulae are naturally hierarchical. They are read and understood in a hierarchical way. The structure of the upper level is more important than those of the lower levels. The upper level generally determines the category and skeleton of the mathematical formula, while the knots of the lower levels usually keep variables or constants that do not bring sense to the content of the formula structure.
The structure representation tree can be directly extracted from the MathML code ( Figure 4). This representation loses numerous useful semantic contents in searching for mathematical formulae.

Semantic-Tree Construction
The structures of the mathematical formulae are naturally hierarchical. They are read and understood in a hierarchical way. The structure of the upper level is more important than those of the lower levels. The upper level generally determines the category and skeleton of the mathematical formula, while the knots of the lower levels usually keep variables or constants that do not bring sense to the content of the formula structure.
The structure representation tree can be directly extracted from the MathML code ( Figure 4). This representation loses numerous useful semantic contents in searching for mathematical formulae.  Structures of the one-dimensional relations cannot be used in mathematical research. and for that reason, semantic interpretation is necessary in the conversion of the structure representation tree in one-dimensional relation into a matching semantic presentation. This conversion uses methods and algorithms that interpret the operator and level priority ( Figure 5). Structures of the one-dimensional relations cannot be used in mathematical research. and for that reason, semantic interpretation is necessary in the conversion of the structure representation tree in one-dimensional relation into a matching semantic presentation. This conversion uses methods and algorithms that interpret the operator and level priority ( Figure 5). Our algorithm is based on the definition of different levels for each mathematical formula. The first level is defined by the search of all the main operators (+, -, *…) identified in MathML<mrow>, linking them by parenthesis and/or functions (trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential). Everything between a parenthesis and a function's arguments is replaced by the term «exp». The values of these Our algorithm is based on the definition of different levels for each mathematical formula. The first level is defined by the search of all the main operators (+, -, * . . . ) identified in MathML<mrow>, linking them by parenthesis and/or functions (trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential). Everything between a parenthesis and a function's arguments is replaced by the term «exp». The values of these «exp» are stocked to be used in the next level.
For example: Other levels are defined by repeating the same procedure for every «exp» term.
After the recursive execution of this method from the lowest to the highest level of the semantic tree extracted from the MathML code of an equation, a semantic structure in the form of a tree of several levels is built. Figure 6 shows this method with the equation example cos(x) * sin(ln(x)) Our algorithm is based on the definition of different levels for each mathematical formula. The first level is defined by the search of all the main operators (+, -, *…) identified in MathML<mrow>, linking them by parenthesis and/or functions (trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential). Everything between a parenthesis and a function's arguments is replaced by the term «exp». The values of these «exp» are stocked to be used in the next level.
For example: √ + 1 + ( + 1) Other levels are defined by repeating the same procedure for every «exp» term.
After the recursive execution of this method from the lowest to the highest level of the semantic tree extracted from the MathML code of an equation, a semantic structure in the form of a tree of several levels is built. Figure 6 shows this method with the equation example ( ) * ( ( ))

Feature Extraction
The extraction phase aims to extract the features vector of every mathematical formula of the database. For that, we used the conventional vector model with the multilevel extraction method: Extraction from the multilevel tree shown in Figure 6 for every mathematical formula in the database. The conventional vector model is based on the vector concept. This model introduces relevance weights associated to features terms by using different matching functions. It assumes that each equation can be presented by a vector whose nonzero coordinates correspond to the equation's feature terms. The search for similarity between two equations is executed by calculating the similarity between vectors associated with each of them.
The extraction method's base concepts become as follows: In our case, if T k does not belong to the descriptor terms of equation Eil, W ikl takes a value of 0; otherwise, W ikl takes a value of 1.
The application of this method for every level of the multilevel tree allows to have for each equation Ei a set of features vector V i (V i1 , V i2 , . . . , V in ). The first level's vector V i1 is obtained by calculating the occurrence number of each term T k of vector space V(T) in equation Ei while ignoring the content of the terms "exp" and stocking them in features vector V il . The "exp" terms are treated by repeating the same method applied at the first level. We repeat the same procedure for all remaining levels of equation Ei. The variable and constant terms contain the number of occurrences of the different variables and constants that exist in each level in equation Ei.

