Vitamin D and Calcium Status in South African Adolescents with Alcohol Use Disorders
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods and Materials
2.1. Study Population and Participants
2.2. Measures
2.3. Procedures
2.4. Ethics
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socio-Demographic and Substance Use Characteristics
non-AUD(n = 81) | AUD (n = 81) | U/χ2 | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
M (SD) or % | M (SD) or % | |||
Socio-demographics | ||||
Age | 14.76 (0.78) | 14.92 (0.74) | −1.19 | 0.235 |
Education level a | 7.79 (0.85) | 7.85 (0.74) | −0.43 | 0.666 |
% Male | 42 | 42 | <0.01 | 1.000 |
% Female | 58 | 58 | ||
% Afrikaans-speaking | 69 | 69 | <0.01 | 1.000 |
% English-speaking | 31 | 31 | ||
% Mixed ancestry | 97.6 | 97.6 | 0.497 | |
% White | 1.2 | 0 | ||
% Black | 1.2 | 0 | ||
Total Socio-economic status score b | 28.19 (5.80) | 24.85 (5.93) | 1.34 | 0.179 |
Alcohol Use | ||||
% Never consumed alcohol | 41 | 0 | ||
% Never intoxicated | 93 | 0 | ||
% Light drinker (Life dose < 100 standard drinks) c | 59 | 0 | ||
% Alcohol abuse d | 2.5 | |||
% Alcohol dependence e | 97.5 | |||
% Weekends-only drinking style in most recent drinking phase f | 95% | |||
Drinking onset age (years) in participants that have drunk alcohol | 12.25 (1.66) | 12.04 (1.70) | 0.57 | 0.567 |
Alcohol lifetime dose g | 5.77 (12.46) | 1493.69 (1511.53) | −11.04 | <0.001 |
Age of first intoxication | 12.83 (1.15) | |||
Age of onset of regular drinking | 12.91 (1.11) | |||
Regular drinking duration (months) | 23.78 (15.91) | |||
Regular drinking frequency (days/month) in most recent drinking phase | 5.01 (2.87) | |||
Regular drinking quantity/month (standard drinks) h | 65.78 (57.96) | |||
Tobacco Use | ||||
% Never smoked tobacco | 59 | 17 | <0.001 | |
% Light smokers (lifetime < 100 cigarettes) | 35 | 31 | ||
% Regular smokers (lifetime > 100 cigarettes) | 6 | 52 | ||
Smoking onset age (years) in light smokers | 12.53 (1.62) | 12.44 (1.96) | −0.19 | 0.846 |
Smoking onset age (years) in regular smokers | 13 (0.71) | 12.36 (1.46) | 0.96 | 0.339 |
Lifetime tobacco dose of all smokers i | 86.42 (442.80) | 1417.59 (2762.60) | −7.02 | <0.001 |
3.2. Biochemical Vitamin D Status
3.3. Vitamin D and Calcium Intake
Group | Males | Females | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
non-AUD | AUD | non-AUD | AUD | non-AUD | AUD | |
Biochemistry | Median (IQR) | |||||
s-25(OH)D (ng/mL) | 25.7 * | 22.0 * | 26.1 | 20.0 | 25.2 | 22.4 |
(18.7–31.1) | (18.2–25.9) | (18.7–31.3) | (15.8–25.7) | (18.2–30.6) | (19.0–25.9) | |
Categories of vitamin D status | Percentage n | |||||
Vitamin D sufficiency | 29.6 ** | 11.2 ** | 32.3 | 11.8 | 27.7 | 10.9 |
s-25(OH)D: ≥30 ng/mL | 24 | 9 | 11 | 4 | 13 | 5 |
Vitamin D insufficiency | 28.4 ** | 40.0 ** | 26.5 | 50.0 | 29.8 | 32.6 |
s-25(OH)D: 20 to 29.9 ng/mL | 23 | 32 | 9 | 17 | 14 | 15 |
Vitamin D deficiency | 42.0 ** | 48.8 ** | 41.2 | 38.2 | 42.5 | 56.5 |
s-25(OH)D: <20 ng/mL | 34 | 39 | 14 | 13 | 20 | 26 |
Group | Males | Females | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
non-AUD | AUD | non-AUD | AUD | non-AUD | AUD | |
Median (IQR) | ||||||
Total Energy a | 8965 * | 11,028 * | 9461 | 11,684 | 8342 | 10,481 |
(kJ) | (7240–10,661) | (9072–13,014) | (8010–10,835) | (10,181–13,521) | (7003–9944) | (8847–11,726) |
Calcium | 450.1 * | 460.0 * | 525.4 | 508.9 | 438.1 | 415.9 |
(mg) | (347.8–614.1) | (334.1–627.1) | (391.1–651.4) | (442.8–722.0) | (318.4–564.8) | (330.7–534.1) |
Vitamin D | 99.2 | 120.1 | 123.3 | 134.9 | 83.6 | 112.9 |
(IU) | (64.6–160.1) | (83.6–193.6) | (95.2–180.5) | (86.5–216.3) | (60.3–131.3) | (83.1–163.4) |
EARs 14–18 years | non-AUD (n = 80) | AUD (n = 80) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Males | Females | Prevalence below EAR (%) | Prevalence below EAR (%) | |
Calcium (mg) | 1100 | 1100 | 100 | 100 |
Vitamin D (IU) | 400 | 400 | 100 | 100 |
