Vertical Farming: A Smart Solution for Ornamental Plant Production—A Review

Abstract

Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) has become a key driver of vertical farming (VF), offering innovative solutions for the sustainable production of ornamental plants in urban environments with limited arable land. This review examines recent advances in VF technologies and their applications in foliage and flowering ornamental plant production. The literature indicates that precise environmental control, including optimized LED lighting spectra, hydroponic and aeroponic nutrient delivery, and automated climate regulation, can significantly enhance plant growth, morphological characteristics, color intensity, and overall market quality of ornamental species. In addition, VF systems demonstrate substantial reductions in water consumption, pesticide use, and land requirements compared with conventional cultivation methods. However, several challenges remain, including high-energy demand, economic feasibility, and the need for crop-specific environmental optimization for different ornamental species. This review synthesizes current research on VF systems, highlights the integration of emerging technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and data-driven management tools, and evaluates their potential to improve production efficiency and sustainability in ornamental horticulture. Overall, vertical farming represents a promising approach for high-quality ornamental plant production, although further research is required to optimize energy efficiency and cultivation protocols for diverse ornamental crops.

1. Introduction

Over the past several decades, rapid population growth, urbanization, and the reduction in arable land have collectively placed increasing pressure on global agricultural systems. As fertile land continues to diminish due to industrial expansion, soil degradation, and desertification, the agricultural sector faces mounting difficulty in meeting rising food and plant production demands. Water scarcity further intensifies this challenge, as traditional open-field farming remains heavily dependent on large quantities of freshwater. Likewise, there are increasing threats from accelerating climate change and the associated abiotic pressures, which can be harmful to agricultural and horticultural crops [1,2,3]. These global constraints highlight the urgent need for alternative, highly productive, and resource-efficient cultivation techniques capable of supporting future food security and plant diversity [4].

In this context, the limitations of conventional agricultural systems are becoming more apparent. Traditional farming is exposed to unpredictable climatic events, pests, and the long-term impacts of climate change, all of which restrict agricultural productivity. Also, traditional agriculture relies on extensive horizontal land surfaces to sustain productivity [5]. As a result, researchers and practitioners have increasingly turned toward innovative farming models that offer greater environmental sustainability, resilience, and efficiency. Among these alternatives, vertical farming has emerged as one of the most promising solutions. Vertical farming is a subset of controlled environment agriculture (CEA) that provides resistance to weather unpredictability and severe weather occurrences, such as droughts, floods, and temperature extremes, which are becoming more common as a result of climate change [6]. Vertical farming introduces a controlled and structured cultivation environment capable of producing plants year-round, independent of external weather or environmental conditions. This approach not only reduces the land footprint required for cultivation but also minimizes water usage, pesticide application, and nutrient loss, making it a compelling strategy for future food and plant production systems [7]. An agricultural system known as a “vertical farm” grows crops in layers that are stacked vertically and are frequently incorporated into controlled spaces like buildings, warehouses, or greenhouses. To maximize plant growth, this approach uses soilless methods such as hydroponics, aeroponics, or aquaponics and depends on automation, artificial lighting, and climate control. Vertical farming is a sustainable solution for urban areas and areas with limited arable land because it maximizes space efficiency, minimizes water use, and permits year-round production [8,9,10,11].

Vertical farming extends beyond food crops to ornamental plants, a high-value sector in floriculture, landscape design, and urban horticulture. Global conservation efforts, combined with increasing consumer interest in indoor and outdoor ornamental plants, have led to a significant expansion in the number and diversity of ornamental species cultivated worldwide [9]. Ornamental plants—including flowering species, foliage ornamentals, and decorative herbs—are valued for their aesthetic appeal, contribution to indoor environments, and support of urban biodiversity. Vertical farming enables the precise control of light, temperature, humidity, and nutrients, enhancing plant quality, coloration, morphology, and uniformity. While many VF technologies were initially tested on food crops, principles such as optimized lighting, automated monitoring, and controlled nutrient delivery are directly applicable to ornamental plant production.

The technological evolution within vertical farming systems has further accelerated progress in the ornamental plant sector. Modern vertical farming infrastructures increasingly rely on advanced monitoring and automation technologies that enable growers to optimize plant growth with unprecedented accuracy. Artificial Intelligence (AI), for example, plays a crucial role in analyzing plant responses, predicting growth patterns, and managing environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, CO₂ concentration, and light spectrum. Internet of Things (IoT) devices provide continuous, real-time data streams that facilitate precise cultivation decisions, while robotics and autonomous systems support labor-intensive tasks, including planting, harvesting, and intra-facility transport [12]. Together, these technologies create a highly controlled, data-driven cultivation ecosystem capable of maximizing productivity and resource efficiency.

