Assessing the Nexus on Local Perspective: A Quali-Quantitative Framework for Water-Energy-Food Security Evaluation in Neglected Territories

: There is limited focus on the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus approach at the local scale, particularly considering the social contexts of neglected territories. To contribute to this debate, we propose a framework to address this topic in an area in Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, as a case study. A survey was conducted regarding residents’ perceptions, choices, practices and access to water, energy, and food. The interviews highlighted important topics on the WEF nexus. As a result, a set of 12 indicators with data available on ofﬁcial datasets was proposed, reﬂecting residents’ perceptions of WEF safety. For each indicator, thresholds were established based mainly on the goals deﬁned by Brazilian policies across different spheres—federal, state, or municipal. Thus, each indicator is multi-scale and integrative, since it comprises a local perspective (from the interview results), an ofﬁcial perspective (from the ofﬁcial databases), and a threshold. The results showed problems with energy and water supply, and the presence of home cropping, contrasting with residents who do not have access to basic food and experience extreme poverty. All these elements drew attention to the possibility of applying the WEF nexus approach, searching for feasible solutions which can support better decisions and governance in neglected territories.


Introduction
In the face of global climate change and urbanization, efforts to promote the rational use of resources and sustainable development in cities are urgent and necessary.Exponential population growth and industrialization resulting from global socioeconomic transformations are contributing to the expansion of cities that put pressure on natural resources, compromising both their availability and quality [1,2].By 2030, two-thirds of the world's population will live in cities, with most of this population in urban slums or irregular settlements [3].Often, these neglected territories comprise precarious constructions located in peripheral regions, lacking infrastructure and conditions of habitability, as they are both the cause and consequence of social and environmental problems [4].Some factors that contribute to the origin of these territories include the dispute over access to urban land in an increasingly capitalist economy, which contributes to the concentration of private property, generating a frame of spatial segregation, marked by social and environmental inequalities [5].
Water 2022, 14, 731 3 of 17 The use of indicators to assess sustainability is a very useful tool because it enables transforming a highly complex element into a technical, objective language, thus allowing monitoring and comparison at different levels [34].However, most WEF nexus studies have focused on quantitative "top-down type" indicators (based on technical-scientific expertise), while participatory indicators of the "bottom-up type" are recommended for qualitative analyses of sustainability, especially those related to food and water security [24,[35][36][37].In this regard, participation can balance qualitative and quantitative approaches, building transdisciplinary interactions among stakeholders' perspectives [31,38,39].
Hence, we propose a WEF nexus assessment for neglected territories in urban areas, considering the residents' choices and perceptions.The residents' survey was correlated with data available on official datasets.It allowed us to present a low-cost and feasible methodology able to evaluate the status of the WEF nexus.