non-AUD Group (n = 80) | AUD Group (n = 80) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | Foods | Calcium (mg/day) a | Rank | Calcium (mg/day) a | |
1 | Milk, full fat | 143 | 1 | Milk, full fat | 121 |
2 | Bread, white | 50 | 2 | Bread, white | 63 |
3 | Cheese, cheddar | 47 | 3 | Cheese, cheddar | 50 |
4 | Snack, savoury, wheat, maize crisps | 21 | 4 | Snack, savoury, wheat, maize crisps | 27 |
5 | Macaroni cheese | 12 | 5 | Custard (whole milk, custard powder) | 19 |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
- World Health Organization (WHO), Nutrition in Adolescence: Issues and Challenges for the Health Sector (Issues in Adolescent Health and Development); WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2005.
- Cashman, K.D. Vitamin D in childhood and adolescence. Postgrad. Med. J. 2007, 83, 230–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mughal, M.Z.; Khadilkar, A.V. The accrual of bone mass during childhood and puberty. Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 2011, 18, 28–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weaver, C.M. Adolescence: The period of dramatic bone growth. Endocrine 2002, 17, 43–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weaver, C.M.; Heaney, R.P. Calcium. In Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 10th; Shils, M.E., Shike, M., Ross, A.C., Caballero, B., Cousins, R.J., Eds.; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2006; pp. 194–210. [Google Scholar]
- Cashman, K.D.; FitzGerald, A.P.; Viljakainen, H.T.; Jakobsen, J.; Michaelsen, K.F.; Lamberg-Allardt, C.; Molgaard, C. Estimation of the dietary requirement for vitamin D in healthy adolescent white girls. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 93, 549–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pettifor, J.M. Rickets and vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescents. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am. 2005, 34, 537–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heaney, R.P.; Dowell, M.S.; Hale, C.A.; Bendich, A. Calcium absorption varies within the reference range for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2003, 22, 142–146. [Google Scholar]
- Holick, M.F. Vitamin D deficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007, 357, 266–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dusso, A.S.; Brown, A.J.; Slatopolsky, E. Vitamin D. Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol. 2005, 289, F8–F28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gibson, R.S. Assessment of the Status of Vitamins A, D, and E. In Principes of Nutritional Assessment, 2nd; Gibson, R.S., Ed.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2005; pp. 477–528. [Google Scholar]
- Harel, Z. Bone metabolism during adolescence: The known, the unknown, and the controversial. Adolesc. Med. State Art Rev. 2008, 19, 573–591. [Google Scholar]
- Lips, P. Vitamin D deficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism in the elderly: Consequences for bone loss and fractures and therapeutic implications. Endocr. Rev. 2001, 22, 477–501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lips, P. Worldwide status of vitamin D nutrition. J. Steroid Biochem. 2010, 121, 297–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gordon, C.M.; DePeter, K.C.; Feldman, H.A.; Grace, E.; Emans, S.J. Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among healthy adolescents. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2004, 158, 531–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lapatsanis, D.; Moulas, A.; Cholevas, V.; Soukakos, P.; Papadopoulou, Z.L.; Challa, A. Vitamin D: A necessity for children and adolescents in Greece. Calcif. Tissue Int. 2005, 77, 348–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Looker, A.C.; Dawson-Hughes, B.; Calvo, M.S.; Gunter, E.W.; Sahyoun, N.R. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of adolescents and adults in two seasonal subpopulations from NHANES III. Bone 2002, 30, 771–777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olmez, D.; Bober, E.; Buyukgebiz, A.; Cimrin, D. The frequency of vitamin D insufficiency in healthy female adolescents. Acta Paediatr. 2006, 95, 1266–1269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tylavsky, F.A.; Ryder, K.A.; Lyytikainen, A.; Cheng, S. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and bone mass in adolescents. J. Nutr. 2005, 135, 2735S–2738S. [Google Scholar]
- Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Harel, Z.; Riggs, S.; Vaz, R.; White, L.; Menzies, G. Adolescents and calcium: What they do and do not know and how much they consume. J. Adolesc. Health 1998, 22, 225–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Johnston, C.C., Jr.; Slemenda, C.W. Peak bone mass, bone loss and risk of fracture. Osteoporos Int. 1994, 4, 43–45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neville, C.E.; Robson, P.J.; Murray, L.J.; Strain, J.J.; Twisk, J.; Gallagher, A.M.; McGuinness, M.; Cran, G.W.; Ralston, S.H.; Boreham, C.A. The effect of nutrient intake on bone mineral status in young adults: The Northern Ireland young hearts project. Calcif. Tissue Int. 2002, 70, 89–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wezeman, F.H.; Emanuele, M.A.; Moskal, S.F.; Steiner, J.; Lapaglia, N. Alendronate administration and skeletal response during chronic alcohol intake in the adolescent male rat. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2000, 15, 2033–2041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gonzalez-Reimers, E.; Perez-Ramirez, A.; Santolaria-Fernandez, F.; Rodriguez-Rodriguez, E.; Martinez-Riera, A.; Duran-Castellon Mdel, C.; Aleman-Valls, M.R.; Gaspar, M.R. Association of Harris lines and shorter stature with ethanol consumption during growth. Alcoholic 2007, 41, 511–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turner, R.T. Skeletal response to alcohol. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2000, 24, 1693–1701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wezeman, F.H.; Juknelis, D.; Himes, R.; Callaci, J.J. Vitamin D and ibandronate prevent cancellous bone loss associated with binge alcohol treatment in male rats. Bone 2007, 41, 639–645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maurel, D.B.; Boisseau, N.; Benhamou, C.L.; Jaffre, C. Alcohol and bone: Review of dose effects and mechanisms. Osteoporos Int. 2012, 23, 1–16. [Google Scholar]
- Flisher, A.J.; Parry, C.D.; Evans, J.; Muller, M.; Lombard, C. Substance use by adolescents in Cape Town: Prevalence and correlates. J. Adolesc. Health 2003, 32, 58–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parry, C.D.H.; Myers, B.; Morojele, N.K.; Flisher, A.J.; Bhana, A.; Donson, H.; Pluddemann, A. Trends in adolescent alcohol and other drug use: Findings from three sentinel sites in South Africa (1997–2001). J. Adolesc. 2004, 27, 429–440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reddy, S.P.; James, S.; Sewpaul, R.; Koopmam, F.; Funani, N.I.; Sifunda, S.; Josie, J.; Masuka, P.; Kambaran, N.S.; Omardien, R.G. Umthente Uhlaba Usamila—The South African Youth Risk Behaviour Survey 2008; South African Medical Research Council: Cape Town, South Africa, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Reddy, S.P.; Panday, S.; Swart, D.; Jinabhai, C.C.; Amosun, S.L.; James, S.; Monyeki, K.D.; Stevens, G.; Morejele, N.; Kambaran, N.S.; et al. Umthenthe Uhlaba Usamila—The South African Youth Risk Behaviour Survey 2002; South African Medical Research Council: Cape Town, South Africa, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Kaufman, J.; Birmaher, B.; Brent, D.; Rao, U.; Ryan, N. The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Aged Children (6–18 years) Lifetime Version. Available online: http:\\www.wpic.pitt.edu\ksads (accessed on 25 March 2008).
