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22 November 2021

RETRACTED: Thermal Analysis of a Metal–Organic Framework ZnxCo1-X-ZIF-8 for Recent Applications

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1
Physics Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
2
Physics Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut 11751, Egypt
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Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, New Valley University, Kharga 11765, Egypt
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Polymers2021, 13(22), 4051;https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13224051
This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymer Composites: Design, Preparation and Applications
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Abstract

Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) are interesting materials for use in several aspects: energy storage material, gas sensing, and photocatalysis. The thermal stability and pyrolysis process are crucial in determining the active phase of the material. A deep understanding of the pyrolysis mechanism is in demand. Therefore, the thermodynamics and combustion process with different heating rates was examined, and the kinetic parameters were computed employing thermogravimetric tests. Based on the TG analysis of combustion, pyrolysis moves to the high-temperature region with an increase in heating rate. The decomposition process can be separated into the dehydration (300–503 K) and the pyrolysis reaction (703–1100 K). Three points of the decomposition process are performed by dynamical analysis owing to shifts of slopes, but the combustion process has only one stage. The Zeolitic imidazolate framework’s structure properties were examined using TDDFT-DFT/DMOl3 simulation techniques. Dynamical parameters, for instance, the possible mechanism, the pre-exponential factor, and the apparent activation energy are obtained through comparison using the Kissinger formula. The thermodynamics analysis of the Zn1-xCox-ZIF-8 materials is an effective way to explore the temperature influence on the process of pyrolysis, which can benefit several environment purifications, photocatalyst, and recent applications.

1. Introduction

The metal–organic framework is an attractive material considering a subset of the crystalline porous materials, since coordination polymers are created from a metal-ions/cluster bridge via organic ligands [,,,]. These porous solids attract significant interest owing to their gas adsorption capacity, energy storage, catalysis, separation of the membrane, drug delivery, and sensing potential [,,,,,,]. Recently, the exchange of the MOF ligand paid significant attention in several studies. One of these sub-MOF families are Zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) [,], including imidazolate ligands and transition ion metals, making 3D tetrahedral frameworks frequently with topologies of zeolite [,,,,]. Usually, double ligand ZIF crystals have various topologies, chemical properties with mono-ligand ones, and porosities. Nair et al. presented a direct strategy for ZIF materials with dual ligands, gas adsorption properties, and realizing tunable pore size distribution []. The exchange of a ligand is a promised route by which prepare dual-ligand functional ZIF crystals, which are not easy to synthesize by conventional direct methods [,]. Recently, Hupp et al. prepared ZIF-8 derivatives with a partial ligand replaced via imidazole; in addition, the crystals demonstrated a more open structure and remarkable catalytic properties. A dual-ligand of ZIF materials with excellent stability of hydrothermal was also synthesized using a shell–ligand-exchange-reaction (SLER), as shown in our previous work.
Several properties have been studied for ZIF-8, such as its structural, optical and electronic properties [,,,,,]. However, the thermal stability of ZIF-8 is not enough since, in several industrial operations, harsh conditions—for instance: high pressures, high temperature, and the existence of oxidants—are needed. Moreover, the increase in TG analysis of ZIF-8 is misleading due to long-term isothermal heating; it misses potential structural changes in the materials. In this study, we used thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to evaluate the thermal analysis of ZIFs-8 to determine whether ZIFs-8 as a function of five concentrations of Zn/Co-ZIF-8 uses different heating rates (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 K/min). Additionally, the change in loss and analysis with the inductive temperature in TGA could be explained by performing XRD at each stage. In this research, it was possible to characterize each decomposition that occurred in the form of a peak by measuring the DSC curves for each of all samples, and then the transformation parameters, which are the activation energy and the kinetic parameter for each decomposition that occurred, were measured at the maximum decomposition temperature.

2. Experimental Work

2.1. Synthesis of Bimetallic Zn/Co-ZIF-8

Zn/Co-Zifs were prepared; in brief, Zn(No3)2·6H2O plus Co(NO3)2·6H2O and 2-methyl imidazole were dispersed independently in the equivalent volumes of DMF. Then, TEA was included in a linker as well as both solutions being moved into the glass vessel, closed hermetically, and placed in the MW oven (MARS). Then, the mixture of the reaction was heated at 140 °C for 15 min. After cooling down to room temperature, a precipitate was collected by centrifugation, washed twice with DMF and once with methanol, and dried at 60 °C overnight.

