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Article

Improving the Ecological Status of Surface Waters Through Filtration on Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Waste as an Option for Sustainable Surface Water Management

by
Barbara Wojtasik
1,2
1
Faculty of Biology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-309 Gdansk, Poland
2
HydroBiolLab, Research Company and Hydrobiological Laboratory, 81-159 Gdynia, Poland
Sustainability 2026, 18(3), 1203; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031203
Submission received: 12 November 2025 / Revised: 13 January 2026 / Accepted: 20 January 2026 / Published: 24 January 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Strategies for Improving Water Quantity and Quality in Anthropogenically Transformed Areas)
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Abstract

The progressive degradation of surface waters should become one of the most important problems requiring an urgent solution. One of the methods developed is filtering water through loose, degraded sediments, blooms of cyanobacteria or algae, or a bed of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) waste or hemp fibers. The conducted tests on the percolation of water samples and/or water with sediment from surface waters at sites with different ecological statuses indicate the possibility of using hemp waste for the reclamation of water reservoirs and rivers. The effect of filtration is a rapid improvement in water quality and, consequently, an improvement in the ecological status. The best result was achieved for a small freshwater reservoir with a large number of algae and loose degraded sediment. The initial turbidity value was at the limit of the device’s measurement capability, reaching 9991 NTU. After filtration through the hemp waste bed, the turbidity dropped to 42.52 NTU, a 99.57% decrease. The remaining parameters, C, TDS, and pH, were not subject to significant variability as a result of filtering. Excessive amounts of organic matter, which create a problem for surface waters, are removed. Due to the carrier (hemp waste), which is organic waste, any possible release of small amounts into the aquatic environment will not pose a threat. After applying filtration, a decision can be made on further actions regarding the water reservoir or river: Self-renewal of the reservoir or further percolation using, for example, mill gauze or cleaning the reservoir with other, non-invasive methods. After the filtering procedure, the hemp waste, enriched with organic matter and water remaining in the waste, can be used for composting or directly for soil mulching (preliminary tests have yielded positive results). A hemp waste filter effectively removes Chronomus aprilinus larvae (Chrinomidae) from water. This result indicates the possibility of removing mosquito larvae in malaria-affected areas. The use of hemp filters would reduce the amount of toxic chemicals used to reduce mosquito larvae. Improving the ecological status of surface waters by filtering contaminants with hemp waste filters can reduce the need for chemical treatment. The use of natural, biological filters enables sustainable surface water management. This is crucial in today’s rapidly increasing chemical pollution of surface waters.

