Common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Mill.) as a Support for Sustainable Agriculture

Abstract

Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Mill.) is a pseudocereal that has recently gained increasing interest among both farmers and scientists. Its low soil requirements, high adaptability, and high resistance to diseases and pests allow it to be cultivated in many regions of the world. It is recommended for various cultivation systems, especially for low-input and organic farming. Currently, buckwheat is grown mainly for seeds and less often for green fodder. Thanks to its above-average nutritional value and many benefits that support human health, it is considered one of the leaders in functional food. It can be a basic raw material for many food products such as flour, groats, and flakes, but can also be used as a valuable addition to crisps, bars and drinks. Recently, buckwheat’s usefulness in the energy industry, construction, medicine, and pharmacology has been confirmed. Buckwheat, as a plant species distinct from the dominant global crops, fits very well into the current standards and assumptions of sustainable development. Its cultivation and consumption are associated with a number of benefits not only for human health but also for the whole environment. It is considered a species that counteracts climate change. Buckwheat’s valuable properties include its positive impact on soil physicochemical properties, its enhancement of biodiversity, and its support for pollinators. It is considered a species that can be cultivated in a changing climate, generating a very low carbon footprint. The aim of this study was to determine the contemporary economic importance of buckwheat, its place among species supporting sustainable development, and to identify potential research areas that will contribute to strengthening buckwheat’s role in sustainable agriculture.

1. Introduction

Modern agriculture faces a number of complex challenges. The most important is the need to feed a growing population while simultaneously caring for the natural environment [1,2]. In recent years, increasing evidence points to the significant contribution of agricultural production to climate change [3]. Many modern food systems pose a potential risk of land degradation and biodiversity loss. As a result, food security remains seriously threatened [2,4]. Global food security remains a key challenge in achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular Goal 2 (Zero Hnger), Goal 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and Goal 15 (Life on Land) [5,6]. Recently, there have been changes in the approach to the issue of plant cultivation. There is a growing trend toward sustainable, multifunctional cropping systems that integrate food production with ecosystem services that contribute to improved soil fertility [7]. It is inappropriate to rely solely on traditional staple crops such as wheat, rice, or corn. There is a need to seek alternative crops that are resilient to climate change and could contribute to food security [8]. An increasing number of supporters are finding solutions based on the cultivation of less popular species, such as pseudocereals [9], i.e., plants not belonging to the grass species that produce seeds similar in chemical composition to true cereals. The most popular among them are quinoa, buckwheat, and amaranth. Due to their properties, they align well with the concept of sustainable development [8].

Current agricultural development schemes emphasize that agriculture should—and is able to—simultaneously pursue several goals, such as the production of healthy food and the provision of a number of ecosystem services [10,11]. They underline the need for crop diversification, proper crop rotation and the introduction of species that contribute to improving soil fertility, or protecting pollinators [12,13,14].

Global research confirms that crop diversification is a key element of sustainable agricultural management. Appropriate plant species selection enhances biodiversity and can be an alternative to reducing intensive fertilization and regulating pest and disease populations [15,16,17].

In the face of many dangerous phenomena such as, manifested by increasingly longer and more severe droughts, storms, and excessive moisture, crop diversification is gaining more importance, along with the growing role of creative plant breeding [18,19]. To overcome these limitations and ensure food security, in-depth evaluation of lesser-known species and the development of new, climate-friendly crop varieties are necessary [20,21]. One way to counteract these threats is to reintroduce less popular but known plant species into cultivation, including pseudocereals [15,18,22,23].

Buckwheat is a pseudocereal belonging to the Polygonaceae family and the Fagopyrum genus [24]. Of the 26 buckwheat species, only two are cultivated—common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) and tataricum (Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.) [25]. This is primarily due to the high tolerance of both species to diverse agroecological conditions [14,24]. The cultivation of this plant began in northern and southwestern China, dating back 7–8 thousand years ago. Over time, buckwheat cultivation spread widely throughout Eurasia [26]. Currently, the largest producers of buckwheat are Russia, China, France, Poland and Ukraine, with the popularity of this species also growing in North and South America [27,28].

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.) is primarily used as a pseudocereal for direct consumption. Its seeds are eaten whole or processed into flour and groats, which are then used in various food products. Furthermore, buckwheat inflorescences are highly valued in beekeeping, serving as an excellent source of nectar for honey production [29]. Its cultivation and consumption are associated with a number of benefits for both human health and the environment, which may contribute to the sustainable development of agriculture in the coming years. The interest in buckwheat research is constantly growing [13,30,31]. The proof of this is numerous experiments confirming the usefulness of buckwheat in the energy industry, also in medicine, pharmacology, and construction [5,32,33]. According to many authors, its potential is still not fully appreciated or properly utilised [4,34,35].

Recently, a considerable amount of information has emerged on the usefulness of buckwheat in sustainable agriculture and climate change. However, a comprehensive review of this topic has not been published. The aim of this study is to present the current state of research on common buckwheat—a valuable pseudocereal—including its cultivation options, with particular emphasis on research areas and trends in the use of this species in sustainable agriculture. The article also presents issues that may constitute the direction of future research on buckwheat.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was designed as a scoping review and conducted in accordance with the JBI methodological framework and PRISMA-ScR guidelines, as well as the methodology presented in Mackiewicz-Walec et al. [10] and Żarczyński et al. [11]. Data for the review were obtained by searching the following bibliometric databases: Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, MDPI, Google Scholar, Cambridge Journals, Taylor & Francis, Science Direct, Springer and AGRO. The following keywords were adopted: common buckwheat and buckwheat in combination with: sustainability, cultivation, fertilization, chemical composition, cover crops, food, feed, energy and erosion. The analyses were based on open access articles published in English. Duplicate papers were excluded. Conference proceedings, popular science articles, book chapters, non-peer-reviewed articles, short communications, editorial letters, notes, and conference proceedings were also excluded. 2645 articles were considered. The review covers scientific works from 2008–2026. Earlier publications where superseded by updated studies. This resulted in the collection and citation of 184 works (Figure 1). The collected articles were assigned to appropriate thematic groups, based on which individual chapters and subchapters were created.

3. Morphology

Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench, syn. Fagopyrum sagittatum Gilib.) is an annual plant that was most likely selected for cultivation from weeds occurring among other crops [36]. Currently cultivated buckwheat genotypes are characterized by high variability, which consequently leads to differences in phenotypic and morphological traits [37]. This is a key element in the development of creative breeding, and the varieties obtained so far allow for the effective counteraction of the problems resulting from climate change [19]. Buckwheat reaches a height of 70–140 cm (Figure 2).