2.2. Computational Study

Corresponding to DFT computations, the efficiency of the molecular structure and frequency dimensions for the ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework in the gas phase were established utilizing the findings acquired from both CASTEP and DMol3 computations. The general gradient approximation (GGA) functional correlations, Perdew–Burke–Ernzerh (PBE) exchange, the pseudo-conserving norm, and the DNP base set were computed utilizing TDDFT/DMol3 and CASTEP software for free molecules. []. The plane-wave cut-off energy value utilized in the structure matrix simulation computations was 310 eV. The structural and spectroscopic characteristics of the ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework, as well as the XRD system and optical properties, were developed using TDDFT/DMol3 and CASTEP frequency computation results at the gamma point (GP). On the doped ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework in the gas phase, the functional Becke’s non-local interchange correlation with the functional B3LYP [] and WBX97XD/6-311G was carried out for optimal geometry and vibrational frequency (IR) measurements. For the nanocomposite materials produced, the GAUSSIAN 09W software system monitors geometric characteristics, vibration modes, optimum structure visualization, and energies []. The results of an earlier study [] showed that DFT calculations rely on WBX97XD/6-311 G when utilizing the B3LYP technique and have produced a slew of excellent results for structural spectrum correlation, including several key experimental findings. To measure doped ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework models of the Gaussian and CASTEP models in the gas phase, the Gaussian Potential Approximation System (GAP) defines a range of descriptors, the overall power and derivatives model, and the concurrent use of many distinct uncertainty models [].

2.3. Characterization of Bimetallic Zn/Co-ZIF-8

The constitution of the organized samples before and after annealing has been studied via XRD analysis (Philips X-ray diffractometry (1710)) with nickel-filtered radiation of Cu Kα that has a wavelength = 0.15418 nm. The XRD results were delicate with the aid of the use of the Rietveld method with GSAS-II software []. The gravimetric measurements were carried out using thermogravimetric analysis on a Shimadzu 50 with an accuracy of ±0.1 K. The calorimeter was calibrated, for each heating rate, using the well-known melting temperatures and melting enthalpies of zinc and indium supplied with the instrument. The 20 mg powdered samples were crimped into aluminum pans and scanned at continuous heating rates (β = 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 K min−1).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Pyrolysis Process of the Prepared ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 Metal–Organic Framework

The pyrolysis process of the prepared ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework was tested by thermogravimetric stability (TGA), which was measured at a temperature of 300 to 1100 K in the presence of air. The thermal decomposition rate of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 was determined by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis to arrive at the decomposition kinetic parameters.
Figure 1 shows the dynamic temperature TGA thermal stability test results of Zn100-ZIF-8 powder in the air using the heating method. The weight change curve with respect to the temperature shown in Figure 1 remains unchanged until it reaches 373 K, at which time the weight loss increases to 473 K with respect to temperature. Between 373 and 573 K, the weight is reduced by 15 %, which corresponds to the removal of guest molecules occluded and adsorbed on the ZIF-8 surface. After reaching 573 K, when the temperature in the air is as high as 760 K, a new weight distribution of the drop weight (about 22.8 %) appears. At this time, a significant weight loss relative to the temperature occurs, which indicates that the unstable temperature of the ZIF-8 nanocrystals begins to appear. After reaching the decomposition temperature of 760 K, the TGA weight curve shows a sharp decrease in weight, which corresponds to the collapse of the ZIF-8 structure and carbonization under extreme thermal stress.
Figure 1. TGA curves for Zn100-ZIF-8 at heating rate 5 K/min.
Figure 2 shows the TGA profiles of the thermal degradation of the ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework in the range 300–1100 K at a heating rate of 5 K/min in the presence of air. It shows that the TGA of all samples consisted of three main stages where the thermal decomposition of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 reached approximately 22.8% by weight of the solvent in the first stage. However, an increase in the concentrations of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 co-stimulants resulted in a decreased percentage of weight loss, as shown in Figure 2. While the second stage showed stability since pure ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 lost about 82.5% of the weight (binding), increasing cobalt concentrations allows for a lower rate of loss and increased stability. In the third stage at 723 K, ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 completely hydrolyzed and converted to Zn1-xCoxO carbon coating, as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3: shows the TGA curves for (a): Zn100Co0-ZIF-8 and (b): Zn0Co100-ZIF-8 with the different heating rates (5,10, 15, 20, 25 K/min).
Figure 2. TGA curves for ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 at heating rate 5 K/min.
Figure 3. TGA curves for (a): Zn100Co0-ZIF-8 and (b): Zn0Co100-ZIF-8 with the different heating rates (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 K/min).