1. Introduction

One of the most important issues related to the safety of the natural environment and the population is improving the quality of surface waters (lakes, rivers, ponds, etc.). Currently, their quality is deteriorating due to various processes, including: eutrophication [1,2,3,4,5,6], industrial pollution [7,8], agricultural pollution [9,10], salinization water discharges and salting of roads in winter [11,12,13], introduction of toxic substances, e.g., hydrotechnical concrete [14,15] or pharmaceuticals [16,17].
Water reservoir reclamation methods can be divided into three main groups: mechanical, chemical, and biological. The number of reclamation methods is growing as new technologies and devices emerge. Various methods are used to improve the condition of water reservoirs, including: removal of hypolimnion water to the drain [18,19], artificial aeration [20], lake flushing [21,22], phosphorus inactivation [23], removal of sediments from the reservoir, construction of denitrification barriers [24] and many methods using living organisms or using biological filters: biomanipulation (fish) [25], biofiltration (bacteria, fungi, algae, plants, yeasts) [26], cocopeat biofilters [27,28], barley straw [29]. In some procedures, the main goal is to remove excess phosphates (phosphorus inactivation) by binding them to new substrates that remain in the reservoir [30]. Sludge dewatering in geotubes [31] can only be applied to sediments that do not contain excess heavy metals or toxic organic pollutants, as contamination can result in the release of toxic compounds into the atmosphere, creating additional environmental burdens and a threat to the population. Relocating sediments outside the reservoir not only entails an additional financial outlay but also effectively shifts the problem of contaminated sediments to another area outside the reservoir. This generates further financial and environmental costs without solving the problem. Current procedures for cleaning degraded sediments from reservoirs include mechanical dredging after completely or partially draining the reservoir [32], which is extremely harmful to the lake ecosystem. This process terminates the reservoir’s lifespan, destroying the entire ecosystem, including the coastal zone with the greatest biodiversity—the littoral zone. Refilling the dredged lake basin with water creates a new reservoir at the same location and a new ecosystem, which may differ significantly from the previous one that existed before the degradation. The littoral zone serves as a reservoir of biodiversity, even in a degraded reservoir, and it is this zone that is destroyed during dredging. A key factor influencing the effectiveness and sustainability of remediation is the choice of remediation method for homogeneous or diverse contaminants, and the zonation of contaminants within the reservoir. In the case of severely degraded bottom sediments, where, in addition to excess nutrients, plastics and toxic compounds (e.g., heavy metals, and persistent organic compounds, micro- and macroplastics) are present, pyrolytic disposal would be the most appropriate approach [33,34,35,36].
Reclamation should meet several basic criteria, namely: 1. Safety—the procedures used must not pose a threat to the public or the natural environment. 2. Effectiveness—the actions taken should result in a significant improvement in water quality and ecological status; biodiversity should reach pre-degradation levels (if documented) or equivalent to hydrologically similar and clean lakes in the same region. 3. Sustainability of the ecological improvement—reclamation cannot be merely a temporary improvement in water quality and ecological status that will return to the previous degradation level in the following year or several years, or after the completion of reclamation work.
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) has accompanied humanity for thousands of years, as confirmed by archeological discoveries. The native range of this species is Central Asia to Xinjiang and Pakistan. Today, C. sativa is a cosmopolitan plant, excluding the Arctic, Antarctic, and Australian regions [37]. Hemp is a group of useful plants that provide large biomass, which is used in, among others, the clothing industry, the production of industrial oils, cosmetics, food, feed, pharmaceuticals, and in the production of ropes, paper, construction materials, and reinforcing materials [38,39]. Due to their highly hygroscopic properties, hemp shives are used as animal bedding. This plant also been used in the remediation of areas degraded by the mining industry and areas contaminated with heavy metals through the agricultural cultivation of the Białobrzeskie variety of hemp [40]. Hemp shives are used in construction as a thermal insulation material. Hemp needs large amounts of carbon dioxide to grow; one ton of dry matter in hemp yield can store 1000–2900 kg of CO2 [41]. Furthermore, hemp cultivation offers numerous environmental benefits: it increases biodiversity, reduces the need for agrochemicals, and prevents soil erosion [42,43]. Hemp has high adaptability to diverse climatic conditions. Extensive root system, hemp can be utilized for soil and water remediation [42]. Among 450 plant species from degraded areas studied, hemp is among the 17 best phytoremediators, due to its high biomass production and metal sequestration [44]. Therefore, widespread hemp cultivation is consistent with a sustainable development strategy [43]. Finding solutions that reduce the use of complex and costly technical solutions and toxic chemicals in aquaculture and aquatic environment protection is an important element of sustainable development. Therefore, finding solutions to improve water quality based on naturally derived substances is an urgent need today. The presented results of a survey on the potential use of hemp waste in aquatic environment protection and remediation align with this trend.
Preliminary results on the potential use of hemp waste to reduce water turbidity were presented at the conference Water Protection and Reclamation in Grudziądz, Poland [45].
The aim of the research was to analyze the possibility of using hemp waste in the reclamation of surface waters (water reservoirs and rivers) by removing excess biomass, algae, cyanobacteria, plankton, and degraded loose bottom sediments, and reducing water turbidity.