It has a taproot, which, depending on the variety, climate and soil conditions, can extend from 1 to even 2 m into the soil profile. Such a developed root system makes buckwheat a highly competitive species in terms of nutrient and water uptake. The stem is branched, ranging in colour from green with anthocyanin to reddish-purple. The leaves are cordate-sagittate [37,38,39,40]. Buckwheat inflorescences form loose racemes or umbels composed of flowers with five, usually pale pink petals. A single plant can produce 500 to 2000 flowers, of which only 4–10% produce seeds. This is largely due to the floral dimorphism characteristic of this species. This characteristic involves the occurrence of two flower forms—some with stamens longer than the pistil, and others in which the pistil exceeds the stamens. This flower structure (heterostyly) hinders self-pollination, and pollination is only possible when pollen from long-stamen flowers lands on the stigma of long-pistil flowers and vice versa [31,41,42,43]. Furthermore, as Luthar et al. report [44], buckwheat flowering is uneven, which is a significant disadvantage of this species. This flower structure reflects the evolutionary process of maintaining balance within the Fagopyrum genus. Heterostyly in common buckwheat promotes the maintenance of genetic diversity, while homostyly in Tatarian buckwheat ensures reproductive success under abiotic stress conditions (Figure 3).

Advances in genomics, such as the identification of the FeS-ELF3 gene, now enable targeted breeding that combines the resistance of wild relatives with the high productivity of cultivated lines. Due to a thorough understanding of the individual stages of flower development, it is possible to fully utilise the potential of buckwheat in sustainable agriculture—both on fertile and marginal soils—which is in line with global initiatives for food security [6]. On the other hand, Luthar et al. [44] indicate that the mode of inheritance of most of the traits related to yield and synthesis of compounds with medicinal properties remains poorly understood and is one of the main problems in buckwheat breeding. Similarly, the mechanisms of the action of genes responsible for the synthesis of secondary metabolites of pharmaceutical and health-promoting importance are insufficiently investigated.

The buckwheat fruit is a triangular nutlet with pointed edges, usually greyish-brown in colour (Figure 4). This characteristic shape gives rise to the species’ name. The weight of one thousand nutlets, commonly called grains, ranges from 14 to 39 g [37]. Buckwheat has an indeterminate habit, for this reason its crop ripens unevenly, which is one of the significant drawbacks of this species. Although this problem—similar to the phenomenon of seed shedding—is of constant interest to breeders, it remains unresolved [44,45]. Buckwheat reaches 80% maturity after 73–95 days of vegetation [31,38].

4. Soil Requirements and Impact on Soil Properties

Buckwheat effectively protects soil against erosion [46] and also has a beneficial effect on numerous physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil [14,47]. According to Hudek et al. [40], the beneficial effect of cover crops (e.g., buckwheat, phacelia, or vetch) on the physical properties of soil are determined by appropriately developed features of the root system, such as root diameter and the distribution of their lateral branches, which are particularly advantageous in the case of buckwheat. On the other hand, Liszewski et al. [48] draw attention to the premature induction of root system aging and the associated reduced ability of roots to uptake mineral nutrients, which limits the utilization of the yield potential of this plant. Buckwheat cultivation increases organic carbon resources in the soil, improves the stability of moist aggregates, and reduces the bulk density of the soil [47]. The study conducted by Hudek et al. [40] also found that buckwheat cultivation provides greater stability of aggregates in the topsoil layer (0–15 cm) and increases microporosity at the interface with the compacted layer compared to the soil without vegetation. Furthermore, root diameter may correlate negatively with soil macroporosity, indicating that cover crops with fine root systems, such as buckwheat, promote the creation of porous space (up to 30 cm deep) to a greater extent than species with thicker taproots. According to Hudek et al. [40], the deep and fibrous root system of buckwheat contributes to improved soil structure and increases its porosity, which promotes better water and air infiltration. The presence of buckwheat in crop rotation has a positive effect on the composition and diversity of rhizosphere bacterial communities—both dominant and rare—as well as on soil chemical properties and soil enzyme activity [14]. Lalewicz et al. [47] also observed a positive correlation between increased soil organic carbon levels and increased bacterial and fungal colony counts. Buckwheat plant residues modified the microbiological activity of the soil and influenced the number and structure of the soil’s microorganism population. Its use as a catch crop intensified the activity of various microbiological processes (ammonification, nitrification and denitrification), and the stimulating effect on bacterial activity lasted longer in soils covered with buckwheat than with phacelia.

Buckwheat is valuable as an aftercrop, but somewhat less valuable than other commonly used cover crops, such as phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia) or common vetch. Buckwheat emerges quickly and establishes cover quickly, quickly combats erosion, helps suppress weeds, and captures relatively scarce phosphorus from the soil, potentially increasing phosphorus availability after uptake—a trait less pronounced in legumes. It also produces less total biomass than phacelia and does not fix atmospheric nitrogen, thus contributing minimal net nitrogen to the system compared to vetch, which, as a legume, enriches soil nitrogen pools through symbiotic fixation. Phacelia, on the other hand, not only often produces greater biomass—promoting stronger weed suppression and greater nutrient uptake (including nitrogen)—but also generates greater amounts of organic matter, which can further enhance soil structure and microbial activity [37,49]. Therefore, although buckwheat plays a useful role in short-season cover sequences, particularly for rapid soil cover and phosphorus cycling, it is recommended to use it in mixtures as a supplement rather than a direct substitute for high-biomass or nitrogen-fixing cover crops when the aim is to significantly improve soil fertility [50].

5. Agronomic Management—Cultivation Recommendations

Buckwheat is a plant with low agrotechnical requirements, often described as minimal [51,52]. It is recommended as a species that can be grown in various agricultural production systems—from low-input, organic to intensive, utilizing the full range of available production means [53]. Scientific articles report that the most appropriate approach is to use buckwheat in organic and extensive farming systems, which are based on sustainable resource management [53,54,55]. According to Karbivska et al. [56], buckwheat cultivation in an organic farming system may even generate higher profits compared to the production of true cereals or legumes. On the other hand, Kuczuk [57] states that buckwheat cultivation—both in conventional and organic technology—is profitable, however, from the perspective of the energy efficiency index, the profits are not high, as this index is 1.36 for conventional cultivation and 1.39 for organic cultivation, respectively.

