Application of the Extended Theory of Planned Behavior Model to Analyze Purchase Intention Determinants of Sustainable Argan Oil Among Moroccan Consumers

Abstract

The global demand for argan oil has grown considerably in recent years, creating economic opportunities while raising concerns about ecosystem degradation and the sustainability of production systems. To support long-term viability, several initiatives have promoted environmentally friendly practices and fair value-chain models. However, the effective market integration of these initiatives depends on understanding consumer behavior and preferences toward sustainable products. This study aims to identify the determinants influencing consumers’ purchase intention for sustainable argan oil using an extended framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). A structural equation modeling approach was applied to analyze responses from adult consumers with a minimum education level of secondary education. The results show that consumer attitude, perceived behavioral control, and willingness to pay have significant positive effects on purchase intention, while ecological literacy exerts an indirect influence through attitude, social norms, perceived behavioral control, and willingness to pay. In contrast, ecological literacy has no significant direct impact. These findings improve the understanding of behavioral mechanisms underlying green product consumption and offer insights into designing marketing strategies that align with sustainability values and promote responsible consumer choices.

1. Introduction

The contemporary era is witnessing a notable transformation in consumer habits worldwide; this is a change deeply rooted in a rising awareness of environmental issues and an inclination towards eco-friendly products [1,2,3]. This trend, which is particularly noticeable in the food sector, is being driven by a growing concern for environmental issues such as climate change, pollution and the depletion of natural resources, leading to increased interest in eco-friendly products [4,5]

In this global context, Morocco presents itself as fertile ground for the study of eco-responsible consumption [6], particularly with regard to eco-friendly argan oil, a product rooted in Morocco’s agricultural heritage and driven by a range of national initiatives and policies aimed at sustainability and conservation.

The argan oil value chain in Morocco has seen considerable expansion, supported by growing global demand for this unique and valuable product [7]. Argan oil production has experienced two distinct growth phases over the last two decades. Between 2005 and 2016, exported volumes increased rapidly, rising from about 80 tons to more than 500 tons, corresponding to a high compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of approximately 18–19%, driven by strong international demand and the structuring of export markets. This expansion was closely linked to the diversification of argan oil uses, notably in food products, cosmetics, and traditional medicine, which significantly boosted its market value and global attractiveness. From 2017 to 2024, growth slowed considerably, with exported volumes increasing to around 635 tons, reflecting a much lower CAGR of about 3–4% [8]. This deceleration is largely attributable to severe and recurrent droughts, characterized by prolonged rainfall deficits, which have led to degradation of the natural argan forest. Despite this slowdown, production levels remain significantly higher than in the early 2000s, confirming the structural importance of argan oil while highlighting growing pressure on fragile ecosystems [8,9].

To address these challenges and promote sustainable practices, various initiatives and programs have been implemented, including the forest rehabilitation program, the development of argan farming, participatory forest management, the circular economy project, the emergence of the RBA eco-label and the ongoing establishment of raw product “Affiache” collection units [8].

The aim of these initiatives is to ensure the long-term viability of the argan tree value chain by integrating ecological and sustainable practices into the production process. As a result, the outcome of all these initiatives is an argan oil that we prefer to call, for the purposes of our research, “sustainable argan oil”. This distinctive product is obtained through a combination of environmentally friendly farming techniques, responsible resource management, and preservation of the argan forest ecosystem.

It is also an oil derived from a supply chain that ensures fair compensation for the rightful owners, the guardians of the natural argan forest. Fairer compensation for the argan fruit, which is higher than the current market price, will inevitably affect the price of the final products (oil and other derived products).

However, the successful integration of these initiatives into the market poses its own challenges. These challenges include understanding how consumers perceive eco-friendly products and whether they are willing to pay a higher price for them. The higher cost of sustainable argan oil, resulting from fair compensation and environmentally friendly practices, must be justified to consumers.

It is vital to comprehend consumer behavior and preferences towards eco-friendly products. By analyzing the factors that influence consumers’ intention to buy this eco-friendly oil, effective marketing strategies can be developed that align with their values and preferences. This understanding will help in creating a market where consumers appreciate and are willing to pay for the added value of sustainable and fairly traded argan oil.

The Theory of Planned Behavior provides a valuable framework for studying consumers’ behavioral intentions and willingness to pay for eco-friendly argan oil [10]. According to this theory, consumers’ attitudes towards eco-friendly products, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control play a significant role in determining their purchase intention. By analyzing these factors, we can gain valuable insights into consumer perceptions and develop effective strategies for positioning and promoting eco-friendly argan oil on the market.