2. Materials and Methods

The research was carried out using hemp waste sent from Kombinat Konopny S.A., Gronowo Górne, Poland. Hemp waste is rich in fibers with a loose and irregular structure (Figure 1). At the same time, the fibers are stiff enough (containing small stem fragments) to create a filter that will not be damaged, blurred, and/or structurally altered by water flow, except for fiber compaction. These observations prompted research into the potential use of hemp waste in the remediation of reservoirs and rivers. In the hemp waste used, the fibers constituted the dominant structure, and the shives were an addition (Figure 1).

3. Development of Methodology

Various setups were used to filter water samples containing suspended solids and/or a loose surface layer of bottom sediment during the development of the experimental procedure. During the development of the methodology, the thickness of the hemp waste layer (1, 2, 5, and 10 cm) and the filtration method were varied: funnel, various sieves.
Due to the highly diverse nature of bottom sediments (detritus, benthos) and suspended matter in the water, as well as the organic matter present (algae, cyanobacteria, phytoplankton, and zooplankton), the following two mixtures were used to determine the thickness of the hemp waste bed: 1. flax seeds, crushed rosemary and marjoram herbs, grass and bay leaf ash, and wheat flour, 2. the same but with a trace amount of flour. All the above-mentioned ingredients were used in the same proportions (volume 100 cm3). Before filtration, the mixed ingredients were poured with water (2 L) and allowed to stand for 5 h. For filtration, a solution of 20 mL of the drained organic matter mixture in 1 L of water was prepared. Then, filtering was carried out using hemp waste beds of 1, 2, 5, and 10 cm in thickness. Three replicates were performed for each bed thickness. Turbidity measurements were performed before and after filtration, and permeability for the plant components of the mixture was observed.
Control filtration was performed on a mill gauze filter. Mill gauze with a mesh diameter of φ = 0.042 mm was used. It is permeable to silt–clay fractions but impermeable to detritus, meio- and macrobenthos, and plankton. Washing samples on a sieve with a 0.042 mm mesh is a standard procedure for meiobenthic organisms from silt-clay sediments. Small organisms and detritus remain on the sieve [46,47].

Selected Small Freshwater Invertebrates

The study was supplemented by tests of the permeability of a bed of hemp waste for selected small invertebrates: Chronomus aprilinus Meigen, 1830 (meiofaunal invertebrates) and Daphnia spp. (planktonic organisms). For this purpose, a 5 cm thick bed of hemp waste was used. Water was filtered through approximately 500 individuals of C. aprilinus larvae and 500 individuals of Daphnia spp., separately for each taxon, on separate beds. The experiment was repeated three times. After the experiment, the invertebrates were returned to the aquaculture.

4. Sampling Stations

All the research sites were located in the Tuchola Forest (Bory Tucholskie), North Poland. Although the sampling sites allowed analysis of filtration systems across various ecological statuses: eutrophic, with mineral suspension, with degraded bottom sediment, with a large amount of algae, and with an artificial concrete bottom. The characteristics of the research sites are presented in Figure 2.
Samples of the surface layer of bottom sediments (approximately 5 cm thick) and the water above the bottom were collected in July and August 2024. At each research site, a sample of the surface sediment layer with bottom water (approximately 5 L) was collected using a hand scoop (25 cm frame), and approximately 10 L of surface water with suspended solids (mineral and organic) was collected.

