Hunger for Home Delivery: Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Nutritional Quality of Complete Menus on an Online Food Delivery Platform in Australia

Online food delivery (OFD) platforms have changed how consumers purchase food prepared outside of home by capitalising on convenience and smartphone technology. Independent food outlets encompass a substantial proportion of partnering outlets, but their offerings’ nutritional quality is understudied. Little is also known as to how OFD platforms influence consumer choice. This study evaluated the nutritional quality and marketing attributes of offerings from independent takeaway outlets available on Sydney’s market-leading OFD platform (UberEats®). Complete menus and marketing attributes from 202 popular outlets were collected using web scraping. All 13841 menu items were classified into 38 food and beverage categories based on the Australian Dietary Guidelines. Of complete menus, 80.5% (11,139/13,841) were discretionary and 42.3% (5849/13,841) were discretionary cereal-based mixed meals, the largest of the 38 categories. Discretionary menu items were more likely to be categorised as most popular (OR: 2.5, 95% CI 1.9–3.2), accompanied by an image (OR: 1.3, 95% CI 1.2–1.5) and offered as a value bundle (OR: 6.5, 95% CI 4.8–8.9). Two of the three discretionary food categories were more expensive than their healthier Five Food Group counterparts (p < 0.02). The ubiquity of discretionary choices offered by independent takeaways and the marketing attributes employed by OFD platforms has implications for public health policy. Further research on the contribution of discretionary choices and marketing attributes to nutritional intakes is warranted.

