TonEBP Promotes β-Cell Survival under ER Stress by Enhancing Autophagy

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response and autophagy are important cellular responses that determine cell fate and whose dysregulation is implicated in the perturbation of homeostasis and diseases. Tonicity-responsive enhancer-binding protein (TonEBP, also called NFAT5) is a pleiotropic stress protein that mediates both protective and pathological cellular responses. Here, we examined the role of TonEBP in β-cell survival under ER stress. We found that TonEBP increases β-cell survival under ER stress by enhancing autophagy. The level of TonEBP protein increased under ER stress due to a reduction in its degradation via the ubiquitin–proteasome pathway. In response to ER stress, TonEBP increased autophagosome formations and suppressed the accumulation of protein aggregates and β-cell death. The Rel-homology domain of TonEBP interacted with FIP200, which is essential for the initiation of autophagy, and was required for autophagy and cell survival upon exposure to ER stress. Mice in which TonEBP was specifically deleted in pancreatic endocrine progenitor cells exhibited defective glucose homeostasis and a loss of islet mass. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that TonEBP protects against ER stress-induced β-cell death by enhancing autophagy.


Introduction
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an important intracellular organelle for the synthesis, folding, and assembly of secreted and transmembrane proteins. ER function is disturbed in several physiological and pathological conditions, and this leads to ER stress, which is characterized by the accumulation and aggregation of unfolded and/or misfolded proteins in the ER [1,2]. Cells react to ER stress by initiating the unfolded protein response (UPR), which is an adaptive and cellular protective response that aims to reduce the accumulation of unfolded proteins and restore ER homeostasis. However, an insufficient UPR and/or persistent ER stress trigger cellular dysfunction and cell death, leading to human diseases [2][3][4]. Importantly, β-cells in pancreatic islets contain a highly developed ER to produce insulin and thus are vulnerable to ER stress [5]. ER stress and the UPR are being increasingly implicated in the dysfunction and loss of pancreatic β-cells associated with the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) [6,7].
Autophagy is a conserved lysosomal degradation pathway that involves recognizing the material for autophagic degradation, isolating the material via autophagosome formation and fusing autophagosomes with lysosomes (autolysosome) to degrade the cargo, and is essential for cellular homeostasis and adaptations to stress [8,9]. Autophagy is reciprocally linked to ER stress in eukaryotic 3. Results

TonEBP Suppresses the ER Stress-Induced Accumulation of Unfolded Proteins and β-Cell Death
To investigate the role of TonEBP in β-cell survival under ER stress, we first examined whether the siRNA-mediated depletion of TonEBP affects cell death triggered by agents that induce ER stress, namely, brefeldin A (BFA) and tunicamycin (TM). MIN6-M9 mouse β-cells transfected with scrambled siRNA or TonEBP-targeted siRNA were incubated with 20 µM BFA or 1 µg/mL TM for 24 h followed by an LDH or MTT assay. Treatment with these agents reduced the viability of β-cells, and the TonEBP depletion dramatically increased the cell death induced by ER stress inducers, BFA and TM ( Figure 1A,B). Conversely, TonEBP overexpression attenuated cell death induced by BFA, but not by TM ( Figure S1A). These results suggest that TonEBP increases β-cell survival under ER stress.
We next investigated the mechanism by which TonEBP determines β-cell fate under ER stress. Ubiquitinated and unfolded proteins commonly accumulate in response to ER stress [33,34] and this triggers the activation of the UPR, which leads to the removal of these proteins [2]. However, a prolonged activation of the UPR leads to cell death under persistent ER stress [35]. We first examined whether TonEBP modulates the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins by performing an immunofluorescence analysis of ubiquitin. The formation of ubiquitin foci markedly increased under ER stress, and TonEBP depletion enhanced the formation of ubiquitin foci in response to ER stress inducers ( Figure 1C,D). We next examined the induction of BiP (also called GRP78), which is a molecular indicator of ER stress and UPR activation [36]. TonEBP depletion increased the number of BiP-positive cells observed after 24 h treatment with ER stressors ( Figure 1E,F). Additionally, TonEBP depletion did not affect the protein and mRNA expression of BiP ( Figure S1B,C), and the mRNA expression of ER stress-related genes dit3, Atf4, and Ire1a ( Figure S1D-F) in a 4 h treatment with ER stressors.