Study Area
The Angra dos Reis municipality, on the South Coast of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, comprises one of the largest remnants of the Atlantic Rainforest in Brazil.The entire region is a center of biological diversity and endemism, a hotspot of biodiversity [40].In fact, the region is a crucially important Biodiversity Corridor recognized by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Heritage Committee) since 1991 [41,42].More recently, in 2019, Ilha Grande (part of the Angra dos Reis territory) became a UNESCO World Heritage Site (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Heritage Committee) [42].
For many years, this municipality suffered intense socio-environmental conflicts originating from urbanization derived from huge national investments [43].The changes in land use along with land speculation, all associated with exponential demographic growth, forced the low-income population to move to peripheral areas.This causes environmental degradation through either deforestation or the disposal of untreated sewage into water bodies [44,45].
The Bracuí region, located in this municipality, is the scene of an intense dynamic of occupation that comes, in many ways, from the appropriation of extensive coastal areas by real estate capital, invasions, construction in preserved areas, clandestine parceling, and mangrove landfill, where there is little provision of basic urban services.Furthermore, this region encompasses very important traditional territories, including the Guarani Sapukai Village and Quilombo Santa Rita do Bracuí (Figure 1).
Particularly in Itinga (Figure 2), which is our case study, conflicts over land use intensified in the 1990s, when villagers organized an association that struggled to gain recognition for, and guarantee, their rights.With urban growth and the construction of the BR-101 highway in the 1970s, a process of occupation of the locality began, which was not accompanied by improvements in urban infrastructure or other urban services.
A topographic assessment made in 2016 by the municipal government identified the existence of 2650 households with a population of approximately 10,000 people [46].However, only 55% are permanent residents [46], with the remainder being vacationers who only spend a few days a year at the site.This context increases the complexity of governance in Itinga.[46].Elaborated by the authors using Quantum Gis 3.6.
Particularly in Itinga (Figure 2), which is our case study, conflicts over land use intensified in the 1990s, when villagers organized an association that struggled to gain recognition for, and guarantee, their rights.With urban growth and the construction of the BR-101 highway in the 1970s, a process of occupation of the locality began, which was not accompanied by improvements in urban infrastructure or other urban services.
A topographic assessment made in 2016 by the municipal government identified the existence of 2650 households with a population of approximately 10,000 people [46].However, only 55% are permanent residents [46], with the remainder being vacationers who only spend a few days a year at the site.This context increases the complexity of governance in Itinga.In detail, the sectors I (red), II (yellow), and III (orange).Source: Municipal Government of Angra dos Reis [46]; Costa [47].

Data Collection and Sample
In 2018, anonymous semi-structured interviews were organized; the questionnaire was comprised of 17 questions about residents' perceptions, choices, practices, and access to resources such as fresh food, drinking water, and electricity (Table 1).In order to learn about the food items, number of meals per day, and seasonal variations in adult food intakes we used the 24-h recall method [48].
The sampling method used was the conglomerate.We split the neighborhood into In detail, the sectors I (red), II (yellow), and III (orange).Source: Municipal Government of Angra dos Reis [46]; Costa [47].

Data Collection and Sample
In 2018, anonymous semi-structured interviews were organized; the questionnaire was comprised of 17 questions about residents' perceptions, choices, practices, and access to resources such as fresh food, drinking water, and electricity (Table 1).In order to learn about the food items, number of meals per day, and seasonal variations in adult food intakes we used the 24-h recall method [48].
The sampling method used was the conglomerate.We split the neighborhood into three sectors, randomly selecting the blocks by drawing one at a time (Figure 2).If no respondent was available, the team picked the next household instead.We visited 22 households in total.All interviewees were over 18 years old and each interview, conducted on business days, lasted about 40 min.The Residents' Association was a support point for field activities, also helping to provide guidance on areas that could or could not be reached by the team, due to the high incidence of criminality and local conflicts (specifically bordering on the neighborhood and near the mangrove).All data were included in Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and analyzed using the Sphinx iQ2 software (test version).

Set of Indicators
The interview highlighted important topics regarding the WEF nexus from the community's perception.Then, we grouped these topics to subjects and establish the correspondence with data available on Brazilian data platforms that could work as indicators, considering the criteria of relevance-relevance of its production and use; validity-, indicator's ability to operationalize an abstract concept; reliability-quality of data collection; coverage-geographical and temporal scale; sensitivity-ability to reflect significant changes; specificity-ability to reflect changes strictly to the dimension of interest; and cost-effectiveness-cost and time to obtain adequate to the needs [49].Only indicators related to the dimensions of access and availability at the household level were considered.
For water safety, we considered aspects related to basic human needs, such as water availability (including the diversity of water resources) and water quality, considered by Aboelnga et al. [33] as the main components of urban water security.For energy security, we considered criteria of availability and diversity, as presented by Azzuni and Breyer [29].For food security, in turn, the home level is related to care, and we considered the aspects related to feeding practices, also referring to the socio-economic aspects of food security of families, the knowledge, habits, and decisions about what foods should be purchased, prepared, and consumed [50].
The number of indicators was defined in order to allow a quick qualitative and quantitative analysis, covering the different dimensions of securities at a local scale.