Due to rising population, diminishing natural resources, and diminishing agricultural land, vertical farming is becoming an essential need for agriculture [13]. The technology has also shown promise for boosting yields [14,15] and ensuring year-round production [16], such as the production of saffron bulbs [17], tomato [18], cucumber [19], bell pepper [20,21], and strawberry [22,23], which are crops of high economic and commercial interest worldwide; enhancing natural compounds [24]; and even strengthening plant defenses against pests and diseases by activating genes or proteins produced by artificial light within the VF [25].

In ornamental horticulture, technological advancements have a particularly profound impact. Automated nutrient delivery, precision lighting systems tailored to enhance color and flowering, and climate-responsive irrigation technologies all contribute to improved plant quality and higher yields. Vertical ornamental cultivation demonstrates that integrating robotics, IoT, and AI can significantly increase efficiency across industrial floriculture, urban greening projects, home gardening markets, and the beautification of public spaces [26,27,28]. This integration not only elevates production capacity but also aligns with broader sustainability objectives by reducing energy consumption, minimizing waste, and promoting environmentally responsible farming practices.

Given the growing economic, technological, and ecological importance of ornamental plant production, it is essential to evaluate the role of vertical farming systems in shaping the future of this industry. Consequently, this review examines advancements in vertical farming technologies, explores their applications within ornamental plants cultivated primarily for their aesthetic, decorative, or landscape value, including foliage ornamentals, flowering plants, indoor decorative species, and plants used in urban greening systems. While certain examples from food or general horticultural crops are occasionally referenced, these are included solely to illustrate foundational vertical farming principles that are equally relevant to ornamental production and to identify emerging opportunities and challenges in this rapidly evolving field. By analyzing these developments, the review aims to highlight how smart, controlled-environment systems can contribute to the future sustainability, growth, and diversification of ornamental horticulture. The main vertical farming advantages are based on increased plant output over a smaller cultivation area. The main differences between vertical farming and traditional planting systems are summarized in

Table 1. Comparison between vertical farming system and traditional planting system.

Item	Vertical Farming System	Traditional Planting System	Ref.
1-Space Usage	This design is ideal for urban settings with limited land, as it maximizes vertical space.	Requires a large horizontal land area, making it unsuitable for urban locations with limited space.	[29]
2-Effective Production	Controlled environments and intense manufacturing procedures lead to high yields per unit area.	Yields vary according to soil quality, weather, and farming practices, and may be lower per unit area than VFS.	[30]
3-Resource Utilization	With optimized water and nutrient delivery systems, it is possible to use extremely few resources.	Less precise distribution methods could result in increased water and nutrient waste.	[31]
4-Costs of Operation	Can vary depending on energy usage, labor, and technological maintenance.	Lower operational costs, yet labor-intensive, dependent on farm scale and mechanization.	[32]
5-Climate Isolation	Because of the regulated environment, crops are less affected by the outside climate.	Crops are directly dependent on external climate conditions, rendering them susceptible to weather extremes and seasonal fluctuations.	[33]
6-Initial Investment	Relatively high costs because of sophisticated infrastructure and technology requirements.	The initial expenditure is lower because the infrastructure and equipment are simpler.	[34]
7-Crop Suitability	Ideal for leafy greens, herbs, and tiny fruits.	Useful for an extensive list of crops, notably root vegetables, grains, and orchard fruits that may not be viable in VFS.	[34]

.

Types of vertical farms:

1. 

Hydroponics

Hydroponics literally means “working with water” and refers to a cultivation technique that does not require soil for plant growth. Instead, plants are grown in nutrient-enriched water solutions [35,36] that supply all essential mineral elements directly to the root system. In this system, plant roots have continuous access to water, nutrients, and oxygen, which enhances nutrient uptake efficiency and supports optimal plant development [37]. As shown in (Figure 1) hydroponics is the growing of plants in nutrient-enriched water, with or without the mechanical support of an inert medium such as sand or gravel [38] and represents an advanced agricultural approach that enhances water- and space-use efficiency compared with conventional soil-based systems by enabling precise control over nutrient and water delivery, thereby reducing water wastage and increasing plant productivity [39].

Recent research has demonstrated that hydroponic systems can greatly enhance the vegetative development and bloom quality of decorative plants. For instance, hydroponically grown chrysanthemum and gerbera showed better biomass buildup, consistent development, and greater flower size as a result of careful nutrient management and regulated root-zone conditions when compared to soil-grown plants [40].

Hydroponic vertical farming offers several advantages over traditional agricultural practices, including efficient water use, elimination of soil requirements [41], and a significant reduction in transportation costs due to localized urban production [42]. These advantages make hydroponic VF particularly suitable for densely populated areas. Moreover, integrating hydroponics with advanced technologies, including automation, sensors, and data-driven management systems, further enhances resource-use efficiency and productivity, reinforcing its potential as a sustainable and resilient agricultural system for future food security [43].