5. Analyses

Analyses of basic physicochemical parameters were conducted at the research sites, including temperature (T), electrical conductivity (C), total dissolved solids (TDSs), salinity (S), and pH. In the experiments, the most important results for assessing ecological status were: water turbidity (Odeon Photopad analyzer, AQUALABO, 94506 Champigny-sur-Marne, France), other measurements: T, C, TDS, S, pH (WTW Multi 3430 SET G field analyzer, 82362 Weilheim, Germany). The experiments and parameter measurements were performed at a temperature of 20 °C +/− 0.5 °C
Turbidity was used as the primary measure of water quality changes. This parameter is expressed in NTU (nephelometric turbidity units) and is used, among other things, to classify the quality of water intended for consumption, indicating the possibility of microbiological contamination and, consequently, waterborne diseases [48]. Turbidity measurement is a key environmental parameter in both inland and marine waters [49,50]. According to established standards, drinking water for humans should have an NTU value of <1, [51]. Typical turbidity values for surface waters are: 1–50 NTU for rivers and 1–100 NTU for lakes and reservoirs. Deep lakes and upland rivers most often have low NTU values. High values are most often associated with degraded environments [52].
The research was carried out using hemp waste (Figure 1) sent from Kombinat Konopny S.A., Poland, as well as water suspensions and a surface layer of bottom sediments with bottom water from water reservoirs with various degrees of trophic development/degradation.
The results presented in the report were obtained by filtering through an approximately 5 cm thick layer of hemp waste placed on a sieve with a 1 mm metal mesh (filtering 1). The resulting filtrate was then filtered through mill gauze with a 0.042 mm mesh (filtering 2). The same procedure was used for all environmental samples. This was intended to simulate real-world conditions, where laboratory precision is often impossible.
The experiment employed a steady flow of water with suspended matter and organic matter. The flow rate was slow enough to avoid the formation of a water layer above the hemp filter. For samples with low suspended matter content, the flow rate was approximately 20–30 s per dm3. For the sample from site 3, which was rich in algae and detritus, the flow was slower, approximately 60 s per dm3.

Sample Images

Photographs of water samples were taken under the same conditions: lighting and distance from the camera (Figure 3). Dimensions of the transparent plastic container: φ = 4 cm, h = 8 cm; volume of the sample V = 100 mL; dimensions of the white polystyrene box: a = 10 cm, b = 20 cm.

6. Results and Discussion

6.1. Tested Filters

In developing the filtration methodology, layers of 1 cm, 2 cm, 3 cm, 5 cm, and 10 cm thickness were tested on a hemp bed. The hemp bed is completely permeable to water and does not impede water flow. The mixture used allowed us to conclude that the hemp bed is permeable to very fine fractions found in flour. Therefore, no reduction in turbidity was achieved for mixture 1, which contained wheat flour. In further experiments, mixture 2 was used with a trace amount of flour. On the hemp bed, flaxseed was retained on the surface, while crushed rosemary and marjoram, depending on the bed thickness, passed through the filter in small amounts in the 1 and 2 cm beds. In the 5 and 10 cm beds, it did not pass through. Ash was retained on the bed. The suspension reduction in individual cases was: 14% (1 cm), 21.42% (2 cm), 44.89% (5 cm), and 46.73% (10 cm). The results of the turbidity measurements are presented in Figure 4.
A 5 cm thick bed was selected for further testing due to its relatively high efficiency in reducing organic matter and half the consumption of hemp waste compared to a 10 cm thick bed, with a slightly better percolation result compared to a 5 cm bed.

6.2. Filtration of Selected Small Invertebrates

Filtering the C. aprilinus larvae yielded very good results. 100% of the individuals remained on the surface layer of the filter. Further rinsing the filter with running water thickened it, making it completely impermeable to C. aprilinus larvae. The presented method may be important in the case of mosquito invasions (pupae reside just below the water surface, which should allow them to be collected in a bed of hemp waste) and shows potential as an alternative to chemical methods.
Filtering individuals of Daphnia sp. showed that approximately 1–2% of the earlier stages passed through the filter. In the case of reclamation of reservoirs, this would reduce plankton biomass without reducing the biodiversity of small planktonic crustaceans.
The microscopic image of the effect of hemp waste as a filter is presented in Figure 5.