The unquestionable advantage of buckwheat is its low soil and pre-crop requirements, resulting from its ability to uptake nutrients that are difficult for other plants to access, and thus to make better use of soil resources. In practice, it is usually grown on poorer soils, most often in areas after cereal crops [58]. According to Wang et al. [59], when grown in monoculture, it responds with a decrease in yield. Buckwheat grows well in difficult environmental conditions, demonstrating high resistance to pests and diseases. For this reason, this species is perfectly suited for organic farming [54].

In buckwheat agrotechnology, various soil preparation systems are used—from traditional ploughing to a depth of 15–20 cm [60,61] to simplified cultivation methods [5]. According to Myers [61], the advantage of traditional ploughing in buckwheat cultivation is more effective weed control. Simplified cultivation systems, in turn, according to the same author, reduce soil erosion and promote better soil moisture retention. When sowing buckwheat as the main crop, a plant density of 90–190 germinating seeds/m² is recommended, which corresponds to a sowing rate of approximately 40–100 kg of seeds/ha [62,63,64,65], at a depth of approximately 2–3 cm [66]. A larger stocking density is dedicated only to buckwheat intended as an aftercrop [67]. Excessive sowing density in the case of buckwheat leads to the development of plants with a weak plant habit, a smaller assimilation area, as well as the loss of the ability to effectively defend against weeds [68].

Buckwheat is characterized by low fertilization requirements [31], for this reason it is considered a species suitable for cultivation in circular economy systems [69]. However, as Ding et al. [6] report, the correct approach to fertilization of this plant is a key element in achieving maximum productivity in sustainable cropping systems. The optimal pH range that does not negatively affect buckwheat yield is considered to be 5.0–6.8. According to Boglaienko et al. [70], a pH higher than 8.3 may, however, lead to inhibition of plant growth. It is recommended to apply nutrients such as phosphorus and potassium before sowing at a rate of approximately 26 kg P/ha and approximately 50 kg K/ha [60]. As reported by Tang et al. [71], buckwheat responds with an increase in yield even to small doses of potassium (in the range of 15–30 kg/ha). Wan et al. [63] consider the optimal phosphorus fertilization to be a dose of P at the level of 75 kg/ha. According to Mäkelä et al. [72], it should also be remembered that buckwheat roots acidify the rhizosphere by secreting phosphatases, organic acids, and phenolic compounds during growth, which facilitates the dissolution of phosphorus bound in soil resources. Common buckwheat is described as an extensive plant, poorly responsive to nitrogen fertilization. However, research indicates that a good supply of nitrogen to this plant increases the intensity of photosynthesis, which in turn has a positive effect on the growth and development of plants and, consequently, on their yield. González-Villagra et al. [73] propose nitrogen fertilization at the level of 30–45 kg N/ha. Liszewski et al. [48] provide similar values, recommending a dose of 40 kg N/ha. Podolska [74] recommends a dose not exceeding 80 kg N/ha, preferably applied once—pre-sowing. In turn, according to Grabiński and Podolska [60], 20 kg N/ha should be used before sowing, and another 40 kg N/ha in the budding stage of buckwheat. Ciftci et al. [75] recommend nitrogen fertilization at levels of up to 90 kg N/ha in the harsh climate of Turkey. Buckwheat responds positively to fertilization with natural fertilizers, such as cattle or poultry manure. The introduction of this type of fertilizers leads to an increase in seed yield and improvement of their mineral composition [76]. Ozyazici and Turan [77] also report the beneficial effects of fertilizing buckwheat with vermicompost. In their opinion, good results are achieved by applying approximately 2.25 t/ha of this fertilizer to soils with a low organic matter content. Buckwheat is considered a plant with a high degree of resistance to weed infestation. This is facilitated by its rapid growth after germination and relatively early field cover, which effectively limits weed development [13,46]. Buckwheat’s allelopathic properties significantly contribute to weed control [13,78]. According to Vieites-Álvarez et al. [55], the effectiveness of allelopathic weed control is closely dependent on the flavonoid content in buckwheat roots, which, in turn, are correlated with the development of cultivated varieties. Due to this, the appropriate selection of varieties can be an effective tool in selective weed control, consistent with the principles of sustainable agriculture. According to researchers, this is an important direction of breeding progress. In turn, research by Vieites-Álvarez et al. [79] demonstrated that different buckwheat genotypes may exhibit varying capacities to produce and secrete specialized secondary metabolites (polyphenols), leading to a wide range of allelopathic and defensive functions in the agroecosystem. Dihydroxybenzoic acid, p-coumaric acid, luteolin, 4-hydroxyacetophenone, orientin, and vitexin play key roles. As a result of their presence, it is possible to sustainably reduce weed spread.

According to Falquet et al. [80], the allelopathic effect persists not only during the buckwheat vegetation period, but also after harvest, during the decomposition of crop residues, which additionally enhances the phytosanitary beneficial effect on the soil (Figure 5). In practice, various agrotechnical measures are used to limit the negative impact of weeds on buckwheat yield. An effective solution is sowing an aftercrop—winter rye—which can reduce weed infestation by over 90%. As a result, seed yield can increase by approximately 40% compared to a crop without an aftercrop [60]. According to the same authors, chemical weed control methods are more effective than mechanical and biological methods. In turn, according to Pelech and Onufriychuk [81], in order to effectively reduce weed infestation in buckwheat agrocenoses, early spring and pre-sowing cultivation should be performed, and then harrowing with a light harrow should be applied in the 1st–2nd leaf stage of the plants.

Additional advantage of buckwheat is the possibility of harvesting it using classic combine harvesters, which optimizes cultivation costs [82]. To achieve relatively low losses at the harvesting stage and maintain the possible highest quality of the raw material, Hussain et al. [83] recommend a threshing drum speed of approximately 600 rpm, a feed rate of 1.2 kg/s, and a threshing gap setting of approximately 9 mm.

Buckwheat yield and its biochemical composition are largely influenced by environmental conditions, soil, and climate [84]. According to literature data, the selection of an appropriate cultivar, adapted to habitat conditions, is becoming increasingly important in shaping the yield and chemical composition of this species [6,55]. According to Liszewski et al. [48], precipitation and the availability of pollinating insects have a very strong impact on yield. Unstable buckwheat yields (in years) are considered one of the main reasons for the lower interest in its cultivation compared to true cereals [32]. The distribution of buckwheat cultivation and popular varieties are presented in Figure 6.