These findings suggest that TonEBP is required for the clearance of unfolded protein aggregates and thereby increases cell survival in response to ER stress. Cells 2020, 9, 1928 5 of 18 We asked whether TonEBP mediated other forms of stress for autophagy induction. To answer this question, we examined autophagy induction by rapamycin which is a potent inducer of autophagy via the suppression of mTOR [1]. As expected, rapamycin increased the level of LC3 protein in β-cells. TonEBP depletion markedly suppressed the accumulation of LC3 in response to rapamycin ( Figure S2E) indicating that TonEBP contributes to autophagy induced by multiple forms of cellular stress including, but not limited to, ER stress.  Cell viability was assessed by the LDH release (A) and MTT reduction (B) after 24 h. (C) Cells were transfected with scrambled siRNA (Scr) or TonEBP-targeting siRNA (Ton) and then treated as above. Ubiquitin was visualized with an anti-ubiquitin antibody by immunostaining. (D) Percent of ubiquitin puncta positive cells were counted from 100 cells in each group. (E) Cells were transfected and treated as in (C). BiP was detected with an anti-BiP antibody by immunostaining. (F) Percent of BiP positive cells were counted from 100 cells in each group. VH, vehicle. Data (mean + SD) were from three independent experiments (n = 3) each with more than three replicates. # p < 0.05 vs. scrambled siRNA-VH. * p < 0.05 ((A,B); unpaired t-test, (D,F); one-way ANOVA). Scale bars, 50 µm (C,E).

TonEBP Is Required for ER Stress-Induced Autophagosome Formation
The induction of autophagy increases β-cell survival under ER stress by mediating the clearance of protein aggregates [37]. To elucidate the mechanism by which TonEBP increases β-cell survival under ER stress, we examined whether it stimulates autophagy in response to ER stress. During autophagosome formation, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3)-I is converted to LC3-II, which is then incorporated into the autophagosomal membrane [38]. Thus, the levels of LC3-II and LC3 correlate with the number of autophagosomes and are reliable markers of autophagosome formation [39]. A six hour treatment with ER stress inducers (20 µM BFA, and 1 µg/mL TM) markedly increased the level of LC3-II proteins in β-cells; however, this increase was markedly smaller in TonEBP-depleted cells than in control cells ( Figure 2A). Furthermore, the number and intensity of LC3 puncta were higher in cells treated with ER stress inducers than in control cells, and TonEBP depletion markedly suppressed the accumulation of LC3 in response to ER stress inducers ( Figure 2B,C). To further clarify the role of TonEBP during the autophagy process, we examined the effect of TonEBP depletion at the early stage (autophagosome formation) and the late stage (autophagosome-lysosome fusion) of autophagy using pharmaceutical inhibitors [40]. LY294002 (LY; 10 µM), an inhibitor of autophagosome formation, markedly suppressed TM-induced LC3 puncta ( Figure 2D). On the other hand, chloroquine (CQ; 10 µM), an inhibitor of autolysosome formation, increased the accumulation of LC3, as expected from the blockade of autolysosome formation ( Figure 2D). Notably, TonEBP depletion showed a similar inhibition on the accumulation of LC3 under both CQ-treated and untreated conditions ( Figure 2D) indicating that TonEBP is involved in the early stage of autophagy formation. TonEBP depletion did not obviously affect the mRNA expression of the autophagy-related genes Atg7, Atg14, p62, and Ulk1 ( Figure S2A-D). Collectively, these data suggest that TonEBP is necessary for the induction of autophagy in β-cells.   We asked whether TonEBP mediated other forms of stress for autophagy induction. To answer this question, we examined autophagy induction by rapamycin which is a potent inducer of autophagy via the suppression of mTOR [1]. As expected, rapamycin increased the level of LC3 protein in β-cells. TonEBP depletion markedly suppressed the accumulation of LC3 in response to rapamycin ( Figure S2E) indicating that TonEBP contributes to autophagy induced by multiple forms of cellular stress including, but not limited to, ER stress.

TonEBP Interacts with FIP200 through Its Rel-Homology Domain (RHD)
Next, we investigated the mechanism by which TonEBP functions in ER stress-induced autophagy. To this end, we analyzed proteins that interacted with an N-terminal truncated form of TonEBP containing the intact RHD (Yc1) ( Figure 3A) by performing a tandem affinity purification [31]. FIP200, a ULK-interacting protein that is required for autophagosome formation in mammalian cells [41], was a top hit ( Figure S3). We performed reciprocal co-immunoprecipitation experiments to confirm the interaction between TonEBP and FIP200. Experiments using both endogenous ( Figure 3B) and overexpressed ( Figure 3C) proteins revealed that TonEBP pulled down FIP200 and vice versa.