. Food Categories and their definitions with inclusions and exclusions. Dairy and alternatives Definition: Dairy and alternatives food group. Includes: milk within dishes (e.g. milk on cereal), yoghurt, cheese and/or their alternatives Breads and Cereals Definition: Grain (cereal) food group, mostly wholegrain and or high cereal fibre varieties. Includes: all breads and cereals (with or without fruit, nuts and seeds), pasta, noodles, roti, bread rolls, flat breads, oatmeal (porridge), crumpets Excludes: Breakfast cereals categorised as discretionary (> 15g sugar per 100g) Fruit Definition: All fresh fruit, diced, canned fruit, stewed and dried. Includes: oranges, mandarins and grapefruit, apricots, cherries, peaches, nectarines, plums, bananas, paw paw, mangoes, pineapple, melons, berries, grapes, passionfruit, apples, pears, watermelon, banana, coconut and guava Excludes: fruit juice, which are coded under beverages Vegetables Definition: Vegetables food group -these can be fresh, frozen and canned vegetables. Includes: green leafy or raw salad vegetables, sweet corn, potato or starchy vegetables, tomato, celery, sprouts, zucchini, squash, capsicum, eggplant, cucumber, okra, pumpkin, green peas, green beans, potato, cassava, sweet potato, taro, carrots, beetroot, onions, shallots, garlic, bamboo shoots, swede, turnip, broccoli, brussels sprouts, bok choy, cabbages, cauliflower, kale, lettuce, silverbeet, spinach and snow peas Excludes: legumes Vegetables (Other) Definition: All other food items that are consumed like vegetables however botanically not a vegetable. Includes: avocados, olives (of any variety), mushrooms, tomatoes, wakame (seaweed salad), chilli Meat and Alternatives Definition: Meat and alternatives food group. Includes: Red meats such as beef, lamb, veal, pork, goat or kangaroo. Poultry such as chicken or turkey. Fish and seafood such as prawns, crab, lobster, mussels, oysters, scallops, clams. Eggs,tofu, Quorn etc. Excludes: legumes, processed meats Nuts and Seeds (incl. pastes) Definition: Any nuts (or not botanically nuts e.g. Peanuts that are consumed like nuts) or seeds. These can be non-processed, roasted, peeled, salted or made into pastes. Includes: Nuts such as almonds, pine nuts, walnut, macadamia, hazelnut, cashew, peanut, brazil nuts. Seeds such as pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds. Nut/Seed Pastes such as almond/peanut butter or tahini. Excludes: Legume based dips Legumes Definition: Most legumes Includes: All cooked, baked/roasted, dried or canned beans such as: red kidney beans, soybeans, lima beans, cannellini beans, chickpeas, lentils, split peas Legume based dips e.g. Hummus Excludes: Soy based products e.g. Tofu that are classified under meat alternatives as sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between real and imitation meat Peanuts as these are consumed more like nuts than legumes Confectionery Definition: Sweet discretionary products that are usually higher in sugar and/or fat. Includes: Lollies, chocolate, roll-ups, nougat, fruit leather, sesame snaps, peanut brittle, chocolate coated fruit/nuts/seeds, chocolate hazelnut spreads, chocolate sauces Bars Definition: Product usually made from grains, whey protein, nuts and/or fruit. These can be packaged, homemade or made outside the home and purchased by the consumer. Includes: Muesli bars, nut bars, protein bars/balls/biscuits/slices Baked Goods/Desserts (homemade or similar) Definition: These foods are usually made from flour. These may be made in an oven, microwave or on the benchtop and may have a confectionary style covering e.g. Frosting or chocolate. These are usually homemade or made outside the home by a bakery, café or dessert outlet and purchased by the consumer. Includes: cookies, cakes, cake-type desserts, muffins, slices, sweet pies, scones, crumbles, iced buns, pancakes or crepes with/without toppings, waffles, soufflé, croissant, fruit crumbles, pastries Excludes: bread Examples: churros, baklava, gulab jamun, kanafeh, nutella pizzas Discretionary snack food (Savoury) -Packaged Definition: Packaged savoury snack foods that cannot be classified into other categories that are higher in one or more of the following: salt, sat fat, energy or added sugar. Examples: potato chips, flavoured crisps and crackers, prawn crackers, popcorn, corn chips, pork crackling, pretzels, grain chips, cheese spread, rice crackers Discretionary snack food (Sweet) -Packaged Definition: Packaged sweet snack foods that cannot be classified into other categories that are higher in one or more of the following: salt, sat fat, energy or added sugar. Definition: Mixed meals where cereal or cereal products are the major ingredients AND discretionary and/or processed meats are not an ingredient which is not clearly visible. Examples: pasta, pizza, burgers, sandwiches, sushi, wraps, filled rolls, fried rice, fried noodles, ravioli, dumplings, pilaf, burrito, taco, congee (non-plain), steamed buns with fillings, nachos, risotto, gnocchi, fajitas Pasta with tomato sauce, pizzas with core ingredients (no cheese) e.g. Meat Mannoush/ lahmacun, lahmajoun, lahme aiajine (multiple spellings). Noodle soups (pho, some chinese noodle soups). Burrito bowls with moderate amount of sauce. Chicken and Vegetable Sandwiches/ wraps with sauce (unless excessive amounts of sauce). Cereal-based mixed meal (Discretionary) Definition: Meals where cereal or cereal products are the major ingredients, however are discretionary themselves i.e. Are higher in fat and saturated fat, sodium and sugar or contain visible discretionary products e.g. Bacon. Examples: deep fried foods, take away pizza and burgers with processed meats, sushi with tempura (fried) filling, meat pies, quiche, sausage rolls, pizzas with >5g saturated fat/100g. Burgers with discretionary meats, brioche bun or mayo. Cream based/ rose sauce pasta, lasagne. Char Kway Teow, Japanese Ramen, other soy-sauce based noodle soups. Cereal-based mixed meal (not further defined) Definition: Meals where cereal or cereal products are the major ingredients and the proportion of five food group and discretionary cannot be easily discerned.
Meat or alternative based mixed meal (five food groups) Definition: Meals where meat and alternatives are the major constituent AND discretionary and processed meats are not an ingredient which is clearly visible. Examples: omelette, frittata, scrambled eggs, curry, stew, casserole, meatloaf, meat balls, rissoles, patties, crustless pies. Shish Kebab/ Souvlaki (using cubes of meat) Meat + rice dishes (if not obvious what the serving is). Stirfry (if not obvious amount of sauce) Meat or alternative based mixed meal (Discretionary) Definition: Meat or meat-based products are the major ingredients, however are discretionary themselves i.e. Are higher in fat and saturated fat, sodium and sugar or contain visible discretionary products e.g. Bacon. Examples: battered or crumbed fish and seafood, schnitzel, untrimmed meats (e.g. chicken wings) Kebabs (Minced -kofta, kafta, seekh kebabs, adana (minced lamb) or shaved meat -Shawarma). Coconut based sauce/soup/curry, satay sauce, paneer curries (containing creamy base e.g. using buttermilk or ghee), other cream-based curries, laksa, seafood salad with sauce bifteki (Greek rissoles) Meat or alternative based mixed meal (not further defined) Definition: Meat or meat-based products are the major ingredients and the proportion of five food group and discretionary cannot be easily discerned.