Figure 2 illustrates the main structural configurations of hydroponic systems used in vertical farming (VF) [44], all designed to maximize space use and production efficiency. A common design is the stacked horizontal system, comprising multiple tiers of horizontal growing surfaces [45]. These systems can be implemented in glasshouses (Figure 2a), sometimes with level-rotation mechanisms to enhance light distribution [46], or within fully controlled environment (CE) facilities (Figure 2b), enabling precise regulation of environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, and light intensity [47]. Another configuration is the multi-floor tower system (Figure 2c), where each floor functions as an independent growing unit, improving operational flexibility and reducing disease spread. Balcony-based systems (Figure 2d) represent a decentralized VF approach suitable for residential buildings [48]. In addition, vertical growing structures such as green walls (Figure 2e) and cylindrical growth units (Figure 2f) further enhance space efficiency and adaptability to urban environments [49]. Green façades represent an effective and readily applicable approach for achieving short-term improvements in urban air quality through the integration of vegetation into building surfaces [50,51,52]. However, more advanced vertical greening technologies have emerged to enhance both the functional efficiency and plant productivity, and reduce environmental impact [53,54]. Among these systems, Active Living Walls (ALWs) constitute engineered vertical hydroponic cultivation systems designed to maximize plant growth within limited urban spaces [55]. Unlike conventional passive green façades, ALWs incorporate automated irrigation and nutrient delivery mechanisms that enable the cultivation of diverse plant species, including edible crops, directly on building walls. Consequently, these systems contribute not only to improved indoor and outdoor air quality but also to enhanced thermal insulation of buildings and increased urban biodiversity [56,57,58]. Notably, hydroponic systems have also been recognized by NASA as a viable solution for food production in space and were successfully implemented in space programs (NASA, 2021) [59,60].

2. 

Aeroponics

Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in air or fog without using soil or synthetic media. Aeroponics represents a significant step forward in hydroponic technology. With no soil or medium and with a minimal amount of water and sunlight, the basic principle of aeroponics is growing hanging plants in a closed or semi-enclosed environment by spraying nutrients on the hanging roots and stems of plants [61,62], as shown in Figure 3. Aqueous solutions in a true aeroponic system are 100% absorbed by the growing plants, which means that nutrient uptake by plants, in terms of vitamins and minerals, can be demonstrably increased. Aeroponics is characterized by a high crop growth rate and 70% less water than hydroponics and uses 99% less water than traditional agriculture [63].

For decorative species that need a lot of oxygen in the root zone, aeroponic systems have proven to be especially beneficial. Aeroponics has been shown in studies to improve root architecture, expand root surface area, and increase the efficiency of nutrient absorption in decorative plants like orchids and anthurium. Improved root development frequently results in quicker vegetative growth and better-quality leaves and flowers [64].

3. 

Aquaponics

Aquaculture and hydroponics are combined in aquaponics to produce fish and plants where fish and plants are cultivated together in a constructed, recirculating ecosystem utilizing and converting fish wastewater to plant nutrition without discarding water or filtrate or adding chemical fertilizers [65]. Aquaponic, thus, utilizes 10% of the water amount used for traditional soil-based gardening [66,67]. Harsh urban or rural environments where land is scarce or of poor quality can benefit from these systems. This benefit is also available when using a hydroponic or recirculating aquaculture system. In regions facing nutrient accumulation problems, aquaponics offers a clear advantage over conventional agriculture by minimizing environmental discharge, promoting efficient nutrient recycling within the system, and reducing water use [68,69]. In most aquaponic systems, fish and plants take up 70% of the nutrients [68]. Figure 4 shows a schematic process of aquaponics.

Aquaponic systems minimize the use of manufactured fertilizers while supplying nutrient-rich effluents produced by fish culture that may sustain the development of decorative plants. Due to the balanced availability of nitrogen and micronutrients, several research suggests that aquaponic nutrient solutions can affect the flowering responses and leaf pigmentation of decorative plants [70].

4. 

Comparative performance of cultivation systems for ornamental plants

As shown in

Table 2. Comparison of vertical farming cultivation systems for ornamental plant production.

System	Key Characteristics	Effects on Ornamental Plants	Advantages	Limitations	Example Species
Hydroponics	Plants grown in nutrient solution without soil	Improved nutrient uptake, uniform growth, enhanced flower size	Precise nutrient control, high productivity	Risk of rapid disease spread in recirculating systems	Chrysanthemum, Gerbera
Aeroponics	Roots suspended in air and sprayed with nutrient mist	Enhanced root development, higher oxygen availability, faster growth	Efficient water use, improved root morphology	High initial cost, technical complexity	Orchid, Anthurium
Aquaponics	Integrated fish–plant system using nutrient-rich effluents	Improved vegetative growth and leaf coloration due to organic nutrients	Reduced fertilizer use, sustainable production	Nutrient composition may vary	Ornamental foliage plants

, each cultivation system offers distinct advantages for ornamental plant production, particularly in terms of nutrient management, root development, and sustainability, although technical and economic limitations still influence their commercial adoption.

1.1. How Does Vertical Farming Work?

There are four critical areas to understand how the vertical farming process works:

• Physical arrangement of the farm;
• Lighting;
• Growing mediums;
• Sustainability features.