Next, we investigated the mechanism by which TonEBP functions in ER stress-induced autophagy. To this end, we analyzed proteins that interacted with an N-terminal truncated form of TonEBP containing the intact RHD (Yc1) ( Figure 3A) by performing a tandem affinity purification [31]. FIP200, a ULK-interacting protein that is required for autophagosome formation in mammalian cells [41], was a top hit ( Figure S3). We performed reciprocal co-immunoprecipitation experiments to confirm the interaction between TonEBP and FIP200. Experiments using both endogenous ( Figure  3B) and overexpressed ( Figure 3C) proteins revealed that TonEBP pulled down FIP200 and vice versa.
To define which sites mediate the TonEBP-FIP200 interaction, we generated constructs that expressed several TonEBP ( Figure 3A) and FIP200 ( Figure 3D) mutant proteins. To identify which structural elements of FIP200 are important for its interaction with TonEBP, cells were transfected with constructs that expressed Yc1 and full-length FIP200 or a deletion mutant. Yc1 was coimmunoprecipitated by full-length FIP200, Del #1 (ΔLz), and Del #2 (ΔCCC and ΔLz). However, the deletion of the p53/TSC1 domain (Del #3) abolished the interaction with Yc1, demonstrating that this domain of FIP200 is required for its interaction with TonEBP ( Figure 3E). In addition, a TonEBP mutant lacking the RHD (ΔRHD) did not interact with FIP200 ( Figure 3F), indicating that this domain of TonEBP is essential for its interaction with FIP200. Collectively, these data suggest that the RHD of TonEBP and the p53/TSC1 domain of FIP200 mediate the interaction of these two proteins.  To define which sites mediate the TonEBP-FIP200 interaction, we generated constructs that expressed several TonEBP ( Figure 3A) and FIP200 ( Figure 3D) mutant proteins. To identify which structural elements of FIP200 are important for its interaction with TonEBP, cells were transfected with constructs that expressed Yc1 and full-length FIP200 or a deletion mutant. Yc1 was co-immunoprecipitated by full-length FIP200, Del #1 (∆Lz), and Del #2 (∆CCC and ∆Lz). However, the deletion of the p53/TSC1 domain (Del #3) abolished the interaction with Yc1, demonstrating that this domain of FIP200 is required for its interaction with TonEBP ( Figure 3E). In addition, a TonEBP mutant lacking the RHD (∆RHD) did not interact with FIP200 ( Figure 3F), indicating that this domain of TonEBP is essential for its interaction with FIP200. Collectively, these data suggest that the RHD of TonEBP and the p53/TSC1 domain of FIP200 mediate the interaction of these two proteins.
Based on these results, we hypothesized that the RHD of TonEBP plays an important role in cell viability and the activation of autophagy under ER stress. To investigate this, we performed rescue experiments in which wild-type TonEBP or a mutant lacking the RHD was expressed. The siRNA-mediated knockdown of TonEBP decreased cell viability over a 24 h treatment with the ER stress inducers BFA (20 µM) and TM (1 µg/mL). The reduction in cell viability by TonEBP depletion upon treatment with each of the two ER stress inducers was rescued by the expression of wild-type TonEBP, but not by the expression of the TonEBP mutant lacking the RHD ( Figure 4A). Furthermore, the accumulation of LC3 in TonEBP-depleted cells under ER stress was enhanced by the expression of wild-type TonEBP but was unaffected by the expression of the TonEBP mutant lacking the RHD ( Figure 4B-D). Based on these results, we hypothesized that the RHD of TonEBP plays an important role in cell viability and the activation of autophagy under ER stress. To investigate this, we performed rescue experiments in which wild-type TonEBP or a mutant lacking the RHD was expressed. The siRNAmediated knockdown of TonEBP decreased cell viability over a 24 h treatment with the ER stress inducers BFA (20 μM) and TM (1 μg/mL). The reduction in cell viability by TonEBP depletion upon treatment with each of the two ER stress inducers was rescued by the expression of wild-type TonEBP, but not by the expression of the TonEBP mutant lacking the RHD ( Figure 4A). Furthermore, the accumulation of LC3 in TonEBP-depleted cells under ER stress was enhanced by the expression of wild-type TonEBP but was unaffected by the expression of the TonEBP mutant lacking the RHD ( Figure 4B-D).
Taken together, these data suggest that the RHD of TonEBP is required for its interaction with FIP200, activation of autophagy, and cell survival under ER stress.  Taken together, these data suggest that the RHD of TonEBP is required for its interaction with FIP200, activation of autophagy, and cell survival under ER stress.