Fats/Oils
Definition: Any fat-based spreads and/or oil. Examples: Olive oil, canola, coconut oil, vegetable oil, sesame oil, butter or margarine Fried Potato (or similar) Definition: Any fried or oil cooked potato products including sweet potato. Examples: hot chips (of any thickness, cut, size e.g. French fries, wedges, thick cut), hash browns, potato gems (or tatter tots). Vegetable-based mixed meal (five food groups) Definition: A meal in which vegetables are the major ingredients AND discretionary and processed meats are not an ingredient which is clearly visible. Examples: salads with modest amount of dressings, vegetable-based curries, stews, or casseroles, vegetable patties, stir fries with or without meat/alternatives, dhal Vegetable-based mixed meals (Discretionary) Definition: A meal in which vegetables are the major ingredient, however are discretionary themselves i.e. Are higher in fat and saturated fat, sodium and sugar or contain visible discretionary products e.g. bacon Examples: tempura vegetables, deep fried vegetable patties or croquettes, Caesar salad, falafel, creamy potato bakes, coleslaw Vegetable-based mixed meal (not further defined) Definition: A meal in which vegetables are the major ingredients and the proportion of five food group and discretionary cannot be easily discerned.

Soups
Definition: All broths, blended and chunky soups based from meat, fish, poultry or vegetables, containing a variety of ingredients. Excludes noodle soups (e.g. Ramen, pho) Special dietary foods Definition: All other special dietary foods. Includes: oral nutritional supplements (non-beverages only) e.g. puddings, jellies Excludes: protein bars and supplemental vitamins (e.g. multivitamins, chewable Vitamin C and sish oil) Prescription Medication and related Definition: All prescription medication and tablets (e.g. multivitamins).

Sugar and Related Products
Definition: Any form of sweetener which can be added to foods. Examples: honey, sugar (caster, cane, white, raw, powdered, etc.) syrups, nutritive and non-nutritive artificial sweeteners, jam. Savoury Sauces, Condiments and Spreads Definition: Any savoury sauce, condiment and non-fat spread. Examples: tomato sauce, chutney, salad dressings, mayonnaise, vinegar, (non legume) dips and yeast spreads Undetermined Coder is not 100% certain of the food item/product. Includes: All tea types (black, white, green, fruit tea) with minimal or no milk/sugar/honey at any temperature (hot/iced/warm). Excludes: chain milk tea varieties e.g. pearl milk tea as these are high in sugar due to syrup used and will be considered a discretionary milk-based beverage or sugar sweetened beverages if no added milk Coffee Includes: All coffee types with minimal or no milk/sugar at any temperature (hot/iced/warm). Excludes: coffee flavoured milk Examples: macchiato, short black, Espresso, Greek Frappe Water Includes: All water types (sparkling, mineral, still, tap, filtered) and may contain added ingredients (e.g. lemon wedge, mint, dash of apple cider vinegar) that do not significantly alter the nutritional composition. Excludes: tonic water Example: Acqua panna (mineral water) Juice Includes: All fruit and vegetable juices, may be fresh, store purchased, cartooned with added or no added sugars. Includes coconut water (or juice) Excludes: juices with any additional components e.g. milk