3.2. XRD of the Prepared ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 Metal–Organic Framework

All ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 samples were examined by XRD in 2θ range from 5 to 70° with step scanning of 0.02° (see Figure 4a). Figure 4b displayed the peak shift after increasing the Co metal at the expense of Zn metal in ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8. Then, the crystal structures of the ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 samples were refined in terms of the Rietveld method []. The Rietveld refinement results are presented as an example in Figure 5 (as an example). The successful refinement is confirmed by the very small difference between the measured and refined intensities and the low R-factors scheduled in Table 1. The XRD confirmed that all samples have a single cubic phase of ZIF-8 (space group I−43 m) without any additional peaks from other crystalline phases [,].
Figure 4. (a) The XRD patterns of different compositions of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 and (b) the trend of the beak in range of diffraction angle from 5 to 20°.
Figure 5. X-ray diffractograms of the Zn100Co0-ZIF-8 sample with Rietveld refinement.
Table 1. The lattice parameters, cell volume, and phase ratios of Zn1-xCox-ZIF-8.
SEM measurements and histograms corresponding to Zn-ZIF-8, Co50Zn50-ZIF-8, and Co-ZIF-8 are shown in Figure 6. The particle size is mainly distributed in the 20–85 mm range for the first Zn-ZIF-8 sample and increases with increasing Co content. In terms of Gaussian fitting, the average crystallite size evaluated with SEM histograms was found to be about 56.2 nm for Zn-ZIF-8, 63.9 nm for Co50Zn50-ZIF-8, and 69.34 nm for Co-ZIF-8. An increase in the particle size of CoZn-ZIF-8 was observed with the increase in Co substitution, which suggests a kinetically controlled growth of the framework. [,].
Figure 6. SEM images and histograms corresponding to Zn-ZIF-8, Co50Zn50-ZIF-8, and Co-ZIF- Co-ZIF-8.
To understand the formation phases at 640 °C, all compositions were annealed under air, and XRD was used to examine all samples. It is well known that the ZIF-8 consists of zinc metal and organic linkers. After annealing all samples, the phase completely transformed from ZIF-8 to ZnO coated by carbon, as shown in Figure 7 at 640 °C. The XRD proved that the annealed samples of 100Zn0Co-ZIF-8, Zn0.75Co0.25, and Zn0.50Co0.50 converted to a single hexagonal phase ZnO with space group P63mc, as seen in Figure 7. The volume cell of ZnO decreased with an increase in the Co concentrations, as demonstrated in Table 1. However, Figure 7 shows the annealing of 25Zn75Co-ZIF-8 led to the transformation of two phases of ZnO and Co3O4 with ratios of 53.3 and 47.7, respectively. Otherwise, the annealing of 0Zn100Co-ZIF-8 transformed into a single cubic phase of Co3O4 with space group F-43m and lattice parameters a = 8.08 Å, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. The XRD pattern of different compositions of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 after annealing at 640 °C.
In the calculated powder XRD assessed by using density functional theory calculations (PXRD/TDDFT) patterns analysis, the fitting parameters (2θ, FWHM, and hkl) indicate good agreement between refined and observed XRD patterns for the samples obtained by the MARS method [,,,]. These phases corresponding to the different polymorphs of the ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework in the isolate state can be identified; in this case, it was noted that the lattice parameters and unit cell volumes obtained by using TDDFT are very close to the prepared ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework structures. However, some variations in the atomic positions related to Zn and/or Co atoms were observed while, zinc atoms have fixed atomic positions. These results indicate a certain degree of disorder for the samples obtained by the MARS method, especially the Co vacancies. We believe these variations in atomic positions of Co atoms can lead to the formation types of distortions on ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 bonds and consequently promote different levels of distortions on the (Zn) and/or (Co) clusters in the lattice of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8. A full assessment demonstrating a good agreement between the calculated powder XRD was attained by using density functional theory calculation (PXRD/TDDFT) patterns and the experimental patterns for the prepared ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework, validating the accuracy of the fabricated material’s (PXRD/TDDFT) patterns []. As presented in Figure 3 and Figure 8a–e, a combination of diffraction based on experimentation and TDDFT yields a great estimation of the atomic scale for the prepared ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework [,,].
Figure 8. (a–e): The simulated XRD patterns attained by using the TDDFT method of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8; the inset Figure is the lattice type: a 3D molecule attained by using the Polymorph computation method.