6.3. Examined Field Samples

6.3.1. Physicochemical Parameters

At the sampling stations and after the first and second filtration, the following basic physicochemical parameters were measured: C, TDS, S, pH, and water turbidity (Table 1).
In the presented experiment, the primary parameter determining filtration efficiency was turbidity measurement. In all cases, a decrease in turbidity was observed when filtering through a bed of hemp waste.
The most noticeable and effective filtration result was obtained for a small lake (No. 3), where the initial turbidity value was at the limit of the device’s measurement capability, reaching 9991 NTU. After filtration through the bed of hemp waste, the turbidity dropped to 42.52 NTU, a 99.57% decrease. Subsequent filtration slightly improved the result, reaching 39.25 NTU. The waste retained degraded loose lake sediments and a dense scum, the main component of which was algae.
Very good filtration results through the bed of hemp waste were obtained for the sample from Lake Wdzydze. The initial turbidity of the water with suspended solids above the bottom sediment was 34.25 NTU. After filtration, the turbidity dropped to 12.23 NTU. Filtration through mill gauze slightly improved the value, reaching 11.72 NTU. Given the degraded surface layer of bottom sediments, likely due to deliberate pollution of the lake, this result demonstrates the potential to restore the damaged ecosystem to a good ecological state. Control filtration through a mill gauze sieve only slightly improved filtration results for hemp waste with a large amount of organic matter (stations No. 3 and No. 4). Details of the turbidity measurements are presented in Table 1 and Figure 6.
To check for possible contamination of the water with hemp waste, the electrolytic conductivity (conductivity) of the initial sample and two filtrates was measured. In each case, slightly higher electrolytic conductivity was observed (Table 1, Figure 6B). Contamination with hemp waste was visible in the Jeziorko reservoir (Table 1). This does not pose a serious threat to the aquatic environment, as the quantities involved were small. Furthermore, filtration through mill gauze removed contaminating particles. If this were not possible, hemp waste is biodegradable, so in small quantities, it will not pose a burden to the environment. Especially in the case of significant reservoir degradation (station No.3, a small lake), the slight increase in electrolytic conductivity (4.17% first filtration, 3.79% second filtration) coupled with a very large reduction in turbidity (99.57%) resulting from the removal of algae scum and degraded, loose bottom sediments is negligible. In the case of filtering water samples from Station No. 5 (Fojutowo), a slight improvement in the turbidity parameter was observed. The initial value was quite low, so the obtained result demonstrates the potential for improvement even in the presence of an initial state of degradation. Similar results were obtained for TDS. However, pH (Table 1 and Figure 6C) showed little variability across the samples tested: either an increase (Site No. 3) or a decrease (other sites). Among the measured parameters, turbidity best described the changes in conditions as a result of filtering.