The largest areas of buckwheat cultivation and production are located in the Russian Federation and China, accounting for approximately two-thirds of global production. Significant producers include Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Poland, Japan, and the United States. France, Lithuania, and Brazil are next, although their production scale is significantly smaller than the previously mentioned countries [90]. According to FAOSTAT data from 2023, world buckwheat production amounted to about 2.2 million tonnes, the cultivation area was 1.67 million ha, and the seed yield is estimated at 0.96–1.0 t/ha [91]. In Nepal, it averages 1.15 t/ha [31]. In the harsh climate of Turkey, with irrigation and nitrogen fertilization at 90 kg N/ha, a yield of 2.09 t/ha is obtained [89]. Significantly higher seed yields are recorded in Europe—2.43 t/ha [74] and 3.67 t/ha [48] with fertilization at 40 kg N/ha and copper application. Rotilli et al. [92] report that in Argentine conditions, in irrigated fields, the yield was 2.73 t/ha, while Guglielmini et al. [93] obtained a yield of 4.1 t/ha. Kwiatkowski [94] reports that under Poland’s climatic and soil conditions, it is possible to achieve a buckwheat seed yield of approximately 2.65 t/ha in an organic farming system. Buckwheat straw yield is typically approximately twice as high as seed yield [95]. Due to many characteristics, such as species distinctiveness and phytosanitary and allelopathic properties, buckwheat leaves a very good field for successor plants [46]. Sown as aftercrop (USA—Massachusetts) at 67 kg/ha, it can contribute 5.8 t/ha of dry matter (roots and shoots) to the soil within 60 days, while under identical conditions, oats produce 4.8 t/ha, and field pea only 2.0 t/ha [96]. Better results were obtained by Bilenky et al. [67], reaching 6.4 t/ha of dry matter; however, in their experiment, a higher sowing rate was used—123 kg of seeds/ha, which could have contributed to a higher biomass yield. The study by Lalewicz et al. [47], conducted under organic farming conditions, showed that buckwheat, in comparison to phacelia sown as an aftercrop, produces almost twice as much aboveground biomass—33.0 t FM/ha for buckwheat and 58.2 t FM/ha for phacelia, respectively. In this way, phacelia was able to retain as much as 161 kg N/ha in the soil, while buckwheat only 67 kg N/ha. Similar conclusions were drawn by Wilczewski and Szczepanek [49], who believe that buckwheat as an aftercrop is able to retain approximately 20.4 kg N/ha, 4.4 kg P/ha and 37.4 kg K/ha, while spring vetch accumulates 73.4 kg N/ha, 7.6 kg P/ha and 64.9 kg K/ha. Furthermore, Saadat et al. [96] proved that the release of nitrogen from buckwheat crop residues is slow, which may indicate potential nitrogen immobilization leading to its deficiency in subsequent crops. Lalewicz et al. [47] classify buckwheat as a species that significantly improves phosphorus availability in soil. Growing buckwheat as a catch crop significantly increases phosphorus (P) availability for subsequent crops after incorporating the biomass into the soil. Furthermore, according to the authors, biomass from buckwheat crop residues significantly contributes to soil enrichment, particularly in potassium (K), sulphur (S), and magnesium (Mg), as well as in micronutrients such as iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn). Moreover, buckwheat is more efficient at absorbing these nutrients than phacelia. According to Virili et al. [97] and Pokharel et al. [98], a very promising research direction is the use of buckwheat in intercropping, which can further increase nutrient use efficiency and support agroecosystem biodiversity. To date, intercropping with buckwheat has met with little interest, although literature data indicate positive results. The authors emphasize that intercropping systems are among the best-researched agricultural practices, enabling the simultaneous achievement of production benefits and a number of ecosystem services. Buckwheat shows great potential in this regard, particularly in the context of reducing weed infestation and preventing nutrient loss from the soil.

Given the diversity of production contexts discussed above,

Table 1. Common Buckwheat management across different cropping systems.

Common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Mill.)
ORGANIC SYSTEM	LOW-INPUT/SUSTAINABLE	CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM
No synthetic fertilizers	Moderate fertilization	Mineral fertilization
Mechanical weed control	Integrated weed control	Chemical protection possible
High biodiversity value	Balanced input-output	Yield-oriented management
Lower but stable yields	Yield stability	Higher yield potential
Soil regeneration	Resource efficiency	Economic optimization

summarizes the main agronomic management recommendations for buckwheat across organic, low-input/sustainable, and conventional systems. This overview highlights the crop’s adaptability to different levels of input intensity.

6. Buckwheat as a Food Source

The great interest in buckwheat is primarily due to its exceptional nutritional properties, wide processing possibilities and attractive, often described as unique, sensory characteristics [12,29]. Pseudocereals, such as common buckwheat, belong to a group of species that can support dietary biodiversity and, at the same time, constitute an important element of food security in the era of global climate change [99]. The range of food products containing buckwheat seeds is very wide. This is largely due to the unique amino acid profile of the seeds (Figure 7) [100,101].

This species is used in the production of groats, flour, flakes, bread, pasta, and confectionery [102]. It can also successfully replace barley in the production of beer, both malted and unmalted [103]. Common buckwheat is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry and herbal medicine in the form of teas, herbal preparations and dietary supplements [102]. The growing demand for nutraceuticals and gluten-free products generates the need to develop new products with high health-promoting values, and buckwheat is one of the most promising raw materials in this regard [104]. Due to its unique nutritional composition, it is a valuable raw material for creating value-added products such as cereal bars, crackers, crisps, and beverages. Incorporating buckwheat into food recipes improves the nutritional profile, sensory properties, and market appeal of the final products [105]. Another important property of buckwheat is the possibility to use it as an addition to meat products. A growing number of studies confirm that such supplementation is a promising strategy for increasing the yield, shelf-life stability and sensory attractiveness of products, e.g., meat cutlets, without compromising their technological properties [106]. The addition of buckwheat husk during bread production effectively improves its nutritional value and functional properties [107].