ER Stress Enhances the Stability of TonEBP Proteins
The contribution of TonEBP to cell survival under ER stress (Figure 1) led us to examine whether ER stress influences its expression. A treatment of of four hours with the ER stress inducers (20 µM of BFA and 1 µg/mL of TM) increased the protein expression of TonEBP in β-cells ( Figure 5A). However, the mRNA expression of TonEBP was unaffected ( Figure 5B), demonstrating that TonEBP is regulated post-translationally in response to ER stress. Consistently, the treatment with MG132, a potent proteasome inhibitor, dose-dependently (10-100 nM) increased the level of TonEBP proteins in β-cells ( Figure 5C), suggesting that the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway contributes to the stability of TonEBP. To investigate the ubiquitination of TonEBP, we transfected HEK293 cells with constructs expressing various deletion mutants of TonEBP ( Figure 5D). Only cells expressing Yc1 displayed ubiquitination and this was enhanced by the ectopic expression of ubiquitin ( Figure 5E), suggesting that the RHD of TonEBP is the main ubiquitination target. We next examined the ubiquitination of TonEBP under ER stress. A one-hour treatment with the ER stress inducers (20 µM of BFA and 1 µg/mL of TM) reduced the ubiquitination of TonEBP, indicating that the stability of TonEBP proteins is enhanced under ER stress ( Figure 5F). Recent studies have shown that different linkage types of the ubiquitin chain elicit different effects on substrates [42,43]. The K48-linked ubiquitin chain mediates the proteasomal degradation of substrates, whereas the K63-linked polyubiquitin chain is involved in the regulation of the activities, localizations, and binding partners of substrates. Yc1 was ubiquitinated when wild-type ubiquitin was expressed; however, its ubiquitination was markedly decreased when the K48R or K63R ubiquitin mutant was expressed ( Figure 4G). Collectively, these data suggest that the protein stability of TonEBP is enhanced under ER stress due to a reduction in its degradation via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and that this increases cell survival.

Deletion of TonEBP in Pancreatic Endocrine Progenitor Cells Perturbs Glucose Homeostasis
We next sought to determine the impact of TonEBP deficiency on pancreatic homeostasis in vivo. To this end, we generated TonEBP fl/fl NGN3-cre mice in which TonEBP was deleted in pancreatic endocrine progenitor cells using the Cre-lox system (TonEBP fl/fl ; neurogenin 3 promoter driven-Cre). Floxed TonEBP mice that did not express Cre recombinase (TonEBP fl/f alone) were used as a control. The deletion of TonEBP in pancreatic endocrine progenitor cells significantly decreased the size of islets ( Figure 6A), number of islets ( Figure 6B), and pancreas weight ( Figure 6C), but did not affect body weight ( Figure 6D). Consistently, the serum glucose level was higher in TonEBP fl/fl NGN3-cre mice than in control mice ( Figure 6E), but the serum insulin level was unchanged ( Figure 6F), suggesting that TonEBP deletion in pancreatic endocrine progenitor cells perturbs glucose homeostasis. We also examined ER stress and autophagy in the pancreas by performing immunofluorescence staining for BiP, respectively. The accumulation of BiP was greater in TonEBP fl/fl NGN3-cre mice than in control mice ( Figure 6G). Taken together, these data suggest that TonEBP is required for homeostasis in the pancreas via the modulation of ER stress and autophagy. However, these findings do not exclude the possibility that TonEBP is involved in pancreas development and this requires further investigation. Cells 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Discussion
TonEBP is a pleiotropic stress protein that mediates both protective and pathological cellular responses in a stress-and cell type-dependent manner [17]. The primary finding of this study is that TonEBP protects pancreatic β-cells against ER stress. We showed that (a) the protein expression of TonEBP in β-cells is elevated in response to ER stress due to its increased protein stability, (b) TonEBP increases β-cell survival under ER stress, (c) TonEBP inhibits the accumulation of ER stress-related proteins, and (d) TonEBP attenuates ER stress-associated cell death via the regulation of autophagy (Figure 7). These findings provide new insights into the role of TonEBP in the context of ER stress and autophagy.