- Bucholz, K.K.; Cadoret, R.; Cloninger, C.R.; Dinwiddie, S.H.; Hesselbrock, V.M.; Nurnberger, J.I., Jr.; Reich, T.; Schmidt, I.; Schuckit, M.A. A new, semi-structured psychiatric interview for use in genetic linkage studies: A report on the reliability of the SSAGA. J. Stud. Alcohol. 1994, 55, 149–158. [Google Scholar]
- American Psychiatric Association (APA), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Revision; APA: Washington, DC, USA, 1994.
- Larson, N.I.; Story, M.; Perry, C.L.; Neumark-Sztainer, D.; Hannan, P.J. Are diet and physical activity patterns related to cigarette smoking in adolescents? Findings from Project EAT. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2007, 4, A51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sobell, L.C.; Sobell, M.C. Timeline Followback: A Technique for Assessing Self-Reported Alcohol Consumption. In Measuring Alcohol Consumption: Psychosocial and Biochemical Methods; Raye, Z., Litten, J.P.A., Eds.; Human Press Inc.: Totowa, NJ, USA, 1992. [Google Scholar]
- Wagner, C.L.; Greer, F.R. Prevention of rickets and vitamin D deficiency in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics 2008, 122, 1142–1152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Holick, M.F.; Chen, T.C. Vitamin D deficiency: A worldwide problem with health consequences. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 1080S–1086S. [Google Scholar]
- Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Poopedi, M.A.; Norris, S.A.; Pettifor, J.M. Factors influencing the vitamin D status of 10-year-old urban South African children. Public Health Nutr. 2011, 14, 334–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chapuy, M.C.; Schott, A.M.; Garnero, P.; Hans, D.; Delmas, P.D.; Meunier, P.J. Healthy elderly French women living at home have secondary hyperparathyroidism and high bone turnover in winter. EPIDOS Study Group. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1996, 81, 1129–1133. [Google Scholar]
- Holick, M.F.; Siris, E.S.; Binkley, N.; Beard, M.K.; Khan, A.; Katzer, J.T.; Petruschke, R.A.; Chen, E.; de Papp, A.E. Prevalence of Vitamin D inadequacy among postmenopausal North American women receiving osteoporosis therapy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005, 90, 3215–3224. [Google Scholar]
- Thomas, M.K.; Lloyd-Jones, D.M.; Thadhani, R.I.; Shaw, A.C.; Deraska, D.J.; Kitch, B.T.; Vamvakas, E.C.; Dick, I.M.; Prince, R.L.; Finkelstein, J.S. Hypovitaminosis D in medical inpatients. N. Engl. J. Med. 1998, 338, 777–783. [Google Scholar]
- Holick, M.F. Vitamin D: A D-Lightful health perspective. Nutr. Rev. 2008, 66, S182–S194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Holick, M.F. Vitamin D status: Measurement, interpretation, and clinical application. Ann. Epidemiol. 2009, 19, 73–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gibson, R.S. Introduction. In Principles of Nutritional Assessment, 2nd; Gibson, R.S., Ed.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2005; pp. 1–26. [Google Scholar]
- Gibson, R.S. Reproducibility in Dietary Assessment. In Principles of Nutritional Assessment, 2nd; Gibson, R.S., Ed.; Oxford University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2005; pp. 129–148. [Google Scholar]
- Biro, G.; Hulshof, K.F.; Ovesen, L.; Amorim Cruz, J.A. Selection of methodology to assess food intake. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 56, S25–S32. [Google Scholar]
- Rankin, D.; Hanekom, S.M.; Wright, H.H.; MacIntryre, U.E. Dietary assessment methodology for adolescents: A review of reproducibility and validation studies. S. Afr. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 23, 65–74. [Google Scholar]
- Medical Research Council (MRC), Foodfinder III: Dietary Analysis Software; South African Medical Research Council: Cape Town, South Africa, 2002.