Classification
When the user launches a request, the system proceeds by converting it into MathML code and, subsequently, the multilevel tree is constructed. After that comes the extraction of the features using the multilevel method and then storing the extracted features in the form of vector V Q , where V Q (V Q1 , V Q2 , . . . , V Qn ). The search for similarities between query and database equations is performed by the distance calculation. Therefore, we proposed in this paper to use the K-Nearest-Neighbor (KNN) method.
The KNN algorithm is a widely used classification technique [39][40][41]. It is one of the simplest algorithms as it stocks all available cases and classifies the new ones by similarity measures. Even with such simplicity, KNN can output highly competitive results. We have used this algorithm to look for similarities between the mathematical equation of the request and that of the database. This similarity is based on the calculation of the distance between features vector V Q where V Q (V Q1 , V Q2 , . . . , V Qn ) stemming from the extraction method. The distance formulae can be expressed as follows: where: V Ql and V yl are the features vectors of the request equation and an equation E y , respectively, for level l.
T: is the number of terms in vector space V(T).

•
Minkowski distance: Euclidean distance is a special case for p = 2 of Minkowski distance.
The calculation of the similarity using the multilevel method is based on multilevel structural and semantic similarity between mathematical equations. The degree of similarity is obtained according to all levels of the multilevel tree ( Figure 6). After having defined the levels of the request and the features vector V Q (V Q1 , V Q2 , . . . , V Qn ), as a first step, we search all mathematical expressions having similar features vectors of the first level V i1 to V Q1 by the calculation of the distance between them. Then, we proceed to the next level just for the similar equations retrieved in the first level. This procedure is repeated in the second level. We continue with the same technique for all levels of the query until we obtain the vectors closest to the request. Reverse indexing allows us to retrieve all mathematical equations corresponding to similar founded feature vectors.

Braille Transcription
In this step, we used Math2Braille in order to convert similar query results into braille. As we do not have a refreshable braille display to examine the output, the latter is displayed on the screen. Figure 7 illustrates the system output.
mathematical equations corresponding to similar founded feature vectors.

Braille Transcription
In this step, we used Math2Braille in order to convert similar query results into braille. As we do not have a refreshable braille display to examine the output, the latter is displayed on the screen. Figure 7 illustrates the system output.

Database
Analyzing the performance of a retrieval mathematical-expression system is not an easy task, because there are few standard reference datasets, contrary to other more common tasks of retrieval information. Normally, each retrieval mathematical-information system builds its own database for evaluation. The comparison between our system and others is also difficult since they are either unavailable or inaccessible.
We created a data system composed of mathematical expressions to evaluate the efficiency of the suggested system. All of the data are constructed using MathType, an interactive tool for the creation of mathematical material found in Microsoft Word and PowerPoint under the MathType Rubin tab to facilitate editing, inserting, and creating mathematical equations. The game elements of the dataset can be easily converted into MathML or LaTeX (Figure 8).

Database
Analyzing the performance of a retrieval mathematical-expression system is not an easy task, because there are few standard reference datasets, contrary to other more common tasks of retrieval information. Normally, each retrieval mathematical-information system builds its own database for evaluation. The comparison between our system and others is also difficult since they are either unavailable or inaccessible.
We created a data system composed of mathematical expressions to evaluate the efficiency of the suggested system. All of the data are constructed using MathType, an interactive tool for the creation of mathematical material found in Microsoft Word and PowerPoint under the MathType Rubin tab to facilitate editing, inserting, and creating mathematical equations. The game elements of the dataset can be easily converted into MathML or LaTeX (Figure 8). In this set, we created 6925 mathematical expressions using symbols from five languages: Latin, Arabic, Tifinagh, Hebrew, and Japanese. For each language, we wrote 1385 different types of mathematical expressions, such as polynomial, algebraic, statistical, trigonometric, and logarithmic expressions. In this paper, we used a Latin set to evaluate the performance of our system.