Definition of Thresholds
The third and last step was the definition of thresholds for each indicator.The thresholds were established mainly based on the goals defined by Brazilian legislation and policies across different spheres-federal, state, or municipal.For those indicators that did not have specific targets on national bases, we followed the recommendations of international organizations, such as the United Nations (UN) or the World Health Organization (WHO).
The methodology is summarized in Figure 3. Considers the percentage of individuals who consume fruits and vegetables five or more times/day, five or more days/week (including consumption of natural juices), or on five or more days of the week (including the consumption of natural fruit juices).The calculation of the daily total portions is made considering each fruit or each fruit juice as equivalent to a portion.
It is recommended that fruits and vegetables be consumed five or more times per day on five or more days of the week (according to the World Health Organization).The recommended consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with disease reduction and may also be correlated with social and economic issues, in addition to habits, according to some studies.Regarding universal and equitable access to water, water supply must be ensured to everyone, regardless of social, economic, cultural, gender, or ethnicity conditions.This concept is aligned with the premise of access to water as an essential human right.Thus, it is important to monitor the deficit of supply to the population, according to different income strata.According to United Nations guidelines, the proportion of the population that has access to an improved source of water located on or near the property should be included, which is accessible with at most a 30-min round trip.Improved sources include water supply at home or property through the general network, as well as other forms of supply.

IBGE-National
National Sanitation Information System (SNIS) that did not have specific targets on national bases, we followed the recommendations of international organizations, such as the United Nations (UN) or the World Health Organization (WHO).
The methodology is summarized in Figure 3.

Results and Discussions
A questionnaire comprising 17 questions was applied to Itinga's residents, following the sampling method explained in Section 2.2.The goal for each question is explained in Table 1.