First, the main goal of vertical farming is to produce more plants per square meter, so the plants are stacked vertically to grow [71]. Second, a perfect combination of natural and artificial light is used to maintain the perfect level of light in the space. Technologies such as rotating beds are used to improve lighting efficiency [72]. Third, instead of using soil, hydroponics (bathing plant roots in a nutrient bath) or aeroponics (spraying plant roots), or aquaponic growth media [73]. Peat, Zeolite shells, and similar non-soil media are widely used in vertical farming. In soilless culture, production systems are broadly classified as open or closed according to their nutrient and water management strategies (Figure 5). Open systems discharge excess nutrient solutions after irrigation, resulting in higher water and fertilizer consumption and an increased risk of environmental contamination. By contrast, closed systems collect, filter, adjust, and recirculate the drainage solution, thereby minimizing water and nutrient losses [74]. Consequently, closed soilless systems provide superior resource-use efficiency, reduce environmental impact, and enhance sustainability, making them particularly well-suited for vertical farming and controlled environment agriculture. Finally, the vertical farming method uses various sustainability characteristics to balance the energy costs of farming. Vertical farming uses 95% less water than traditional farming through a “closed irrigation system in soilless culture” [75] (Figure 5).

1.2. Plant Requirement

“With the right set-up, you can grow almost anything in a vertical farm. Just because you can, however, doesn’t mean that you should” [76]. This quote sums up the most difficult choice for commercial vertical farms, the choice of plant, as the economic viability of the crop varies greatly among all the techniques used to cultivate these crops in a vertical farm. Based on lack of demand, high production cost, climate (high heating, cooling, and light costs), and timing [77].

“Due to the high energy intensity of vertical farming, leafy plants have been applied mainly to growing as ornamentals. Leafy plants rapidly growing and highly profitable to offset energy costs” [78]. Cut-and-come-again leafy greens, microgreens, and many culinary herbs are examples of crops with compact growth, short cycles, high unit value, and frequent harvests that work best with racked, standardized systems and provide the turnover required to amortize capital expenditures and high fixed energy costs [79]. In contrast to edible crops, the economic worth of ornamental plants in vertical farming systems is mostly based on aesthetic qualities rather than biomass output, in contrast to food crops. Consequently, plant selection should give priority to qualities like uniform growth, compact structure, quick production cycles, and high sensitivity to artificial light. These characteristics allow for optimal use of vertical area while preserving a high aesthetic value in regulated environmental circumstances [80,81]:

• The habit of compact growth

Plants should maintain controlled height and limited lateral spread to fit within multi-layer vertical systems while preserving aesthetic symmetry. Leafy greens, microgreens, and herbs that require little structural support are excellent choices.

2.

Quick Development and Brief Production Cycle

Energy and labor costs per unit yield are decreased by rapid turnover. Lettuce and basil are examples of crops with short vegetative phases and rapid harvest cycles.

3.

High Ornamental Quality

Traits such as leaf coloration, flower size, uniformity, and overall plant symmetry are essential determinants of market value.

4.

Adaptability to Controlled Environment

Plants must tolerate high planting densities, artificial lighting (LED spectra), and controlled temperature and humidity. Species responsive to dynamic light regimes and elevated CO₂ are advantageous.

5.

Low Pollination and Support Requirements

Self-pollinating or vegetatively propagated crops reduce labor costs. Vining or fruiting crops requiring manual pollination (e.g., vanilla) are less suitable unless automation is integrated.

6.

Nutrient and Water Efficiency

Crops should thrive in hydroponic or aeroponic systems with minimal nutrient wastage. High water-use efficiency is critical for sustainability.

7.

Market Value and Shelf Life

High-value crops with strong consumer demand and extended postharvest life justify the energy-intensive production model. Leafy greens, herbs, and specialty crops dominate the current portfolio. Long vase life or durable foliage increases commercial value and reduces losses during distribution.

1.3. Plant Selection

Several interacting variables, such as plant morphology, physiological capacity to thrive in regulated environments, and market demand, determine which ornamental plant species are chosen for vertical farming. Multilayer growing systems are especially well-suited to species with compact growth habits, effective LED lighting responses, and indoor environmental tolerance [82].

1.4. Importance of Vertical Ornamental Cultivation

Vertical farming techniques were developed by farmers who wanted to solve farming problems related to land use, efficiency, food miles, and water availability. However, vertical ornamental cultivation shows that these strategies have great advantages for the commercial production of ornamental plants, industrial floriculture, and the beautification of houses and public spaces. More recently, this is in line with local and regional efforts to increase biodiversity, improve air quality, promote sustainability, and add green spaces to improve the physical and mental well-being of city dwellers.