System Results
In this section, we present the results obtained from the suggested system using the KNN algorithm with Minkowski distance.
The query results of the proposed system are shown in Table 2 below. For each request, we present the first six results in braille. To make it easier to read braille, we converted the queries and In this set, we created 6925 mathematical expressions using symbols from five languages: Latin, Arabic, Tifinagh, Hebrew, and Japanese. For each language, we wrote 1385 different types of mathematical expressions, such as polynomial, algebraic, statistical, trigonometric, and logarithmic expressions. In this paper, we used a Latin set to evaluate the performance of our system.

System Results
In this section, we present the results obtained from the suggested system using the KNN algorithm with Minkowski distance.
The query results of the proposed system are shown in Table 2 below. For each request, we present the first six results in braille. To make it easier to read braille, we converted the queries and results into readable format.

Discussions
Braille users face many difficulties to study and access to the content of scientific documents containing mathematical notations. With this new algorithm proposed, the people with visual impairments can independently retrieve mathematical expressions and develop their mathematical learning.
In Table 2, we found that: The obtained results are several notations, for example, for the test request ⠇⠝⠦⠭⠴ ( ( )) we found ⠇⠝⠦⠽⠴ ( ( )) and ⠇⠝⠦⠁⠖⠃⠴ ( ( + )). These results show that our system can retrieve similar math equations with several notations. The suggested system takes into account the structural and semantic aspect to retrieve math expressions. This characteristic helps learners with visual impairments to search and retrieve documents containing mathematical formulas with the same semantic meaning with different notations.
In our system, we looked to retrieve mathematical expressions with several types of similarities, such as identical similarity, subexpression similarity, or categorical similarity. As an example, the

Discussions
Braille users face many difficulties to study and access to the content of scientific documents containing mathematical notations.
With this new algorithm proposed, the people with visual impairments can independently retrieve mathematical expressions and develop their mathematical learning.
In Table 2, we found that: The obtained results are several notations, for example, for the test request

Discussions
Braille users face many difficulties to study and access to the content of scientific documents containing mathematical notations. With this new algorithm proposed, the people with visual impairments can independently retrieve mathematical expressions and develop their mathematical learning.
In Table 2, we found that: The obtained results are several notations, for example, for the test request ⠇⠝⠦⠭⠴ ( ( )) we found ⠇⠝⠦⠽⠴ ( ( )) and ⠇⠝⠦⠁⠖⠃⠴ ( ( + )). These results show that our system can retrieve similar math equations with several notations. The suggested system takes into account the structural and semantic aspect to retrieve math expressions. This characteristic helps learners with visual impairments to search and retrieve documents containing mathematical formulas with the same semantic meaning with different notations.

Discussions
Braille users face many difficulties to study and access to the content of scientific documents containing mathematical notations. With this new algorithm proposed, the people with visual impairments can independently retrieve mathematical expressions and develop their mathematical learning.
In Table 2, we found that: The obtained results are several notations, for example, for the test request ⠇⠝⠦⠭⠴ ( ( )) we found ⠇⠝⠦⠽⠴ ( ( )) and ⠇⠝⠦⠁⠖⠃⠴ ( ( + )). These results show that our system can retrieve similar math equations with several notations. The suggested system takes into account the structural and semantic aspect to retrieve math expressions. This characteristic helps learners with visual impairments to search and retrieve documents containing mathematical formulas with the same semantic meaning with different notations.