Results and Discussions
A questionnaire comprising 17 questions was applied to Itinga's residents, following the sampling method explained in Section 2.2.The goal for each question is explained in Table 1.
Half of the interviewees were fifty years old or older, with 8 of them residing in the neighborhood for 6 to 10 years.Females comprised 13 of the interviewees; 8 of all interviewees were housewives.Most respondents (15) have a family monthly income of less than one minimum Brazilian wage per capita, equivalent to US$243.82.
Regarding water security aspects, 17 of the interviewees claimed that Itinga has a high natural availability of water.Indeed, the Municipal Basic Sanitation Plan [51] suggests the region has potential for exporting water, considered as the second major hydrographic basin in the municipality.Despite this, 14 of the interviewees report daily rationing of public water supply services.As a way to save water, 13 residents reported practices such as reusing greywater and rainwater harvesting (Figure 4).Half of the interviewees were fifty years old or older, with 8 of them residing in the neighborhood for 6 to 10 years.Females comprised 13 of the interviewees; 8 of all interviewees were housewives.Most respondents (15) have a family monthly income of less than one minimum Brazilian wage per capita, equivalent to US$243.82.
Regarding water security aspects, 17 of the interviewees claimed that Itinga has a high natural availability of water.Indeed, the Municipal Basic Sanitation Plan [51] suggests the region has potential for exporting water, considered as the second major hydrographic basin in the municipality.Despite this, 14 of the interviewees report daily rationing of public water supply services.As a way to save water, 13 residents reported practices such as reusing greywater and rainwater harvesting (Figure 4).Almost all interviewees in this survey (21 respondents) have publicly supplied water.However, 8 of them consider the publicly provided water quality as bad while 6 respondents considered it regular in quality.Constant changes to water characteristics were noted by 19 of the interviewees.The main perceived changes were a strong smell, chlorine flavor, and a dark color ("muddy water").This is the main reason they obtain water from a local spring for consumption.
According to the National Information System on Sanitation [52], 45% of the population in Angra dos Reis have access to sewage treatment.In Itinga, there is no public sewage treatment, depending exclusively on individual solutions.17 of the interviewees affirmed using a septic tank and 13 respondents consider sewage treatment inadequate.The main problems related to sewage in the community are overflow and bad smells on Almost all interviewees in this survey (21 respondents) have publicly supplied water.However, 8 of them consider the publicly provided water quality as bad while 6 respondents considered it regular in quality.Constant changes to water characteristics were noted by 19 of the interviewees.The main perceived changes were a strong smell, chlorine flavor, and a dark color ("muddy water").This is the main reason they obtain water from a local spring for consumption.
According to the National Information System on Sanitation [52], 45% of the population in Angra dos Reis have access to sewage treatment.In Itinga, there is no public sewage treatment, depending exclusively on individual solutions.17 of the interviewees affirmed using a septic tank and 13 respondents consider sewage treatment inadequate.The main problems related to sewage in the community are overflow and bad smells on rainy days or during high tide.This is a reality for many parts of the world.The World Health Organization [53] reports that at least 2 billion people around the world use a drinking water source that is contaminated with feces.Contaminated drinking water is estimated to cause 485,000 diarrheal deaths annually.Furthermore, by 2025, half of the world's population will live in water-stressed areas.
Half of the interviewees (11 of the responses) never had a problem with their water supply.For those experiencing an interruption in water supply, the maximum period without water was three days, affecting mainly the preparation of food.However, 3 interviewees said they needed to use a pumping system in the last three months, using an artesian well, with increases in energy expenses.
In Itinga, all sampled residents demonstrated access to the electrical grid, although it is known that, in 2016, about 80 families did not have regular electricity service because they lived in prohibited areas, without authorization (personal information).All interviewees complained about constant power outages, lasting up to three days.According to Almeida et al. [54], households living in peripheral communities of Latin American cities are subject to energy poverty, even if they have access to the electricity grid.Among the main causes are clandestine connections and criminal domains, which make it difficult for energy concessionaires to maintain facilities, causing frequent and lasting service interruptions.The low quality of electrical supply directly affects the comfort of low-income consumers.Frequent and long blackouts compromise thermal comfort and food storage, making it impossible for other domestic activities [55] (Figure 5).
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20 they lived in prohibited areas, without authorization (personal information).All interviewees complained about constant power outages, lasting up to three days.According to Almeida et al. [54], households living in peripheral communities of Latin American cities are subject to energy poverty, even if they have access to the electricity grid.Among the main causes are clandestine connections and criminal domains, which make it difficult for energy concessionaires to maintain facilities, causing frequent and lasting service interruptions.The low quality of electrical supply directly affects the comfort of low-income consumers.Frequent and long blackouts compromise thermal comfort and food storage, making it impossible for other domestic activities [55] (Figure 5).Regarding food security, our results demonstrate low consumption of fresh food.Only one person consumes five or more daily portions of fruits and vegetables, while most consume only 1 to 2 portions (6 of the responses).The main reason for non-consumption or low consumption of fresh foods is economic issues.Fresh food is mostly obtained in the neighborhood itself, although 4 of those interviewed stated that they obtain fresh food through their own or family production.However, there are still families with low access to food in neighborhoods.This could be a consequence of the peri urbanizing phenomenon, as demonstrated by Garcia et al. [23].The authors identify that the low acquisition of fresh food by residents in peripheral areas of the São Paulo municipality, Brazil, is a consequence of insufficient supply and a limited variety of food.In this sense, it is possible to detect a link between peri urbanizing processes and food security (Figure 6).Regarding food security, our results demonstrate low consumption of fresh food.Only one person consumes five or more daily portions of fruits and vegetables, while most consume only 1 to 2 portions (6 of the responses).The main reason for non-consumption or low consumption of fresh foods is economic issues.Fresh food is mostly obtained in the neighborhood itself, although 4 of those interviewed stated that they obtain fresh food through their own or family production.However, there are still families with low access to food in neighborhoods.This could be a consequence of the peri urbanizing phenomenon, as demonstrated by Garcia et al. [23].The authors identify that the low acquisition of fresh food by residents in peripheral areas of the São Paulo municipality, Brazil, is a consequence of insufficient supply and a limited variety of food.In this sense, it is possible to detect a link between peri urbanizing processes and food security (Figure 6).Organic foods are consumed by half of the respondents, mainly sourced from their own or family production.However, 2 respondents stated categorically that they were unaware of the concept of organic food.The consumption of local food plants was reported by 11 respondents.Taioba (Xanthoroma sagittifolium), a species considered to be part of the PANC (Edible Weeds) group, is the most popular.A study conducted by Almeida [55] shows that residents of peripheral urban communities in a southeastern Brazilian city, Belo Horizonte, use food self-supply based on local production.In addition to these crops, the project identified local knowledge about the use of native plants as a food source.Edible weeds emerged as an important solution that promotes quality food in the short term, especially among low-income families.
When asked about the possibilities for encouraging urban agriculture in the neighborhood, 10 interviewees supported the implementation of home gardens.Only 5 showed interest in community gardens, claiming the difficulty of integration among villagers.Ochoa et al. [56], studying urban gardens in different countries, find difficulties for community gardens during the formation phase and community building, when citizens work together to create a group of gardeners who participate in the gardening project.The same authors also state that top-down projects struggle with the financial resources needed to maintain gardens.With these barriers to overcome, case studies also show that active leadership is crucial for maintaining the activity.
Conceptual gaps were evidenced during the interviews, such as the knowledge about organic food and alternative energy sources.Interviewees showed that they did not have a formed opinion on these topics.Other topics, however, showed strong relevance among residents, especially water quality, due to uniformity in the pattern of responses.The use of the 24-h dietary recall method to characterize food consumption had an elevated rate of response rejection, especially in the most deprived families.On the other hand, the lack of integration among residents was highlighted as a main obstacle for developing sustainability actions, such as community gardens, for example.
Based on the questionnaire responses, we moved forward to the next step, which was to establish a correspondence between the questions (Table 1) and the data available in the official Brazilian database (Table 2).
The main public open datasets of Brazilian institutions were analyzed considering especially the geographical and temporal scale of the data available.Thus, we defined a set of 12 indicators that reflect residents' perceptions of WEF safety (Table 2).Additionally, for each indicator, a threshold was defined, based on existing public policies Organic foods are consumed by half of the respondents, mainly sourced from their own or family production.However, 2 respondents stated categorically that they were unaware of the concept of organic food.The consumption of local food plants was reported by 11 respondents.Taioba (Xanthoroma sagittifolium), a species considered to be part of the PANC (Edible Weeds) group, is the most popular.A study conducted by Almeida [55] shows that residents of peripheral urban communities in a southeastern Brazilian city, Belo Horizonte, use food self-supply based on local production.In addition to these crops, the project identified local knowledge about the use of native plants as a food source.Edible weeds emerged as an important solution that promotes quality food in the short term, especially among low-income families.
When asked about the possibilities for encouraging urban agriculture in the neighborhood, 10 interviewees supported the implementation of home gardens.Only 5 showed interest in community gardens, claiming the difficulty of integration among villagers.Ochoa et al. [56], studying urban gardens in different countries, find difficulties for community gardens during the formation phase and community building, when citizens work together to create a group of gardeners who participate in the gardening project.The same authors also state that top-down projects struggle with the financial resources needed to maintain gardens.With these barriers to overcome, case studies also show that active leadership is crucial for maintaining the activity.
Conceptual gaps were evidenced during the interviews, such as the knowledge about organic food and alternative energy sources.Interviewees showed that they did not have a formed opinion on these topics.Other topics, however, showed strong relevance among residents, especially water quality, due to uniformity in the pattern of responses.The use of the 24-h dietary recall method to characterize food consumption had an elevated rate of response rejection, especially in the most deprived families.On the other hand, the lack of integration among residents was highlighted as a main obstacle for developing sustainability actions, such as community gardens, for example.
Based on the questionnaire responses, we moved forward to the next step, which was to establish a correspondence between the questions (Table 1) and the data available in the official Brazilian database (Table 2).
The main public open datasets of Brazilian institutions were analyzed considering especially the geographical and temporal scale of the data available.Thus, we defined a set of 12 indicators that reflect residents' perceptions of WEF safety (Table 2).Additionally, for each indicator, a threshold was defined, based on existing public policies and programs in Brazilian legislation or, if no thresholds were established for the indicator, we considered international standards as a reference.
The thresholds are a fundamental aspect in sustainability assessments since they work as a reference of acceptable conditions within which we actively manage to maintain the status of the indicator [57].Therefore, each indicator is multi-scale and integrative, since it comprises a local perspective (from the interview results), an official perspective (obtained in the official databases, on a regional or national scale), and a threshold.