Ornamental plants not only add to the aesthetics of the place but also help to make the space eco-friendly. VF could be beneficial for the ornamental sector as well as for the cultivation of other ornamental plants. VF trials for flower production were successful. An investigation by Philips researchers led to ideas for lighting recipes that could be used for a variety of annual and perennial ornamental plants [83]. Vertical farming could also one day play a role in the commercial cultivation of edible flowers. A Euro News report examined how researchers in Europe, in support of the floriculture industry, are studying different methods to expand the viability and uses of edible flowers [84]. One of the techniques they are exploring is the use of LED lights. If these efforts are successful, edible flowers may become an important part of vertical food-growing efforts in the future. These initiatives aim to increase the availability of locally produced food and limit the need to regularly store and ship large quantities of fresh produce over long distances. Edible flowers grown indoors, along with other locally grown ingredients, can be a way to add a unique flavor to dishes. In addition to using vertical growing techniques to grow edible and ornamental flowers and other plants commercially, these methods also have a place in beautification efforts. Whether at home or in public spaces, vertical ornamental plant cultivation is booming [85].

1.5. Suitable Ornamental Plant Species for Vertical Farms

Not all plants are well adapted to vertical farming. All the characteristics suitable for plant sustainability in vertical cultivation are found in some ornamental plants, especially ornamental foliage such as Canna (Canna indica), Artemisia (Artemisia vulgaris), Coleus (Plectranthus scutellarioides), Coral bells (Heuchera), Hosta, plectranthus (Plectranthus argentatus), and Dusty miller (Centaurea cineraria) [86]. Pothos (Epipremnum aureum) is hardy, a trailing plant ideal for vertical walls. Spider Plant (Chlorophytum comosum) has easy maintenance and air-purifying qualities. Ferns (Nephrolepis exaltata, Adiantum spp.) provide lush greenery and are suitable for humid conditions. Peace Lily (Spathiphyllum spp.) has elegant white flowers and tolerates low light. African Violet (Saintpaulia spp.) is a compact flowering plant for indoor setups. Begonia species have colorful foliage and flowers and are adaptable to controlled environments. Impatiens species are shade-loving and have vibrant blooms [87]. Lantana species show a strong adaptability to indoor vertical cultivation systems, even under low light intensity conditions, making them suitable for enhancing the aesthetic value of indoor urban environments and improving the quality of life [83]. Orchids, violets, lavender, and petunias can be easily grown in vertical farms. These plants play an imperative role in increasing green spaces within cities.

Foliage ornamental plants are among the most suitable crops for vertical farming systems due to their adaptability to controlled environments and their strong aesthetic responses to artificial lighting. For example, Coleus (Plectranthus scutellarioides) exhibits significant variation in leaf pigmentation under different LED spectra, making it an ideal species for indoor cultivation systems.

Flowering ornamental plants such as orchids and African violets have also been successfully cultivated under controlled environments. The precise control of photoperiod and temperature enables improved flowering uniformity and quality in these species.The advantages and challenges of using foliage and flowering ornamental plants in vertical farming are summarized in

Table 3. Ornamental plant species suitable for vertical farming.

Species	Type	Key Traits	Advantages of Vertical Farming	Challenges
Coleus	Foliage	Strong pigmentation	Color enhancement under LED	Light spectrum optimization
Pothos	Foliage	Trailing growth	Suitable for vertical walls	Slow growth rate
Ferns	Foliage	Shade tolerant	Adapt well to indoor systems	Humidity requirements
African violet	Flowering	Compact flowering plant	Ideal for small indoor systems	Sensitive to overwatering
Orchids	Flowering	High ornamental value	Controlled flowering	Long growth cycle

.

1.6. Required Controlling Elements for Advances in Ornamentals

Vertical farms use Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) technologies to grow high-value horticultural crops year-round. Generally, plants in a vertical farm need to have four basic factors controlled for proper growth.

1.7. LED Lighting

Light is a fundamental factor regulating plant growth because it affects photosynthesis, photorespiration, and photoperiodism. Vegetable crops cultivated in greenhouses typically require light intensities ranging from 50,000 to 70,000 lux, while natural light may reach 100,000 lux in summer and drop to about 3200 lux during winter days [88].

LED technology has more flexibility, in terms of applications as a supplemental or sole source of light, and demonstrates long lifetime, energy efficiency, and compactness, as well as low heat emission. Applying LED lighting technology grants growers several productive advantages, such as planned production (continuous production, early flowering, and predictable yield), and improved environment for plant cultivation (height and rooting). LED technology also represents a solid, sustainable option for reducing energy inputs (power energy) [89,90].

In ornamental plant production, to aid photosynthesis, LED lighting is essential for controlling photomorphogenesis. The commercial value of ornamental plants cultivated in vertical farming systems is heavily dependent on factors like flowering behavior, leaf pigmentation, and plant architecture, all of which may be directly affected by light spectra [91].

The color red light is often linked to encouraging flowering as well as the growth of stems, whereas blue light supports a more compact growth form for plants, boosts leaf thickness, and increases the accumulation of pigments. Additionally, far-red light wavelengths can further affect plant height and the structure of the canopy by controlling responses mediated by phytochromes [92].