Discussions
Braille users face many difficulties to study and access to the content of scientific documents containing mathematical notations. With this new algorithm proposed, the people with visual impairments can independently retrieve mathematical expressions and develop their mathematical learning.
In Table 2, we found that: The obtained results are several notations, for example, for the test request ⠇⠝⠦⠭⠴ ( ( )) we found ⠇⠝⠦⠽⠴ ( ( )) and ⠇⠝⠦⠁⠖⠃⠴ ( ( + )). These results show that our system can retrieve similar math equations with several notations. The suggested system takes into account the structural and semantic aspect to retrieve math expressions. This characteristic helps learners with visual impairments to search and retrieve documents containing mathematical formulas with the same semantic meaning with different notations.
In our system, we looked to retrieve mathematical expressions with several types of similarities, such as identical similarity, subexpression similarity, or categorical similarity. As an example, the test request ⠡⠖⠭ (1 + ), we found among the retrieved results ⠡⠌⠰⠭⠖⠡⠆ ( ), where it takes the (ln(a + b)). These results show that our system can retrieve similar math equations with several notations. The suggested system takes into account the structural and semantic aspect to retrieve math expressions. This characteristic helps learners with visual impairments to search and retrieve documents containing mathematical formulas with the same semantic meaning with different notations.
In our system, we looked to retrieve mathematical expressions with several types of similarities, such as identical similarity, subexpression similarity, or categorical similarity. As an example, the test request impairments can independently retrieve mathematical expressions and develop their mathematical learning.
In Table 2, we found that: The obtained results are several notations, for example, for the test request ⠇⠝⠦⠭⠴ ( ( )) we found ⠇⠝⠦⠽⠴ ( ( )) and ⠇⠝⠦⠁⠖⠃⠴ ( ( + )). These results show that our system can retrieve similar math equations with several notations. The suggested system takes into account the structural and semantic aspect to retrieve math expressions. This characteristic helps learners with visual impairments to search and retrieve documents containing mathematical formulas with the same semantic meaning with different notations.
In our system, we looked to retrieve mathematical expressions with several types of similarities, such as identical similarity, subexpression similarity, or categorical similarity. As an example, the test request ⠡⠖⠭ (1 + ), we found among the retrieved results ⠡⠌⠰⠭⠖⠡⠆ ( ), where it takes the test request as a subexpression.
The automatic conversion of braille mathematical equations into MathML is not easy. It has several difficulties, especially for complex expressions containing several function categories. This deficiency justifies the obtained results from this type of expression, as is the case for the results of the two test queries: The converters, braille into MathML or MathML into braille, are inaccessible or commercial. As a result, there are not enough assistive technologies for people with visual impairments to study or access mathematical science content. To realize this system, we had many difficulties in finding converters, either braille to MathML or vice versa. That is why we used two different converter types, and adapted them to achieve our goals. On the one hand, we used the Accessible Equation Editor extension as an input to edit and convert Nemeth Braille equations into presentation MathML. On the other hand, we used MathtoBraille as converter in the output. The use of these two different converters has a negative influence on the relevance of the obtained results. Despite this problem, our system has given relevant and important results in responding to user queries as shown in Table 2.

Conclusions
In the present paper, we proposed an assistive technology for people with visual impairments to retrieve mathematical expressions in digital libraries or the web. This system allows these people to study, search for, and have access to mathematical and scientific document content in the web. The results demonstrated the efficiency of our system. They are encouraging to develop other assistive technologies that can provide flexible and personalized learning and education (1 + x), we found among the retrieved results impairments can independently retrieve mathematical expressions and develop their mathematical learning.
In Table 2, we found that: The obtained results are several notations, for example, for the test request ⠇⠝⠦⠭⠴ ( ( )) we found ⠇⠝⠦⠽⠴ ( ( )) and ⠇⠝⠦⠁⠖⠃⠴ ( ( + )). These results show that our system can retrieve similar math equations with several notations. The suggested system takes into account the structural and semantic aspect to retrieve math expressions. This characteristic helps learners with visual impairments to search and retrieve documents containing mathematical formulas with the same semantic meaning with different notations.
In our system, we looked to retrieve mathematical expressions with several types of similarities, such as identical similarity, subexpression similarity, or categorical similarity. As an example, the test request ⠡⠖⠭ (1 + ), we found among the retrieved results ⠡⠌⠰⠭⠖⠡⠆ ( ), where it takes the test request as a subexpression.
The automatic conversion of braille mathematical equations into MathML is not easy. It has several difficulties, especially for complex expressions containing several function categories. This deficiency justifies the obtained results from this type of expression, as is the case for the results of the two test queries: The converters, braille into MathML or MathML into braille, are inaccessible or commercial. As a result, there are not enough assistive technologies for people with visual impairments to study or access mathematical science content. To realize this system, we had many difficulties in finding converters, either braille to MathML or vice versa. That is why we used two different converter types, and adapted them to achieve our goals. On the one hand, we used the Accessible Equation Editor extension as an input to edit and convert Nemeth Braille equations into presentation MathML. On the other hand, we used MathtoBraille as converter in the output. The use of these two different converters has a negative influence on the relevance of the obtained results. Despite this problem, our system has given relevant and important results in responding to user queries as shown in Table 2.