Conclusions
Faced with the challenges of climate change and the global phenomenon of increasing urbanization, rationalization of resources and the sustainable development of cities are increasingly important.Water, energy, and food are fundamental resources for human well-being.However, when they are distributed unequally across cities, it can result in conditions of water stress, energy poverty and food deserts.
In our study we presented a case study about a typical neglected neighborhood in Brazil.The questionnaire highlighted the residents' perception about the WEF nexus.Most of the residents reported a lack in accessibility and availability of the WEF services.It was also possible to realize the existence of conceptual gaps regarding some topis, e.g., organic food and alternative energy sources.The lack of community integration was also identified has an issue that made the development of integrative solutions difficult for the neighborhood.
The correlation of the questionnaire with data available on open official datasets allows an easy and low cost WEF nexus assessment and can be a useful tool for decision-making in neglected territories.It also highlights that regular data collection by the government across scales is essential for the best decisions to be made to reduce social inequalities and improve human well-being.
Our study contributes to the translation of household perceptions to eligible indicators, enriches sustainability analysis, and corroborates the transdisciplinary tendencies of the nexus approach.Although many technical sustainability indicators already exist, their effective implementation tends to be scarce because they are developed without stakeholder engagement, imposed through top-down approaches.This work also presents an approach that is simultaneously integrated, practical, and transdisciplinary, thus enabling the crossing of information at different scales of the territory.The results clearly show the influence of urbanization processes on the threats facing the supply of basic services in neglected territories common in Latin American countries.It represents a low-cost framework that can be used by decision-makers without needing any specific training.Moreover, these are indicators that are internationally recognized, offering the possibility to be applied in multiple countries.In this way, it is also possible to monitor SDG achievements through the same indicators.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.The location of Itinga, in Angra dos Reis, RJ.Source: Municipal Government of Angra dos Reis[46].Elaborated by the authors using Quantum Gis 3.6.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Construction of participatory indicators for nexus water-food-energy assessment in urban and peri-urban areas.Source: The authors.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Construction of participatory indicators for nexus water-food-energy assessment in urban and peri-urban areas.Source: The authors.