3.3. DSC of the Prepared ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 Metal–Organic Framework

The change in the peak intensity of DSC in Figure 9 refers to the difference in the sample weight loss. Based on TGA and DSC results in Figure 9a–e, the best temperature used to anneal the Zn1-xCoxO coated by carbon shells was 723 K. It can be observed from Figure 2 that TGA curves move slowly to the high-temperature region as the heating rates increased. This increase is due to the aggravation of the temperature gradient between the samples and the surrounding areas at high heating rates. It is also clear from Figure 9a–e that the exothermic peak (Tp) in DSC curves moves to high temperatures as the heating rates increase, signifying the kinetic nature of the crystallization.
Figure 9. (a–e): The DSC of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 for a different rate.
It can be observed that the exothermic peaks obtained in DSC curves (Figure 7a–e) are broad, signifying the presence of more overlapped peaks. To separate the overlapped peaks, the deconvolution process is applied using the Origin program with a Gaussian-type function (Figure 8). The deconvolution of overlapped exothermic peaks at heating rate β = 5 K/min is offered in Figure 10, as an example. The exothermic peaks overlapped may be due to phase separation that occurs upon the synthesizing process. The atmosphere of annealing affects the composition; hence, in the case of annealing the materials under air, there are three stages from evaporating the water up to forming ZnO, and each stage is represented by a peak, as demonstrated in Figure 10.
Figure 10. The deconvolution of overlapped exothermic peaks at heating rate β = 5 K/min.
The thermal decomposition of MOF materials was studied through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to obtain the exothermic maximum temperature during the overall reaction (Tp). On the other hand, the kinetic parameter and the activation energy of the Zn1-xCox-ZIF-8 material provided this behavior due to the nature of the decomposition mechanism in the process of pyrolysis. Interestingly, thermodynamics analysis of the Zn1-xCox-ZIF-8 materials is an effective way to explore the influence of temperature on the process of pyrolysis, which can benefit several recent applications.
For evaluation of activation, energy decomposition (Ec) assessed using the variation of the temperature of max-peak Tp for each exothermic reaction is affected by various heating rates β = 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 °K/min, and it was revealed that it utilizes the DSC non-isothermal technique. In addition, a Kissinger equation [,] was used as follows:
ln β i T p , i 2 = ln k 0 R E + ln g ( α ) + E R T p , i
From the experimental data, a plot of ln(Tp2/β) versus 1000/Tp was drawn for different compositions showing the straight regression line in Figure 11.
Figure 11. Plots of ln T p 2 / β vs. 1000/Tp of the Zn1-xCox-ZIF-8 sample under air.
The activation energy, E, and the frequency factor, k0 were then evaluated by the least squares fitting method of Equation (1) and exhibited in Table 2. It was observed that the activation energy and kinetic parameter of the Zn1-xCox-ZIF-8 under air increase as the exothermic peak increases. This is due to the exothermic peak (Tp) shifting to high temperatures as the heating rates increased. This is due to the exothermic peak (Tp) shifting to high temperatures as the heating rates increase. The temperature of the max peak for each exothermic reaction is affected by various heating rates including 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 °K/min, and it was revealed for that utilizes the DSC non-isothermal technique [].
Table 2. Activation energy and kinetic parameter of the Zn1-xCox-ZIF-8 pyrolysis process calculated by the non-isothermal method.