The creation of “light recipes” that combine particular ratios of red, blue, and far-red wavelengths to control plant morphology and aesthetic appeal has been the subject of recent research. By enabling growers to manage plant height, enhance leaf color, and synchronize blooming, these customized spectral mixes increase the visual appeal and market value of decorative plants produced in indoor vertical farming systems.

1.8. Temperature

Temperature has an effect on the timing of crop growth events, such as seeding, flowering, fruiting, and maturation, for most plants [93,94]. The rate of progress for flowering can be accelerated by warmer temperatures until an optimal level is reached. Beyond this threshold temperature, the progress of flowering is delayed and ultimately halted completely at a ceiling temperature level [95]. The stresses are controlled and involve creating drought conditions, nitrogen levels, and lowered temperatures to simulate the conditions plants would experience in nature before they die. This stress helps improve the quality of the plant by forcing the last stages of fruiting [96].

1.9. Humidity

Humidity control in a CEA facility is directly related to the evapotranspiration rate of the plants [94,97]. The stomata are openings in the plant wall through which transpiration occurs. Stomata respond to changes in light, temperature, humidity, and CO₂ concentration. The amount of water being transpired is a factor of Vapor Pressure Deficit (VPD), leaf area, and surface characteristics, as well as the root–shoot ratio [98]. A plant with a large root system can collect more water to be transpired through the shoot. In most cases, plants with larger leaves transpire more than those with smaller leaves. Plants with thick cuticles can lower the rate of transpiration to increase the boundary layer between the stomata and the sensible heat of the moving air [99,100].

1.10. Nutrients

Efficient nutrient control is fundamental to vertical farming systems because plants are grown in soilless environments such as hydroponics, aeroponics, or aquaponics. Unlike traditional soil-based cultivation, all essential nutrients must be supplied through a precisely formulated solution to ensure optimal growth, yield, and quality [101]. Advanced vertical farms employ automated dosing systems integrated with sensors to adjust nutrient composition in real time. Dynamic control strategies optimize nutrient uptake based on plant developmental stage, light intensity, and CO₂ enrichment [79,102].

1.11. Technological Interventions in Vertical Farming

Recent advancements highlight the move toward dynamic, AI-controlled photoperiod management, where the best lighting schedules are determined by a combination of sensor-generated input, crop physiological responses, and real-time energy prices. Machine learning algorithms are currently used in modern systems to modify intensity, spectrum, and day length, lowering electricity use while preserving biomass accumulation. Recent high-impact studies that combine dynamic LED management, predictive modeling, and IoT-based monitoring have extensively illustrated these developments and increased the total energy-use efficiency of vertical farms [88,101,102].

Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) have significantly enhanced the efficiency of environmental control in vertical farming systems. Vertical farming is expected to become an integral part of smart cities, where the foundation of urban development relies on the use of data and advanced technology. This concept aligns closely with smart city systems, which collect real-time data, leverage artificial intelligence for its analysis, and integrate it seamlessly into the city’s infrastructure [103]. To utilize Internet of Things (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI), the databases will need to contain smart vertical farm information, information about each species of plants in general (e.g., info about Coleus “Plectranthus scutellarioides”), significant amounts of metadata, data related to plant growth methods, and the proposed model (Figure 6); the plant’s raw data will also need to be in a machine-readable format. In addition, power would be necessary to keep the system running. The system would also control fertilizer levels, ventilation fans, watering cycles, lighting cycles, and pH levels. For the present study, a model is proposed wherein a Raspberry Pi would be used to keep track of all the system’s operational data and make it accessible through a series of databases and web services [104,105,106]. A companion smart device (phone, tablet, or laptop) application would connect the Raspberry Pi to a smart vertical farm and would allow for the configuration and monitoring of the entire system from anywhere.

2. Sensor Technologies for Environmental Monitoring

2.1. Temperature Sensors

Temperature sensors are frequently set to 18–28 °C, depending on the crop type, to ensure optimal growth conditions in vertical farms by minimizing heat stress and maximizing photosynthetic efficiency. Digital sensors like DHT22, which are frequently utilized in IoT configurations for real-time monitoring in hydroponic and aeroponic systems, provide integrated temperature–humidity measurement with ±0.5 °C accuracy across the range of 0–50 °C. PT100 RTDs and DS18B20 are high-precision alternatives that enable accurate root-zone control between 20 and 25 °C, and integration with microcontrollers, like ESP32, can be established for automated ventilation. With these sensors, studies have found an 85% stability in temperature regulation, which corresponds to a 20–25% increase in output in multi-layer farms [105].

2.2. Humidity Sensors

Humidity sensors are essential for keeping the relative humidity in vertical farms between 60% and 80% in order to maximize transpiration and avoid fungal infections. In hydroponic towers, where integrated temperature–humidity monitoring minimizes the occurrence of mold by 30%, capacitive sensors like the SHT31 outperform resistive models in terms of ±2% relative humidity (RH) accuracy across the 0–100% range [106].