Due to the intensively flowering buckwheat plantations, valuable bee products are obtained, such as honey and bee pollen [95,108]. Due to its properties, buckwheat honey is considered one of the most valuable types of honey [109,110]. It is characterized by a dark colour and an intense, expressive taste [111]. Buckwheat honey has strong antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antihyaluronidase properties, as well as high antioxidant activity. It also contains higher amounts of polyphenols compared to honeydew, linden, or goldenrod honey [108,112]. Research by Kunat-Budzyńska et al. [113] confirm the antimicrobial properties of buckwheat honey, determined by the high content of phenolic acids. However, according to the authors, honeydew and phacelia honeys exhibit stronger antimicrobial activity, which results from the higher content of these compounds. Pollen obtained from buckwheat flowers is described as low in protein—its content is approximately 11%. For comparison, aloe pollen contains approximately 51% protein, while rapeseed and phacelia pollen contain approximately 27% [114]. As emphasized by Taha et al. [115], buckwheat pollen is characterized by a diverse amino acid composition, especially in the range of exogenous amino acids. It is relatively rich in glutamic acid, proline, aspartic acid, leucine, tryptophan, lysine, valine, alanine, and arginine, which increases its nutritional value.

7. Health-Promoting Properties and Bioactive Potential of Buckwheat

The greatest, undisputed advantage of buckwheat is its positive impact on human health. This originates from the species’ rich mineral and vitamin composition, which directly determines its biological properties. Recent review articles suggest that buckwheat may exert hypotensive, hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic, neuroprotective and antioxidant effects; however, much of the evidence derives from experimental and preclinical studies [108,116]. According to review data, buckwheat contains numerous bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, phytosterols and phenolic compounds, which are associated with various biological activities demonstrated mainly in experimental models [104]. Lițoiu et al. [52] describe the presence of numerous bioactive compounds in buckwheat, including flavonoids (rutin, quercetin), phenolic acids, and anthocyanins, which are attributed potential health-promoting properties. A comprehensive review of pseudocereals highlights potential antidiabetic and hypoglycemic effects of buckwheat-derived compounds, although clinical evidence remains limited [52,117]. However, it should be emphasized that most of the available evidence derives from experimental studies, and direct extrapolation of these findings to the human population requires caution as well as further well-designed clinical trials.

According to Mahata [95], consuming buckwheat seeds also has a beneficial effect on skin condition. Preclinical studies suggest that buckwheat-derived compounds may influence mechanisms associated with colorectal cancer prevention [108]. Furthermore, preclinical studies have shown that buckwheat extracts exhibit cytotoxic activity against human gastrointestinal cancer cell lines. Animals fed buckwheat were characterised by a lower degree of inflammation of the intestinal mucosa, higher diversity of the gastrointestinal alpha microbiome and higher concentration of short-chain fatty acids in the faeces [118].

Manganese, present in buckwheat, supports the maintenance of healthy bone structure by participating in the formation of enzymes necessary for bone formation and acting as a coenzyme supporting metabolism in the human body. It also participates in connective tissue synthesis, calcium absorption, and the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates. Magnesium, in turn, is important for bone and dental health—it participates in the transmission of nerve impulses, energy production, and facilitates calcium absorption, preventing the development of osteoporosis. Buckwheat plays an important role in maintaining a healthy skeletal structure [95].

Several review and nutritional studies suggest that buckwheat may be suitable for individuals with increased dietary requirements, including those following vegetarian diets; however, the strength of clinical evidence varies depending on the outcome assessed [119,120,121]. The composition of its fibrous polysaccharides plays a significant role in the health-promoting properties of buckwheat, which is similar to the composition of fruits and vegetables than to typical cereals. According to a review of dietary fiber polysaccharides, buckwheat polysaccharides exhibit antioxidant, anticancer and immunomodulatory activities, mainly demonstrated in experimental and in vitro models [122]. Buckwheat sprouts are a rich source of bioactive substances and nutrients, making them a promising raw material for the development of synbiotic formulations [123]. Functional substances present in buckwheat also contribute to lowering cholesterol levels, improving intestinal peristalsis and reducing the risk of obesity [104]. Nevertheless, much of the available evidence is derived from preclinical or dietary intervention studies, and further controlled clinical trials are required to confirm these effects in humans.

Buckwheat husks have been used in many therapeutic products, such as pillows, mattresses, seats, and more. This material is particularly recommended for the prevention of discopathy, back pain, and vasomotor disorders of the head. A significant advantage of buckwheat husks as a therapeutic material is their high resistance to colonization by fungi, bacteria, and pests, as well as their low flammability. Mattresses filled with buckwheat husks are characterized by a good fit to the body due to the wide range of density variations exhibited by the husks. At the same time, this material is characterized by high air permeability and a high ability to absorb water vapor and release it into the environment, which facilitates cleanliness [124].

8. Suitability for Livestock

8.1. Buckwheat as a Forage and Feed Crop: Opportunities and Limitations

The importance of buckwheat in livestock nutrition is significantly smaller than its potential for food production. The most frequently cited reason is the relatively low yield and unstable yield of this species compared to other crops [5]. The nutritional value of buckwheat as fodder depends on many factors, such as the plant development stage [125], climatic and soil conditions; furthermore, it does not always meet the criteria for high-quality fodder. Nevertheless, many authors emphasize that even the secondary metabolites of buckwheat may have beneficial properties in the nutrition and health of farm animals [126]. Despite some discrepancies in the assessment of their usefulness, both buckwheat seeds and green fodder or hay are successfully used as feed for various animal species, including poultry and swine [62]. Buckwheat contains flavonoids, including rutin, which may influence the antioxidant status of animals. Nutritional studies have shown that the addition of buckwheat to the diet of animals can improve antioxidant enzyme activity and the oxidative stability of animal products [127,128]. The chemical composition of buckwheat seeds and green fodder is given in

Table 2. Chemical composition of buckwheat—green fodder (budding phase) and seeds in DM.