6.3.2. Water Sample Image

In the presented experiment, in addition to the basic parameters determining filtration efficiency: measurement of turbidity and electrolytic conductivity, a very important result is the image of the water sample. A summary of the obtained images is presented in Figure 7.
A problem observed during the development of the experimental methodology was the appearance of a light brown color in the filtrate. These observations concerned the case of filtering clean tap water. Environmental water varies in color, from completely clear (crystal clear) to various shades of brown, brick red, or dark green. Therefore, in many cases, the color visible during the filtration of tap water will not be distinctive. In the experiments discussed, the color is only visible in the sample from the Fojutowo reservoir. In the case of the water filtrate with sediment from Lake Wdzydze (station No. 4), an improvement in color was achieved.
The methods used to reduce organic matter (algae and cyanobacteria, meiobenthos, plankton, detritus) are often cost-intensive and require specialized equipment, or they introduce chemical substances into the environment, such as 1. flocculation and coagulation, which involve adding chemicals called flocculants that cause the tiny algal cells to clump together, forming larger particles that are easier to settle or filter. Iron, aluminum, and calcium compounds are used as coagulants [53,54]. 2. Centrifugation—a mechanical method that uses centrifugal force to separate the denser algal biomass from the water [55]. 3. Membrane filtration—this is a highly effective physical separation method that uses membranes with tiny pores to block algal cells while allowing treated water to pass through. Different types of filtration: microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis, can be used depending on the desired purity [56,57].
The presented hemp bed filtration method is intended to improve the purification of surface waters from organic matter, which, in excess, is a basis for eutrophication. They provide a safe medium for filtering degraded and/or polluted surface waters (algal scum, cyanobacteria, mineral suspension) and loose, degraded bottom sediments. Filtration results in a rapid improvement in water quality and, consequently, an improvement in ecological status. Excessive organic matter, which poses a problem for surface waters, is removed. Due to the fact that the medium (hemp waste) is organic waste, any small amounts released into the aquatic environment will not pose a threat. After filtering, a decision can be made about further actions for the reservoir or river: self-renewal of the reservoir, further filtration using, for example, mill gauze, or further cleaning of the reservoir using other, non-invasive methods. After the filtering procedure, the hemp waste, enriched with organic matter and retained water, can be used for composting or directly as a soil mulch (preliminary tests have yielded positive results).
When selecting the bed thickness, filtration efficiency was taken into account: turbidity reduction, low permeability to mineral suspensions and detritus, algae and cyanobacteria, as well as low permeability to the tested organisms.
Filtering degraded water with a suspension of hemp waste can be an alternative to ineffective and costly remediation methods. The procedure can be repeated to achieve satisfactory results and/or applied only to limited areas where cyanobacterial blooms occur. This will allow for rapid, cost-effective, and effective improvements in the ecological status of various types of surface waters.
The prevalence of malaria, transmitted by mosquitoes (Anopheles sp.), is a very serious problem. Their larvae and pupae are found beneath the water surface. Chemicals are used to destroy the larvae. DDT was widely used in the 20th century. Today, DDT is still used in malarial areas because there is no alternative with equivalent efficacy [58]. The toxicity of this chemical to the natural environment has long been well known [59]. This causes a reduction in water quality, which is essential to the survival of all organisms, including humans. The possibility of at least partially replacing chemical methods with mechanical filtration of larvae on hemp beds should generate interest in malaria-prone regions. This is a low-cost method that can be used individually or mechanized. The proposed remediation method, which involves filtering hemp waste onto a bed, can be an alternative to chemical methods (flocculation and coagulation) for remediation or for mosquito larval disposal (particularly important in malaria-infested areas). It is environmentally safe and widely applicable. Furthermore, it does not require additional, costly technical solutions.

7. Conclusions

An analysis of the potential use of hemp waste for filtering water containing cyanobacteria and various algae, as well as the surface layer of degraded lake sediments, indicates its significant potential. Filtration tests conducted on water and/or water-sediment samples from surface waters of varying ecological status indicate the potential use of hemp waste for the remediation of reservoirs and rivers. Filtering degraded waters with a suspension of hemp waste can be an alternative to ineffective, chemical, and costly remediation methods. It can also be one of the elements of the procedure that reduces, for example, the costs of membrane filtration. The presented method can be used to reduce mosquito larvae and pupae from surface waters, which may be particularly important in areas where malaria occurs.
The results obtained prompt further research to develop an implementation procedure: determining the best parameters for hemp waste (fiber/shives ratios) for specific types of pollutants; developing technical assumptions for field filtration in reservoirs and rivers; and analysis of a number of parameters before and after filtration (including nutrients, heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants) for various water bodies and rivers (with different ecological status and different types of pollutants). Future scientific work is planned to include research on the possibilities of reducing nano- and microplastics in water and sediments.
The presented results constitute the basis for further research aimed at developing a detailed methodology and implementing a system for biomass reduction in eutrophic reservoirs and the possibility of reducing mosquito larvae in malarial regions.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article.

Acknowledgments

The project would not have been possible without the support of Kombinat Konopny S.A. (Gronowo Górne, Poland), which provided hemp waste, allowing for testing its effectiveness in improving surface water quality.