2.3. CO₂ Sensors

Under LED lighting, atmospheric levels are controlled between 800 and 1200 ppm by CO₂ sensors, which increases photosynthesis rates by 20 to 50%. NDIR-based sensors like the MH-Z19C and SCD41 have a ±50 ppm accuracy and a low drift with less than 2% annually, which allows for demand-controlled ventilation that lowers energy consumption by 15–25% in multi-layer systems [107].

2.4. pH and EC Sensors

pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) sensors ensure nutrient solution stability, with pH ranging 5.5–6.5 and EC ranging 1.2–2.5 mS/cm being critical for ion uptake in soilless media. Industrial-grade probes deliver ±0.02 pH/±2% EC precision, with automated dosing systems achieving 95% solution consistency and 18% yield gains [108].

2.5. Light Sensors

Light sensors for spectral optimization in thick canopies measure Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)/(Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD). Quantum sensors, such as the Apogee MQ-500 and BH1750 lux-to-PAR converters, provide ±5% precision between 400 and 700 nm, enabling dynamic LED tuning that boosts biomass by 25–40% using red/far-red ratios [109].

3. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Applications

3.1. Machine Learning Models

By analyzing data from several sensors for predictive and prescriptive analytics, machine learning models enable data-driven decision-making in vertical farming. Prioritizing factors like Daily Light Integral (DLI) and CO₂, ensemble approaches like Random Forest (RF) and XGBoost outperform linear regression in handling non-linear crop responses, yielding R² values above 0.90 in yield prediction and feature importance ranking. Time-series and imaging data are analyzed using deep learning architectures, such as Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Transformers, and Long Short-Term Memory networks (LSTMs), with patch-based Transformers achieving a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of less than 6 g/plant in long-term harvest forecasting using commercial datasets. These models integrate edge-cloud pipelines, allowing for a 20–30% reduction in resource usage by hyperparameter-tuning the fusion of spectral and environmental covariates [110].

3.2. Crop Growth Prediction

Time-series Machine learning (ML) models are used in crop growth prediction to predict biomass accumulation and harvest timing from sensor fusion data. By incorporating DLI, VPD, and nutrient trends, LSTM and Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) networks may simulate dynamic environmental interactions, resulting in a Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) of less than 10% for lettuce in hydroponic towers. Phenological stages may be predicted with 92% accuracy using hybrid RF-LSTM ensembles, which allows for proactive density modifications and a 15–25% increase in yield in multi-crop systems [110,111,112].

3.3. Disease Detection

Computer vision Deep Learning (DL) models use RGB/hyperspectral imaging to identify pathogens early in the course of illness. By analyzing canopy images in less than 50 milliseconds per frame, YOLOv8 and EfficientNet identify foliar symptoms such as downy mildew at 96% Mean Average Precision (mAP), surpassing conventional thresholding. By employing transfer learning from PlantVillage datasets, attention-based CNNs are able to identify nutrient deficits and pests, resulting in a 40% reduction in crop loss thanks to automated alerts in IoT-integrated farms [113].

3.4. Optimization of Lighting and Irrigation

Reinforcement learning (RL) and genetic algorithms are used for dynamic resource allocation in irrigation and lighting optimization. Photoperiods and LED spectra range 450–660 nm peaks are adjusted by multi-objective RL agents, such as Deep Q-Network (DQN) variants, which reduces energy use by 28% and increases PPFD efficiency to 2.8 mol/J. Using EC/pH trends, model predictive control (MPC), with XGBoost predictions of irrigation needs in aeroponic systems, results in a 35% reduction in water use and an 18% increase in growth cycles [114].

4. Automation and Smart Control Systems

4.1. Automated Irrigation

In vertical farming, automated irrigation systems use solenoid valves, peristaltic pumps, and fertigation units that react to real-time EC/pH feedback loops to guarantee accurate nutrient distribution in hydroponic and aeroponic environments. Demand-based dosing lowers water usage by 90% when compared to flood-drain cycles, while fuzzy logic algorithms and Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controllers keep solution stability EC 1.5–2.5 mS/cm. Through ML-driven evapotranspiration models, integration with IoT platforms allows for predictive scheduling, which results in consistent root-zone hydration and 22% greater nutrient absorption efficiency over stacked layers [115].

4.2. Lighting Control

Using spectral sensors and Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) dimmers, lighting control systems dynamically modify LED spectra, intensity, and photoperiods to maximize PPFD for the unique requirements of each crop. Quantum sensors provide feedback to dynamic algorithms that alter red:blue ratios, for example, 4:1 for vegetative development to produce 25–35% energy savings and 30% quicker maturation in lettuce and herbs. By integrating circadian modeling into closed-loop systems, photosynthetic efficiency can be maintained at >2.5 µmol/J while simultaneously lowering power consumption by 40% during low-DLI intervals [116].