- Wolmarans, P.; Danster, N.; Dalton, A.; Rossouw, K.; Schonfeldt, H. Condensed Food Composition Tables for South Africa; South African Medical Research Council: Cape Town, South Africa, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Steyn, N.P.; Senekal, M. Dietary Assessment and Education Kit (DAEK); South African Medical Research Council: Cape Town, South Africa, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Langenhoven, M.L.; Conradie, P.J.; Wolmarans, P.; Faber, M. MRC Food Quantities Manual; South African Medical Research Council: Cape Town, South Africa, 1991. [Google Scholar]
- Statacorp LP. Stata/IC Version 11.1 for Windows; Statacorp LP: College Station, TX, USA, 2009.
- Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, Dietary Reference Intakes: Applications in Dietary Assessment; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2000.
- Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes: Applications in Dietary Planning; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- National Research Council (NRC), Nutrient Adequacy. Assessment Using Food Consumption Surveys; National Academies Press: Washinton, DC, USA, 1986.
- Beaton, G.H. Criteria of an Adequate Diet. In Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 8th; Shils, M.E., Shike, M., Catharine, A.R., Caballero, B., Cousins, R.J., Eds.; Lea and Febiger: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1994; pp. 1491–1505. [Google Scholar]
- Malik, P.; Gasser, R.W.; Kemmler, G.; Moncayo, R.; Finkenstedt, G.; Kurz, M.; Fleischhacker, W.W. Low bone mineral density and impaired bone metabolism in young alcoholic patients without liver cirrhosis: A cross-sectional study. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2009, 33, 375–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alvisa-Negrin, J.; Gonzalez-Reimers, E.; Santolaria-Fernandez, F.; Garcia-Valdecasas-Campelo, E.; Valls, M.R.; Pelazas-Gonzalez, R.; Duran-Castellon, M.C.; de Los Angeles Gomez-Rodriguez, M. Osteopenia in alcoholics: Effect of alcohol abstinence. Alcohol Alcohol. 2009, 44, 468–475. [Google Scholar]
- Schnitzler, C.M.; Mesquita, J.M.; Shires, R. Cortical and trabecular bone microarchitecture and turnover in alcohol-induced chronic pancreatitis: A histomorphometric study. J. Bone Miner. Metab. 2010, 28, 456–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shankar, K.; Liu, X.; Singhal, R.; Chen, J.R.; Nagarajan, S.; Badger, T.M.; Ronis, M.J. Chronic ethanol consumption leads to disruption of vitamin D3 homeostasis associated with induction of renal 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3-24-hydroxylase (CYP24A1). Endocrinology 2008, 149, 1748–1756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cornish, D.A.; Maluleke, V.; Mhlanga, T. An investigation into a possible relationship between vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, calcium and magnesium in a normally pigmented and an albino rural black population in the Northern Province of South Africa. Biofactors 2000, 11, 35–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pettifor, J.M.; Moodley, G.P.; Hough, F.S.; Koch, H.; Chen, T.; Lu, Z.; Holick, M.F. The effect of season and latitude on in vitro vitamin D formation by sunlight in South Africa. S. Afr. Med. J. 1996, 86, 1270–1272. [Google Scholar]
- Moshfegh, A.; Goldman, J.; Ahuja, J.; Rhodes, D.; LaComb, R. What We Eat in America. NHANES 2005–2006: Usual Nutrient Intakes from Food and Water Compared to 1997 Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D, Calcium, Phosphrus and Magnesium; United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service: Washington DC, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Department of Health, Directorate: Nutrition. South African Guidelines for Healthy Eating for Adults and Children over the Age of Seven Years; Department of Health: Pretoria, South Africa, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Matkovic, V.; Fontana, D.; Tominac, C.; Goel, P.; Chesnut, C.H., III. Factors that influence peak bone mass formation: A study of calcium balance and the inheritance of bone mass in adolescent females. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1990, 52, 878–888. [Google Scholar]