Conflicts of Interest

The author is affiliated with the Research Company and the Hydrobiological Laboratory. The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Macro- and microscopic images of the structure of hemp waste.
Figure 1. Macro- and microscopic images of the structure of hemp waste.
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Figure 2. Characteristic of the sampling station.
Figure 2. Characteristic of the sampling station.
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Figure 3. System for photographing water samples.
Figure 3. System for photographing water samples.
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Figure 4. Turbidity measurement results for mixture 2 at bed thickness: 0 cm (before filtering) and after filtering at beds of 1, 2, 5, and 10 cm. Note: The average turbidity values are marked with a dashed line.
Figure 4. Turbidity measurement results for mixture 2 at bed thickness: 0 cm (before filtering) and after filtering at beds of 1, 2, 5, and 10 cm. Note: The average turbidity values are marked with a dashed line.
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Figure 5. The macro- and microscopic image of the effect of hemp waste as a filter: C. aprilinus larvae and Daphnia sp.
Figure 5. The macro- and microscopic image of the effect of hemp waste as a filter: C. aprilinus larvae and Daphnia sp.
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Figure 6. (A) Turbidity value (N); (B) conductivity (C); (C) pH of water samples measured before filtration and after the first (hemp waste) and second (mill gauze) filtration, stations: 1. Lake Jeziorko, 2. Niechwaszcz River, 3. A small lake near farmland and a forest, 4. Lake Wdzydze, 5. A small artificial pond.
Figure 6. (A) Turbidity value (N); (B) conductivity (C); (C) pH of water samples measured before filtration and after the first (hemp waste) and second (mill gauze) filtration, stations: 1. Lake Jeziorko, 2. Niechwaszcz River, 3. A small lake near farmland and a forest, 4. Lake Wdzydze, 5. A small artificial pond.
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Figure 7. Image of water samples before filtration, after filtration on hemp waste and mill gas, comparison of results for 5 different tested sites (system for photographing water samples; Figure 3).
Figure 7. Image of water samples before filtration, after filtration on hemp waste and mill gas, comparison of results for 5 different tested sites (system for photographing water samples; Figure 3).
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Table 1. Sampling station and parameters: conductivity (C), total dissolved solids (TDSs), salinity (S), pH, and turbidity (NTU).
Table 1. Sampling station and parameters: conductivity (C), total dissolved solids (TDSs), salinity (S), pH, and turbidity (NTU).
StationFilteringC [μS/cm]TDS [mg/L]S [psu]pHTurbidity [NTU]
1before142.5143011.37829.93
hemp147.2147011.15727.55
mill gauze147.7148011.23620.50
2before386.03860.19.53430.56
hemp392.03930.19.45727.00
mill gauze391.03920.19.46723.60
3before482.04820.28.5359991.00
hemp503.05030.28.63842.52
mill gauze501.05010.28.61739.25
4before340.03410.19.45334.25
hemp351.03510.19.41612.24
mill gauze351.03510.19.42611.72
5before187.41870912724.43
hemp211.021108.93723.20
mill gauze212.021208.93220.27
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Wojtasik, B. Improving the Ecological Status of Surface Waters Through Filtration on Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Waste as an Option for Sustainable Surface Water Management. Sustainability 2026, 18, 1203. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031203

AMA Style

Wojtasik B. Improving the Ecological Status of Surface Waters Through Filtration on Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Waste as an Option for Sustainable Surface Water Management. Sustainability. 2026; 18(3):1203. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031203

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wojtasik, Barbara. 2026. "Improving the Ecological Status of Surface Waters Through Filtration on Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Waste as an Option for Sustainable Surface Water Management" Sustainability 18, no. 3: 1203. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031203

APA Style

Wojtasik, B. (2026). Improving the Ecological Status of Surface Waters Through Filtration on Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Waste as an Option for Sustainable Surface Water Management. Sustainability, 18(3), 1203. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031203

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