4.3. Robotics

Automated seeding, transplanting, scouting, and harvesting in dense vertical arrays are all ways that robotics increases scalability. Computer vision is used by multi-arm manipulators such as redesigned FarmBot gantries and automated guided vehicles (AGVs) to precisely place the end effector, handling over 500 plants per hour in aeroponic towers with 98% accuracy. UV disinfection robots and soft grippers reduce mechanical damage below 2% and pathogen spread. They also integrate with artificial intelligence for adaptive path planning, which increases labor efficiency in commercial farms by 70% [117].

4.4. IoT Platforms

IoT platforms use protocols like MQTT and CoAP to coordinate sensor–actuator networks on edge devices such as ESP32 for low-latency control and cloud scalability. Open-source frameworks, like Node-RED and ThingsBoard, offer dashboards for monitoring many farms, and LoRaWAN supports wireless sensor meshes that, in high-rise configurations, reduce cabling expenses by 60%. In metropolitan deployments, edge-cloud hybrids provide 99.9% availability and can handle over 10,000 data points per minute, enabling federated learning for cross-farm optimization [118].

A web service connects with a database in both the Raspberry Pi and the app. This application has three main layouts as follows: (i) API and a user-friendly interface layout; (ii) Reports Layout; (iii) Support Layout for help. These layouts are presented in Figure 7. The web service makes it possible to automatically pull information for each plant from known plant research repositories and databases based on parameters [117]. Making well-informed and supportive judgments becomes easier when a control agent possesses the essential knowledge about the system [118].

4.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Vertical Farming

The advantages and disadvantages of Vertical Farming are summarized in

Table 4. Main advantages and disadvantages of Vertical Farming.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Crop Protection: Produces pesticide-free, organic food in a controlled environment. Predictable Yields: Year-round production unaffected by weather extremes or diseases. Reduced Transportation: Farms near urban areas lower transport costs and spoilage. Water Conservation: Uses 70–95% less water than traditional farming. Efficient Land Use: Requires up to 90% less soil, minimizing pests and soil-borne diseases. Climate Independence: Regulated environments protect crops from external climate variations.

Uncertain Economics: High initial costs; financial feasibility still evolving. Pollination Challenges: Lack of natural pollinators requires manual pollination, increasing labor. High Labor Costs: Manual processes make labor expenses significant. Technology Dependence: Relies on systems for lighting, temperature, and humidity; power outages can be costly.

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The global ornamental plant industry is vast and expanding worldwide. This growth is fueled by trends in home gardening, urban greening, and aesthetics. Key contributors to the sector include the Netherlands, Colombia, and the United States, which dominate production and export. Current reports are increasingly focused on sustainable practices, the development of new plant varieties, and the adoption of advanced technologies to meet the growing demand for diverse and eco-friendly plants and flowers [119,120,121,122,123]. Vertical farming presents a promising approach for cultivating ornamental plants. By utilizing stacked, controlled indoor environments, it allows for lush, space-saving displays that thrive year-round. This method also offers significant benefits, such as water conservation and reduced reliance on pesticides. With its innovative ideas, fresh perspectives, and technological advancements, vertical farming holds great promise for the future of ornamental plants. However, to secure the long-term functionality and economic sustainability of these systems, communities of practice must bridge current knowledge gaps and concentrate research efforts on key priorities [10]. Overall, a comprehensive framework diagram (Figure 8) shows the integration of technical modules, expected returns, cost constraints, risks, and research priorities.

5. Conclusions and Perspectives

Vertical farming represents a transformative approach to ornamental plant production, offering sustainable solutions to challenges posed by limited arable land, water scarcity, and urbanization. By integrating advanced technologies such as hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics with smart systems powered by IoT, AI, and robotics, vertical farms can achieve high yields in controlled environments while minimizing resource use. These systems enable year-round cultivation, reduce pesticide dependency, and support urban greening initiatives, contributing to improved air quality and enhanced aesthetics in living spaces. Despite its numerous advantages, vertical farming faces economic and technical constraints, including high energy demands, labor-intensive pollination, and reliance on sophisticated technologies. However, the applicability and performance of vertical farming systems vary substantially across different regions due to environmental, economic, and social constraints. Regional climate conditions can significantly influence the energy required for heating, cooling, and supplemental lighting, thereby affecting overall operational efficiency. Likewise, electricity prices, which differ widely between countries, directly impact production costs and determine the economic feasibility of adopting energy-intensive technologies such as artificial lighting and environmental control systems. Future perspectives and research should focus on optimizing energy efficiency, developing automated pollination systems, and identifying cost-effective strategies to enhance commercial viability. Additionally, exploring suitable ornamental species and refining LED lighting protocols will be critical for maximizing productivity and quality. Overall, vertical farming holds significant promise for the ornamental sector, aligning with global sustainability goals and urban biodiversity initiatives. Continued innovation and collaboration between researchers, technologists, and industry stakeholders will be essential to unlock its full potential and establish it as a mainstream horticultural practice.