The ER stress response and autophagy are important cellular responses that determine cell fate (survival and death) [1][2][3]8,9] and whose dysregulation is implicated in various human diseases [4,[44][45][46]. Persistent ER stress results in the accumulation of misfolded and/or aggregated proteins in the ER that are a hallmark of protein conformational disorders [1,2]. Thus, the cellular protein quality control machinery is critical for the cellular and organismal physiology. The aggregated proteins and dysfunctional organelles are removed by autophagy-mediated lysosomal degradation. Misfolded proteins without aggregation can be restored by molecular chaperones [47] or removed by

Discussion
TonEBP is a pleiotropic stress protein that mediates both protective and pathological cellular responses in a stress-and cell type-dependent manner [17]. The primary finding of this study is that TonEBP protects pancreatic β-cells against ER stress. We showed that (a) the protein expression of TonEBP in β-cells is elevated in response to ER stress due to its increased protein stability, (b) TonEBP increases β-cell survival under ER stress, (c) TonEBP inhibits the accumulation of ER stress-related proteins, and (d) TonEBP attenuates ER stress-associated cell death via the regulation of autophagy (Figure 7). These findings provide new insights into the role of TonEBP in the context of ER stress and autophagy. diseases [56][57][58], infectious diseases [59][60][61], and some cancers [62,63]. Conversely, autophagy acts as a pro-survival pathway in certain cancers [64][65][66]. Given these observations, approaches to activate or inhibit autophagy are currently receiving considerable attention as potential therapeutic strategies for diverse diseases. The identification of TonEBP as a novel regulator of autophagy provides a significant insight into the mechanisms underlying the regulation of autophagy and autophagymodulating strategies. Although the molecular mechanism linking ER stress and autophagy remains to be fully elucidated, multiple signaling pathways are reportedly involved in the crosstalk between autophagy and ER stress [3,67]. Autophagy is tightly regulated by mTOR, the ULK1-ATG13-FIP200 complex, and ATG, indicating that significant crosstalk occurs between signaling pathways [44,45]. The ULK1-ATG13-FIP200 complex is essential for the initiation of autophagy [68]. Here, we showed that TonEBP interacts with FIP200, which is essential for autophagosome formation [69], via its RHD; this domain of TonEBP is necessary for its function in autophagy and β-cell survival under ER stress ( Figure 4A-D). We hypothesize that TonEBP functions in ER stress-induced autophagy via its interaction with FIP200; however, further studies are required to verify this. The finding that TonEBP interacts with FIP200 is of great interest because FIP200 has distinct roles in cellular homeostasis and disease pathogenesis in different cell types. The depletion of FIP200 in neurons [70] and hematopoietic stem cells [71] leads to phenotypic defects associated with the suppression of autophagy. The non-autophagic functions of FIP200 are crucial during embryogenesis [72]. FIP200 also inhibits the progression of several types of cancer [73]. By contrast, another study showed that the function of FIP200 in autophagy supports tumor cell growth [74], suggesting that FIP200 is a potential target for cancer therapy. FIP200 regulates several intracellular signaling pathways via interactions with other proteins [75][76][77][78], and we identified TonEBP as an intracellular binding partner The ER stress response and autophagy are important cellular responses that determine cell fate (survival and death) [1][2][3]8,9] and whose dysregulation is implicated in various human diseases [4,[44][45][46]. Persistent ER stress results in the accumulation of misfolded and/or aggregated proteins in the ER that are a hallmark of protein conformational disorders [1,2]. Thus, the cellular protein quality control machinery is critical for the cellular and organismal physiology. The aggregated proteins and dysfunctional organelles are removed by autophagy-mediated lysosomal degradation. Misfolded proteins without aggregation can be restored by molecular chaperones [47] or removed by proteasomal degradation [10]. Emerging evidence indicates that there is crosstalk and coordination between the three protein degradation systems [47,48]. Autophagy can be stimulated as a secondary response to multiple types of cellular stress, including ER stress, in order to alleviate stress [11,12,49]. Autophagy functions in physiology and pathophysiology, and thus the finding that it is regulated by TonEBP, are particularly important. Autophagy occurs at a basal rate in a range of normal human physiological processes to maintain cellular homeostasis [50], and is essential for development and differentiation [50,51]. More importantly, autophagy is involved in various human disorders. The induction of autophagy protects against aging [52], metabolic syndrome [53][54][55], neurodegenerative diseases [56][57][58], infectious diseases [59][60][61], and some cancers [62,63]. Conversely, autophagy acts as a pro-survival pathway in certain cancers [64][65][66]. Given these observations, approaches to activate or inhibit autophagy are currently receiving considerable attention as potential therapeutic strategies for diverse diseases. The identification of TonEBP as a novel regulator of autophagy provides a significant insight into the mechanisms underlying the regulation of autophagy and autophagy-modulating strategies.