3.4. Photocatalytic Test

The upgrading of the ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework can be studied by measuring the intensity of visible pulsed light at λ m a x ≅ 576 nm, which is assigned to a ZIF-8 monomer. With the UV exposure time, the absorbance of the Zn0Co100-ZIF-8 metal monomer increased from 24.63% to 75.37 % as a result of its formation in the presence of the different molar ratio ZnxCo1-x- (Figure 12). In the presence of Zn1-xCox acting as a catalyst, the upgrade Zn100Co0-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework is about 50.74 % with the different molar ratio ZnxCo1-x- added. The best Zn0Co100-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework upgrade was obtained with Zn0Co100, and it was about 75.37 %, which is 50.74% higher than that for Zn100Co0. As revealed in our XRD and UV results, all the studied metal–organic frameworks crystallized, and the energy gap decreased depending on the different molar ratio percentages of Zn1-xCox. Indeed, Zn1-xCox is an indirect bandgap semiconductor that results in a longer life for photogenerated electrons and holes. The different molar ratio percentages of Zn1-xCox also leads to oxygen desorption from the crystallite surface. The oxygen defects generated in the prohibited Zn1-xCox bandgap can form donor concentrations and can also serve as a trap for the generation of photoelectrons, thereby restricting the recombination of electron–holes. In summary, we noted the highest photocatalytic efficiency for the Zn0Co100ZIF-8 metal–organic framework. The different molar ratio percentages of Zn1-xCox is known to produce catalyst surface oxygen vacancies that act as traps for electrons []. These defects were recorded to impact H and O2 surface adsorption on Zn1-xCox and to facilitate the dissociation of H2O and hydroxy groups, thus speeding up the organic pollutant degradation process.
Figure 12. Absorption spectrum curves of the ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 solution obtained after 2 h.

4. Conclusions

The pyrolysis process of the prepared ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 metal–organic framework was studied by TGA and DSC, which was measured at a temperature of 300 to 1100 K in the presence of air. The thermal decomposition rate of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 was determined by DSC analysis to arrive at the decomposition kinetic parameters. The TGA of all samples consisted of three main stages where the thermal decomposition of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 reached approximately 22.8% by weight of the solvent in the first stage. However, an increase in the concentrations of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 Co-stimulants resulted in a decreased percentage of weight loss, while the second stage showed stability, since pure ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 lost about 82.5% of the weight (binding); increasing cobalt concentrations allows for a lower rate of loss and increased stability. In the third stage at 723 K, ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 completely hydrolyzed and converted to Zn1-xCoxO carbon coating. The XRD pattern of different compositions of ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 confirmed that all samples have a single cubic phase of ZIF-8 (space group I−43m) without any additional peaks from other crystalline phases. After annealing all samples, the phase completely transformed from ZIF-8 to ZnO coated by carbon. However, the annealing of 50Zn50Co ZIF-8 led to transformation of two phases of ZnO and Co3O4 with ratios of 52.3 and 476, respectively. Otherwise, the annealing of 0Zn100Co ZIF-8 transformed to a single cubic phase of Co3O4 with space group F-43m and lattice parameters a = 8.08 Å. The thermal decomposition of MOF materials was studied through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to obtain the exothermic maximum temperature during the overall reaction (Tp). The apparent activation energy (E) and kinetic parameter were calculated using the Kissinger method. The different molar ratios of ZnxCo1-x- also created vacancies of oxygen that act as traps for electrons. These defects influence H2O and O2 surface adsorption on ZnxCo1-x-ZIF-8 and promote H2O dissociation and hydroxyl group formation. This mechanism accelerates the process of degradation of organic pollutants. All these experimental results may be useful guidelines for the synthesis of some photocatalytic devices based on irradiated titanium dioxide.

Author Contributions

Data curation, A.A. and A.F.A.-H.; Formal analysis, M.A.; Funding acquisition, Y.M.A.-H.; Investigation, M.A., E.R.S. and A.F.A.-H.; Methodology, Y.M.A.-H., A.T.K. and A.F.A.-H.; Project administration, A.A., E.R.S. and A.F.A.-H.; Resources, M.A. and A.T.K.; Software, M.A. and E.R.S.; Supervision, A.A.; Writing—original draft, E.R.S.; Writing—review & editing, A.T.K. and A.F.A.-H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia grant number IFPRC–100–130–2020. The APC was funded by Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

“The authors extend their appreciation to the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for funding this research work through the project number IFPRC–100–130–2020” and King Abdulaziz University, DSR, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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