Ingredient	Unit	Whole Plants- Budding Phase		Seeds
		Content	References	Content	References
Acid detergent fibre (ADF)		298.0–397.0	[88,111,125,129]	383.0	[111]
Neutral detergent fibre (NDF)		371.0–577.0	[88,111,125,129]	589.0	[111]
Digestible dry matter (DDM)		584.0	[111]	591.0	[111]
Total digestible nutrients (TDN)		539.4	[129]	-	-
Acid detergent lignin (ADL)		66.0–91.5	[111,125]	69.0	[111]
Crude fat (CF)		-	-	22.4–74.0	[35,121]
Total soluble sugars (TSS)	g/kg	69.0	[111]	101.0	[111]
Crude protein (CP)		132.0–226.0	[88,111,125,129]	93.9–146.2	[35,75,86,111,121]
Crude fiber (CF)		375.0	[111]	362.0	[111]
Cellulose		248.0–325.0	[111,125]	314.0	[111]
Hemicellulose		60.0–181.0	[111,125]	216.0	[111]
Crude ash (CA)		121.4	[125]	18.9–48.9	[30,75,130]
Total phenolic content (TPC)	mg GAE/g	-	-	2.1–15.33	[30,89]
Total flavonoids (TF)	mg RE/g	52.3–57.4 * 137.2–148.8 **	[131]	5.6–6.0	[131]
Total phenolic acid		-	-	2222–3891	[132]
Rutin		17.7–55.8 * 7.4–75.1 **	[131,133]	91.9–707	[29,132]
Ferulic acid	mg/kg	-	-	2.27–4.00	[132]
Coumaric acid		-	-	20.49–39.45	[132]
Syringic acid		-	-	72.0–85.6	[132]
Vanillic acid		-	-	240–378	[132]
Nitrogen (N)		30.6–30.8	[134]	18.9–19.2	[134]
Phosphorus (P)		5.0–6.6	[88]	2.70–4.63	[35,86,89,121]
Potassium (K)		27.8–30.0	[88]	3.50–7.17	[35,86,89,121,130]
Calcium (Ca)	g/kg	23.1–28.5	[88]	0.13–1.89	[35,86,89,121,130]
Magnesium (Mg)		11.7–14.1	[88]	1.54–3.90	[35,86,89,121,130]
Sulfur (S)		2.5–2.6	[88]	0.23–2.21	[35,89]
Sodium (Na)		0.03–0.05	[88]	700–3750	[35,86]
Copper (Cu)		8.87–9.00	[88]	5.34–11.39	[35,75,86,88,130]
Iron (Fe)		144.0–176.0	[88]	24.3–170.5	[35,75,86,89,121]
Zink (Zn)		33.6–38.9	[88]	8.0–42.2	[35,75,86,89,121]
Manganese (Mn)		32.9–36.5	[88]	9.2–32.4	[35,75,86,89,121]
Molybdenum (Mo)		-	-	0.17–2.33	[35,81]
Selenium		0.11–0.25 ***	[135]	0.11–0.23	[135]
Cobalt (Co)	mg/kg	-	-	0.02–0.08	[35,89]
Nickel (Ni)		-	-	1.09–4.24	[75,86]
Aluminum (Al)		102.0–114.0	[88]	-	-
Vanadium (V)		-	-	0.03–0.15	[35]
Chrome (Cr)		-	-	0.05–1.10	[35,86,130]
Lead (Pb)		-	-	0.19–0.51	[86,130]
Cadmium (Cd)		-	-	0.08	[130]
Digestible energy		9.87–11.54	[111,125]	11.88	[111]
Metabolizable energy	MJ/kg	8.09–9.51	[111,125]	9.62	[111]
Net energy for lactation		5.02–5.54	[111,125]	5.62	[111]
Biomethane potential	m3/kg	295.0–305.0	[111]	-	-

*—leaves; **—flowers; ***—steams.

.

Amelchanka et al. [136] report that buckwheat fed in the form of silage from whole plants or seeds alone can successfully replace feed made from corn. The authors did not observe any decrease in feed intake, milk yield or deterioration of milk parameters. Similar results were obtained by Florit et al. [137], who demonstrated that silage from aftercrops such as buckwheat can be an alternative to sorghum silage in the diets of dairy cows in the final phase of lactation. Similar observations were reported by Er and Keles [138] in their study of dairy goat nutrition. They confirmed that buckwheat hay and silage are well accepted by animals, and they recommend that the dry matter content during ensiling should be above 330 g/kg. The authors also noted that the nutritional value of hay may be higher than silage due to its lower fiber content and higher proportion of non-fibrous carbohydrates and fully digestible ingredients. Maxin et al. [139] emphasized that some species, including buckwheat, can be used simultaneously as an aftercrop and feed for ruminants. Researchers found that this plant has nutritional properties comparable to alfalfa, and additionally, its use in ruminant feed can lead to a significant reduction in ammonia and methane emissions compared to feeding based on clover, phacelia or vetch. The authors link this effect to the presence of phenolic compounds with anti-fermentative properties in buckwheat.

Despite its high nutritional value, buckwheat, like many other plant materials, contains a number of antinutritional factors that can limit the utilization of individual nutrients. These include tannins and protease inhibitors, which reduce protein digestibility, and phytates, which affect mineral availability. The presence of phytates results in limited availability of, among others, phosphorus, which is particularly important in the nutrition of monogastric animals [140]. Studies conducted on broilers have shown that sprouting and preparing the raw material by removing most of the husk can improve phosphorus utilization parameters and production performance, demonstrating that the nutritional value of buckwheat-based products depends largely on the processing methods used, which can reduce the content of certain antinutritional compounds [141]. Furthermore, fagopyrins, compounds that play a protective role against UV radiation, pests, and microbial diseases, are found primarily in the green parts and flowers of buckwheat. Consuming very large amounts of raw buckwheat combined with exposure to sunlight can lead to a phototoxic reaction (phagopyrosis), manifested by skin irritation, edema, and serous exudate [142]. Phototoxic reactions are rare and their occurrence depends on the amount of raw plant matter consumed and exposure to sunlight; therefore, with rational use of buckwheat, this risk is low.

8.2. Buckwheat as a Melliferous Crop

Buckwheat belongs to the group of honey-producing species [29,56,143]. This is due to the very rich composition of its nectar, which contains mainly glucose, fructose, sucrose, vitamins and amino acids [143]. This species is extremely attractive to pollinators and attracts numerous insects, including Apis mellifera, Apis cerana, Bombus spp., Andrena spp. and various species of the order Diptera [144,145,146].

A strong bee colony is able, under favorable conditions, to collect up to 5 kg of honey per day. Although buckwheat is considered a reliable and efficient honey plant, it produces nectar mainly in the morning—usually approximately for two hours. As a result, bees are unable to use it as a source of forage throughout the day, which causes them to be more irritated and active in searching for nectar on other plants [95]. According to Ţiţei [111], buckwheat is nevertheless highly valued by beekeepers because its flowering usually lasts until the first frosts—a period when there are few other honey plants. In buckwheat plantations, 200 to 400 kg of honey can be obtained per hectare [108]. These values are higher than in the case of rapeseed (150–300 kg/ha), although significantly lower compared to phacelia (600–1000 kg/ha). However, it should be remembered that the above-mentioned species, unlike buckwheat, usually bloom during the warmest and longest days of the year [11,147].