Although the molecular mechanism linking ER stress and autophagy remains to be fully elucidated, multiple signaling pathways are reportedly involved in the crosstalk between autophagy and ER stress [3,67]. Autophagy is tightly regulated by mTOR, the ULK1-ATG13-FIP200 complex, and ATG, indicating that significant crosstalk occurs between signaling pathways [44,45]. The ULK1-ATG13-FIP200 complex is essential for the initiation of autophagy [68]. Here, we showed that TonEBP interacts with FIP200, which is essential for autophagosome formation [69], via its RHD; this domain of TonEBP is necessary for its function in autophagy and β-cell survival under ER stress ( Figure 4A-D). We hypothesize that TonEBP functions in ER stress-induced autophagy via its interaction with FIP200; however, further studies are required to verify this. The finding that TonEBP interacts with FIP200 is of great interest because FIP200 has distinct roles in cellular homeostasis and disease pathogenesis in different cell types. The depletion of FIP200 in neurons [70] and hematopoietic stem cells [71] leads to phenotypic defects associated with the suppression of autophagy. The non-autophagic functions of FIP200 are crucial during embryogenesis [72]. FIP200 also inhibits the progression of several types of cancer [73]. By contrast, another study showed that the function of FIP200 in autophagy supports tumor cell growth [74], suggesting that FIP200 is a potential target for cancer therapy. FIP200 regulates several intracellular signaling pathways via interactions with other proteins [75][76][77][78], and we identified TonEBP as an intracellular binding partner of FIP200. It will be interesting to investigate the impact of the TonEBP-FIP200 interaction on autophagy and other cellular responses in future studies.
The primary finding of this study is that TonEBP protects β-cells against ER stress. Although TonEBP has both protective and pathological effects in a stress-and cell type-dependent manner, the interpretation of this result is complicated by the previous findings that islet autoimmunity in humans is associated with an increased expression of TonEBP [23] and that the blood glucose level in mice with global TonEBP haplo-deficiencies is comparable with that in their wild-type littermates [79]. However, there is a possible explanation for these discrepant findings. Pancreatic islets contain numerous other cell types (e.g., immune cells, vascular cells, and stromal cells) in addition to endocrine cells [80]. The survival and death of β-cells might involve cell-cell crosstalk through the coordination of multiple processes as well as intrinsic pathways. Pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages, CD4 + T lymphocytes, and CD8 + cytotoxic T-cells are considered to be the major cell types that promote the development of type 1 DM [81,82], while M2 macrophages, which function in wound healing and tissue remodeling, promote β-cell proliferation by inducing crosstalk among different cell types [83]. Notably, a depletion of TonEBP in macrophages suppresses the polarization of M1 macrophages [30,84] and activates the polarization of M2 macrophages [29,85]. More importantly, the downregulation of TonEBP attenuates pathological CD4 + T cell differentiation and autoimmunity [19,86]. Based on these findings, we believe that the loss of β-cells induced by a TonEBP deficiency can be rescued by enhanced protective or homeostatic functions in immune cells lacking TonEBP.
The level of TonEBP is elevated in response to various stresses [17]. The upregulation of TonEBP protein under stress is paralleled by an increase in TonEBP mRNA [17]. The TonEBP gene promoter has not been defined and thus it remains unknown whether it is regulated by stress. In many cases, the downregulation of microRNAs targeting TonEBP mRNA leads to the upregulation of this mRNA [17]. Here, we demonstrated that the level of TonEBP is regulated by its protein stability. We showed that ER stress increases the level of TonEBP in β-cells ( Figure 5A) and that this is due to an increase in the protein stability of TonEBP owing to a reduction in its ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal degradation. Additionally, we showed that both K48-and K63-linked ubiquitin chains, which are the two most abundant chain types, are involved in the ubiquitination of TonEBP. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to show that the level of TonEBP protein is influenced by its stability. Our previous study demonstrated that TonEBP interacts with the E3 ubiquitin ligase SHPRH and the deubiquitinase USP1, and that this correlates with PCNA polyubiquitination in response to DNA damage [31]. Based on these findings, we speculate that SHPRH and USP1 mediate the ubiquitination and deubiquitination of TonEBP. However, further studies focusing on the mechanism that regulates TonEBP ubiquitination are needed to verify this hypothesis.
In summary, our results reveal that TonEBP is upregulated and increases β-cell survival by enhancing autophagy under ER stress. These findings demonstrate the previously unknown role of TonEBP in the ER stress response and autophagy.