- Holick, M.F. Vitamin D and bone health. J. Nutr. 1996, 126, 1159S–1164S. [Google Scholar]
- Sibonga, J.D.; Iwaniec, U.T.; Shogren, K.L.; Rosen, C.J.; Turner, R.T. Effects of parathyroid hormone (1–34) on tibia in an adult rat model for chronic alcohol abuse. Bone 2007, 40, 1013–1020. [Google Scholar]
- Santori, C.; Ceccanti, M.; Diacinti, D.; Attilia, M.L.; Toppo, L.; D’Erasmo, E.; Romagnoli, E.; Mascia, M.L.; Cipriani, C.; Prastaro, A.; et al. Skeletal turnover, bone mineral density, and fractures in male chronic abusers of alcohol. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 2008, 31, 321–326. [Google Scholar]
- Lieber, C.S. ALCOHOL: Its metabolism and interaction with nutrients. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2000, 20, 395–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sampson, H.W. Alcohol, osteoporosis, and bone regulating hormones. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 1997, 21, 400–403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krawitt, E.L.; Sampson, H.W.; Katagiri, C.A. Effect of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol on ethanol mediated suppression of calcium absorption. Calcif. Tissue Res. 1975, 18, 119–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Korkor, A.B.; Eastwood, D.; Bretzmann, C. Effects of gender, alcohol, smoking, and dairy consumption on bone mass in wisconsin adolescents. WMJ 2009, 108, 181–189. [Google Scholar]
- Callaci, J.J.; Juknelis, D.; Patwardhan, A.; Wezeman, F.H. Binge alcohol treatment increases vertebral bone loss following ovariectomy: Compensation by intermittent parathyroid hormone. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2006, 30, 665–672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lauing, K.; Himes, R.; Rachwalski, M.; Strotman, P.; Callaci, J.J. Binge alcohol treatment of adolescent rats followed by alcohol abstinence is associated with site-specific differences in bone loss and incomplete recovery of bone mass and strength. Alcoholic 2008, 42, 649–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Callaci, J.J.; Himes, R.; Lauing, K.; Roper, P. Long-term modulations in the vertebral transcriptome of adolescent-stage rats exposed to binge alcohol. Alcohol Alcohol. 2010, 45, 332–346. [Google Scholar]
- McCarty, C.A.; Ebel, B.E.; Garrison, M.M.; DiGiuseppe, D.L.; Christakis, D.A.; Rivara, F.P. Continuity of binge and harmful drinking from late adolescence to early adulthood. Pediatrics 2004, 114, 714–719. [Google Scholar]
© 2012 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Naude, C.E.; Carey, P.D.; Laubscher, R.; Fein, G.; Senekal, M. Vitamin D and Calcium Status in South African Adolescents with Alcohol Use Disorders. Nutrients 2012, 4, 1076-1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4081076
Naude CE, Carey PD, Laubscher R, Fein G, Senekal M. Vitamin D and Calcium Status in South African Adolescents with Alcohol Use Disorders. Nutrients. 2012; 4(8):1076-1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4081076
Chicago/Turabian StyleNaude, Celeste E., Paul D. Carey, Ria Laubscher, George Fein, and Marjanne Senekal. 2012. "Vitamin D and Calcium Status in South African Adolescents with Alcohol Use Disorders" Nutrients 4, no. 8: 1076-1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4081076
APA StyleNaude, C. E., Carey, P. D., Laubscher, R., Fein, G., & Senekal, M. (2012). Vitamin D and Calcium Status in South African Adolescents with Alcohol Use Disorders. Nutrients, 4(8), 1076-1094. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu4081076