Conclusions
In the present paper, we proposed an assistive technology for people with visual impairments to retrieve mathematical expressions in digital libraries or the web. This system allows these people to study, search for, and have access to mathematical and scientific document content in the web. The results demonstrated the efficiency of our system. They are encouraging to develop other assistive technologies that can provide flexible and personalized learning and education ( 1 x+1 ), where it takes the test request as a subexpression.
The automatic conversion of braille mathematical equations into MathML is not easy. It has several difficulties, especially for complex expressions containing several function categories. This deficiency justifies the obtained results from this type of expression, as is the case for the results of the two test queries: • learning.
In Table 2, we found that: The obtained results are several notations, for example, for the test request ⠇⠝⠦⠭⠴ ( ( )) we found ⠇⠝⠦⠽⠴ ( ( )) and ⠇⠝⠦⠁⠖⠃⠴ ( ( + )). These results show that our system can retrieve similar math equations with several notations. The suggested system takes into account the structural and semantic aspect to retrieve math expressions. This characteristic helps learners with visual impairments to search and retrieve documents containing mathematical formulas with the same semantic meaning with different notations.
In our system, we looked to retrieve mathematical expressions with several types of similarities, such as identical similarity, subexpression similarity, or categorical similarity. As an example, the test request ⠡⠖⠭ (1 + ), we found among the retrieved results ⠡⠌⠰⠭⠖⠡⠆ ( ), where it takes the test request as a subexpression.
The automatic conversion of braille mathematical equations into MathML is not easy. It has several difficulties, especially for complex expressions containing several function categories. This deficiency justifies the obtained results from this type of expression, as is the case for the results of the two test queries: • ⠇⠝⠰⠆⠦⠎⠊⠝⠰⠆⠦⠡⠖⠭⠴⠴ in readable format ( (1 + )) • ⠑⠈⠰⠦⠉⠕⠎⠰⠆⠦⠽⠴⠖⠎⠊⠝⠰⠆⠦⠽⠴⠴ in readable format ( ( ) The converters, braille into MathML or MathML into braille, are inaccessible or commercial. As a result, there are not enough assistive technologies for people with visual impairments to study or access mathematical science content. To realize this system, we had many difficulties in finding converters, either braille to MathML or vice versa. That is why we used two different converter types, and adapted them to achieve our goals. On the one hand, we used the Accessible Equation Editor extension as an input to edit and convert Nemeth Braille equations into presentation MathML. On the other hand, we used MathtoBraille as converter in the output. The use of these two different converters has a negative influence on the relevance of the obtained results. Despite this problem, our system has given relevant and important results in responding to user queries as shown in Table 2.