According to Chorbiński et al. [148], it is more beneficial for bees than when intercropped with Paulownia tomentosa, a fast-growing tree used in agroforestry systems. Buckwheat monoculture caused a significant increase in the number of flowers, which translated into a higher density of pollinators and their higher number per unit of area.

9. Buckwheat in the Face of Climate Change

The Earth, and therefore agriculture, are being affected in various ways by the effects of climate change, such as fluctuations in annual precipitation, average temperatures, heatwaves, weed compensation, pest and microbial pressure, global changes in atmospheric CO₂ and ozone concentrations, and rising sea levels [149]. Buckwheat is considered a species that aligns well with the challenges of climate change. It has gained recognition as a valuable plant resistant to environmental stress and exhibiting exceptional adaptive capabilities, particularly in regions with variable weather conditions and ongoing soil degradation [150]. According to Padhan et al. [151], buckwheat as a crop offers an effective, comprehensive strategy for counteracting the negative effects of climate change. In many regions of the world, rainfall shortages resulting from climate change prevent the cultivation of traditional cereal species, such as wheat. Therefore, it is necessary to search for alternative species capable of growing in drought conditions. Buckwheat’s resistance mechanisms to water stress give this species significant potential for increasing global food supply and reducing dependence on dominant crops. Buckwheat is one of the climate-resilient crops that could play a key role in the future of agriculture, due to its unique ability to adapt to a variety of biotic and abiotic stress [19]. Similarly, Simón Martínez-Goñi et al. [152] indicate that buckwheat may be a potential alternative to wheat under extreme drought conditions, while spelt, for example—according to these authors—does not exhibit comparable resistance. Defalque et al.’s [153] study on the behavior of insects visiting buckwheat flowers confirms that the frequency of their visits is not strongly influenced by drought or high temperatures. According to the authors, this is due to modifications in flower exposure and the availability of floral resources induced by abiotic stress, which is evidence of buckwheat’s ability to adapt to ongoing climate change. Suzuki et al. [29] describe buckwheat as a kind of “food guarantor”—a plant—a safety insurance policy in crisis situations. The authors emphasize its flexibility in sowing dates and its ability to produce crops quickly, enabling rapid replenishment of food supplies.

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), like quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), is increasingly recognized as adaptable and resilient plants, suitable for marginal and stress-prone environments. A comprehensive review by Manoharan et al. [8] indicates that buckwheat exhibits the ability to adapt to marginal soils and short cultivation periods, although it is generally characterized by a narrower range of stress tolerance compared to quinoa or amaranth. Quinoa and amaranth can grow well at high altitudes, in environments prone to drought and salinity, thanks to physiological characteristics such as reduced leaf area, waxy cuticles, and a deep root system that supports osmotic regulation and heat tolerance. According to the aforementioned authors, buckwheat’s level of adaptation in morphological and physiological terms is significantly lower. Buckwheat supports sustainability; however, its climate resilience is not consistently superior to that of other stress-tolerant pseudocereals [154,155].

10. Reclamation of Degraded Ecosystems

Buckwheat is recommended as a species suitable for cultivation on soils of varying degrees of degradation. Its low soil requirements and high resistance to difficult climatic conditions allow for cultivation in mountainous areas unsuitable for other species, and contribute to partial regeneration [62]. This is due to the characteristic root system and high dynamics of biomass growth, as a result buckwheat effectively protects the soil against erosion [40,46]. Studies conducted by Mitrus and Horbowicz [156] and Domańska et al. [157] indicate that buckwheat meets the criteria for a phytoremediation plant with respect to cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in both mineral and organic soils. Franzaring et al. [158], in turn, observed that this species has only a limited ability to uptake metals such as tin, tungsten, molybdenum and lithium, which limits its use in phytoremediation. The authors also emphasise that the low accumulation of heavy metals in plant tissues means that common buckwheat can be safely cultivated even in contaminated soils.

Buckwheat hulls are a material whose total content of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin is approximately 90–95% [159]. After appropriate physical and chemical modification, they can be used as a sorbent for removing oil and petroleum products from water surfaces. Sorbents made from buckwheat hulls have a reserve buoyancy for over 20 days, and their sorption capacity is up to 6.1 g/g for oil and 4.9 g/g for used engine oil [160]. The sorption efficiency of buckwheat hulls against heavy metal ions, such as lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd), was also confirmed by Tahir et al. [161]. In turn, Franco et al. [162] demonstrated the posibility of using buckwheat husks modified with sulfuric acid to remove the pesticide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) from aqueous solutions. The use of a buckwheat husk-based material reduced the concentration of this pollutant in simulated river sewage by approximately 76%. After simple modification with epichlorohydrin and ammonia, buckwheat waste in the form of husks can also be used as effective sorbents for dyes from the textile and tanning industries. The sorption capacity of such modified husks is several times higher compared to unmodified husks [159]. The cited authors emphasize that buckwheat husks are a widely available and inexpensive raw material that perfectly aligns with the principles of a circular economy and the sustainable use of natural resources.

11. Energy Generation

Many reports indicate the growing importance of agricultural biomass as an alternative, sustainable, and renewable energy source [163,164]. A growing number of studies on buckwheat clearly confirm that this species can significantly support the energy sector, and energy from buckwheat can be produced in at least several ways. Straw plays an important role as an energy resource, accounting for a significant share in the structure of primary energy production from renewable energy sources [165]. Kraszkiewicz et al. [166] determined the combustion heat of buckwheat straw at 15.72 MJ/kg, and the chemical and physical properties of this raw material allow for its efficient energy use. However, the authors emphasize that the calorific value of buckwheat straw is inferior compared to straw derived from true cereals. Bilyk et al. [167] report that it is possible to produce high-quality pellets from buckwheat straw. The resulting pellets are characterized by high mechanical strength, which extends their storage use and enables long-distance transport. According to Żarczyński et al. [168], buckwheat straw meets the criteria for mobile pellet production and can be used as an energy source, especially in arid climates. According to Smuga-Kogut et al. [169], it is also possible to obtain bioethanol from buckwheat straw. However, this material requires pre-treatment with ionic liquids and subsequent enzymatic treatment. However, this approach has its detractors, who emphasise that biomass from cultivation on poorer soils should remain crushed in the field, supporting soil organic matter resources [170].