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Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Main interviewees' results regarding water availability and access in Itinga, Angra dos Reis-Brazil.Source: The authors.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Main interviewees' results regarding water availability and access in Itinga, Angra dos Reis-Brazil.Source: The authors.

Figure 5 .
Figure 5. Main interviewees' results regarding energy availability and access in Itinga, Angra dos Reis-Brazil.Source: The authors.

Figure 5 .
Figure 5. Main interviewees' results regarding energy availability and access in Itinga, Angra dos Reis-Brazil.Source: The authors.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Main interviewees' results regarding food availability and access in Itinga, Angra dos Reis-Brazil.Source: The authors.

Table 1 .
Indicator framework for water-energy-food nexus assessment at a local scale.

How many days a week do you usually eat at least one type of vegetables
(lettuce, tomato, cabbage, etc.-not potatoes, cassava, or yam)? ( ) 5 or more days ( ) 3 to 4 days ( ) 1 to 2 days ( ) rarely ( ) never (d) On an average day, how many times do you eat vegetables? ( ) 1 time ( ) 2 times (e) How many days a week do you usually drink natural fruit juice?

On an average day, how many glasses of natural fruit juice do you drink?
Quantify in percentage (%) recommended consumption of fruits and vegetables (FV).

Table 2 .
Thresholds for each water-energy-food security indicator.