Conclusions
In the present paper, we proposed an assistive technology for people with visual impairments to retrieve mathematical expressions in digital libraries or the web. This system allows these people to study, search for, and have access to mathematical and scientific document content in the web. The results demonstrated the efficiency of our system. They are encouraging to develop other assistive technologies that can provide flexible and personalized learning and education in readable format ln(sin(1 + x)) • impairments can independently retrieve mathematical expressions and develop their mathematical learning.
In Table 2, we found that: The obtained results are several notations, for example, for the test request ⠇⠝⠦⠭⠴ ( ( )) we found ⠇⠝⠦⠽⠴ ( ( )) and ⠇⠝⠦⠁⠖⠃⠴ ( ( + )). These results show that our system can retrieve similar math equations with several notations. The suggested system takes into account the structural and semantic aspect to retrieve math expressions. This characteristic helps learners with visual impairments to search and retrieve documents containing mathematical formulas with the same semantic meaning with different notations.
In our system, we looked to retrieve mathematical expressions with several types of similarities, such as identical similarity, subexpression similarity, or categorical similarity. As an example, the test request ⠡⠖⠭ (1 + ), we found among the retrieved results ⠡⠌⠰⠭⠖⠡⠆ ( ), where it takes the test request as a subexpression.
The automatic conversion of braille mathematical equations into MathML is not easy. It has several difficulties, especially for complex expressions containing several function categories. This deficiency justifies the obtained results from this type of expression, as is the case for the results of the two test queries: • ⠇⠝⠰⠆⠦⠎⠊⠝⠰⠆⠦⠡⠖⠭⠴⠴ in readable format ( (1 + )) • ⠑⠈⠰⠦⠉⠕⠎⠰⠆⠦⠽⠴⠖⠎⠊⠝⠰⠆⠦⠽⠴⠴ in readable format ( ( ) The converters, braille into MathML or MathML into braille, are inaccessible or commercial. As a result, there are not enough assistive technologies for people with visual impairments to study or access mathematical science content. To realize this system, we had many difficulties in finding converters, either braille to MathML or vice versa. That is why we used two different converter types, and adapted them to achieve our goals. On the one hand, we used the Accessible Equation Editor extension as an input to edit and convert Nemeth Braille equations into presentation MathML. On the other hand, we used MathtoBraille as converter in the output. The use of these two different converters has a negative influence on the relevance of the obtained results. Despite this problem, our system has given relevant and important results in responding to user queries as shown in Table 2.

Conclusions
In the present paper, we proposed an assistive technology for people with visual impairments to retrieve mathematical expressions in digital libraries or the web. This system allows these people to study, search for, and have access to mathematical and scientific document content in the web. The results demonstrated the efficiency of our system. They are encouraging to develop other assistive technologies that can provide flexible and personalized learning and education in readable format e (cos (y)+sin (y)) The converters, braille into MathML or MathML into braille, are inaccessible or commercial. As a result, there are not enough assistive technologies for people with visual impairments to study or access mathematical science content. To realize this system, we had many difficulties in finding converters, either braille to MathML or vice versa. That is why we used two different converter types, and adapted them to achieve our goals. On the one hand, we used the Accessible Equation Editor extension as an input to edit and convert Nemeth Braille equations into presentation MathML. On the other hand, we used MathtoBraille as converter in the output. The use of these two different converters has a negative influence on the relevance of the obtained results. Despite this problem, our system has given relevant and important results in responding to user queries as shown in Table 2.

Conclusions
In the present paper, we proposed an assistive technology for people with visual impairments to retrieve mathematical expressions in digital libraries or the web. This system allows these people to study, search for, and have access to mathematical and scientific document content in the web. The results demonstrated the efficiency of our system. They are encouraging to develop other assistive technologies that can provide flexible and personalized learning and education experiences in the mathematical sciences by addressing the unique and diverse needs of learners with visual impairments.
In future work, we aim to develop a complete e-learning platform for mathematical sciences, dedicated to visual impairments and blindness. This platform would contain voice assistance to automatically read a web page by simple hover on, and the start of a voice search. We also aim to develop mathematical braille converters that support all braille codes.
Author Contributions: All authors contributed equally to this work.
Funding: This research received no external funding.