A more consistent opinion among scientists concerns the management of buckwheat husks. Steponavičiūtė and Paulikienė [171] emphasise the need for the rational use of this raw material, the global production of which exceeds 1 million tons per year. This material is characterized by high calorific value, low ash content, and a high melting point. The authors’ research demonstrates that one effective method of managing buckwheat waste is co-granulating the husks with peat. Similarly, Obidziński et al. [172] recommend buckwheat hulls as a valuable material for pellet production. According to the authors, obtaining high-quality pellets requires the use of binder additives, such as potato pulp. This additive allows for the production of pellets with high energy values and appropriate physicochemical properties. Similar results are presented by Kulokas et al. [173], who recommend direct combustion of buckwheat hulls after pelletization. The authors, however, recommend mixing it with wheat straw or wood chips. They believe that using buckwheat hulls as a chlorine-free additive reduces its concentration in fuel mixtures, significantly reducing the risk of corrosion and heating equipment failure. Yildiz et al. [174] also confirm the usefulness of buckwheat husks, which can be successfully co-pelleted with other waste biomass. However, the authors emphasize that combustion of such pellets requires improved boiler designs that provide an additional air supply. Waste biomass from buckwheat can also be successfully pyrolyzed, which increases the carbon content and thus the calorific value and bulk density of the resulting fuel compared to the initial raw material [175]. As a result of this process, biochar obtained from buckwheat has a significantly higher total carbon content—76.7%, compared to material obtained, for example, from low-morphine poppy seeds (58.9%). Therefore, according to Saletnik et al. [176], buckwheat biochar can be a valuable alternative to other biomass and biochar fuels. A very important issue in the process of utilizing buckwheat waste as a solid fuel is the possibility of rationally managing the ash generated by combustion. It contains sufficiently large amounts of P, K, Mg, Ca, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe that it should be used for fertilizing crops. After the granulation process, buckwheat ashes and waste meet the criteria for bulk fertilizers. In this way, buckwheat cultivation can significantly support the circular economy, climate protection, and counteract soil environmental degradation [177].

According to Ţiţei [111], buckwheat harvested at the beginning of flowering meets the criteria for a suitable substrate for anaerobic fermentation. The author indicates that it is characterized by an appropriate carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio of 20.5–29.5 and optimal lignin and hemicellulose content, which guarantees a methane potential of 292–305 L CH₄/kg. Ensiled buckwheat biomass, whose C/N ratio can reach 33.3, allows—according to the same author—to obtain up to 314 L of methane from 1 kg of biomass. Research by Svensson et al. [178] also confirms the possibility of obtaining biogas from green fodder containing 60% buckwheat sown as a aftercrop. The authors recommend this solution after harvesting the main crop to retain excess nitrogen in the soil. They emphasize that the entire process is economically justified even if additional nitrogen fertilization is not applied to the aftercrop. Although, as Słomka and Pawłowska [179] note, this approach may limit the positive impact of the aftercrop on soil structure, according to Żarczyński et al. [11], the digestate sufficiently compensates for the removed biomass. As a natural, liquid fertilizer, it can be—unlike catch crop biomass—more precisely dosed and effectively used for fertilization.

12. Directions for Further Research on Buckwheat

Based on the analysis of the latest research on the role of buckwheat in sustainable agriculture, it can undoubtedly be concluded that this species is enjoying a growing interest among scientists worldwide. This is primarily due to its significant contribution to the implementation of sustainable farming principles by providing numerous ecosystem services that positively impact both the environment and human health. Many authors emphasise buckwheat’s high potential, focussing on a number of research areas whose future development could further strengthen this species’ position in sustainable food production systems. The priority development directions include breeding work aimed at obtaining varieties with better yields, stable over the years and competitive with true cereals [19,73]. To achieve stable and high yields, Ahmad et al. [45] and Luthar et al. [44] draw attention to the need to reduce seed shedding and improve seed ripening uniformity. Lin et al. [150] emphasise that future research should focus on the use of biotechnological tools in improving yield, while Zargar et al. [180] draw attention to the need to extend knowledge about the molecular basis of genetic regulation of economically important traits. On the other hand, researchers point to the need to intensify work on the chemical composition, nutritional value, and health benefits of consuming buckwheat products [118,150,181,182]. Lin et al. [150] also emphasize the need to develop legislative support mechanisms linked to global policies that would enable the full inclusion of buckwheat in sustainable food production systems promoting human health. According to Luo et al. [14], it is necessary to develop research on crop rotation involving buckwheat and other plants with diverse biological functions, which can contribute to improved yields and the stability of agroecosystems. Pipan et al. [35] draw attention to the poorly understood genetic stability of buckwheat under monoculture conditions and the need to optimise the selection of forecrops and crop rotation systems. Similarly, Sałata et al. [183] point to the validity of research on the impact of buckwheat aftercrops on vegetable yield and quality. Lin et al. [150] emphasise the need to intensify research on improving the level of mechanization in buckwheat cultivation. According to the authors, an analysis of the available literature indicates the need to undertake research on the use of modern, efficient machines in buckwheat cultivation, their cost calculation, impact on the carbon footprint, and a comprehensive environmental impact assessment—including using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method. To optimise production technology and reduce inputs, Bielski et al. [53] propose conducting research on energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions during buckwheat production in European and global conditions.

Kókai et al. [184] propose that the knowledge gained so far about the potential of pseudocereals such as buckwheat be disseminated more broadly among consumers, emphasizing that consuming buckwheat products contributes not only to improved health but also to climate protection.

13. Conclusions

In summary, buckwheat is a species with a wide range of uses, which has gained global importance due to its multifunctional nature. It perfectly fits the concept of sustainable agriculture, supporting environmental protection and food security. This plant is distinguished by its high nutritional value, health-promoting properties, and beneficial effects on the agroecosystem. Despite certain limitations, such as unstable yields, numerous studies confirm its high production and environmental potential. Buckwheat is currently a focus of interest among scientists, breeders, and industry, which promotes the development of knowledge about this species and the discovery of new possibilities for its use in sustainable agricultural development and the circular economy.