The purpose of this study is to identify the key behavioral, cognitive, and economic factors that shape Moroccan consumers’ intention to purchase sustainable argan oil. While previous research has extensively applied the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to green consumption in various contexts, empirical evidence remains limited for context-specific, environmentally sensitive agri-food products in developing countries, particularly in North Africa. In the case of argan oil, an emblematic product closely linked to ecosystem conservation and rural livelihoods, understanding consumer behavior is especially critical.

This study contributes to the literature by extending the TPB framework through the integration of willingness to pay, ecological literacy, and environmental concern, applied specifically to ecological argan oil. By doing so, it provides original empirical evidence on how behavioral and sustainability-related factors jointly influence green purchase intentions in the Moroccan context. Beyond its theoretical contribution, the findings are intended to inform policymakers, cooperatives, and market actors by supporting the design of targeted awareness, pricing, and marketing strategies that promote sustainable consumption and strengthen the long-term viability of the argan value chain.

Specifically, the study aims to:

• To assess how attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control influence Moroccan consumers’ intention to purchase ecological argan oil.
• To examine the role of willingness to pay in translating pro-environmental drivers into purchase intention.
• To evaluate the influence of ecological literacy and environmental concern on consumers’ attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and purchase intentions.

2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses Development

The structure of the proposed conceptual framework is presented in Figure 1. In total, fourteen hypotheses are derived from seven constructs: attitude towards purchasing green products, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, willingness to pay, ecological concern, ecological literacy, and purchase intention for green products.

2.1. Attitude Towards Purchasing Green Products

According to the TPB, attitude, defined as the degree to which individuals evaluate a behavior favorably or unfavorably, is an essential determinant of behavioral intention [10]. Attitude is shaped by individual beliefs about the perceived consequences of a behavior and the evaluation of these consequences. Several studies have confirmed the crucial role of attitude as an antecedent of behavioral intention [11,12,13]. However, the relationship between attitude and environmental behavioral intention is more complex from an ecological perspective, with research showing contradictory results [12,14,15,16,17,18]. The explanation often lies in the influence of habits on certain behaviors, a point supported by various studies [19,20,21].

In the field of green purchasing and consumption, numerous studies have used TPB to measure attitudes toward behavior, particularly to better understand green purchasing behaviors across different cultural and social contexts. For example, Yadav and Pathak [22] examined this behavior among Indian consumers; Maichum et al. [23] investigated Thai consumers; Mohammed et al. [24] and Auza and Mouloudj [25] studied young Saudi and Algerian consumers, respectively; and Qi and Ploeger [26] analyzed Chinese consumers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Collectively, these studies confirm that attitude positively and significantly influences behavioral intention within the TPB framework.

The hypothesis formulated for future research is as follows:

H1. 

Attitude positively and significantly influences consumers’ behavioral intention to purchase eco-friendly argan oil.

2.2. Subjective Norm

The subjective norm, the second determinant of behavioral intention according to the TPB, is described as the “perceived social pressure” an individual feels to adopt or avoid a particular behavior [10]. This norm arises from social factors and results from the perceived expectations of people or groups significant to the individual, as well as from the motivation to satisfy these expectations [27,28,29]. Its determining role in behavioral intention is well established in several contexts, including consumer behavior and marketing [30,31,32].

Many studies have confirmed the positive influence of subjective norm on behavioral intention in the purchasing and consumption of eco-friendly products [22,23,24,25,26].

The subjective norm tends to be more influential in collectivist societies like Morocco, where adherence to social expectations is paramount. However, in more individualistic societies, although the subjective norm still exerts influence, personal attitude may predominate in shaping green purchasing intention [15,27,33]. Given that Morocco is perceived as a collectivist society [34], it is relevant to explore the influence of subjective norms on Moroccan consumers’ intention to purchase eco-friendly argan oil.

H2. 

Subjective norm positively and significantly influences consumers’ behavioral intention to purchase sustainable argan oil.

2.3. Perceived Behavioral Control

Perceived behavioral control (PBC), identified by Ajzen as the third determinant of behavioral intention within the TPB framework, refers to individuals’ perceptions of the ease or difficulty of performing a behavior [10]. PBC is shaped by control beliefs related to the perceived availability of the resources and opportunities required to execute the behavior. These include factors such as available time, financial means, necessary skills, and self-confidence in performing the action, as highlighted by Ajzen and Fishbein [27], Armitage and Conner [35], and Han and Kim [15].

In the context of purchasing green products, multiple studies have shown that PBC exerts a significant positive influence on consumers’ behavioral intentions, including work by Auza and Mouloudj [25], Maichum et al. [23], Qi and Ploeger [26], Vazifehdoust et al. [36], and Yadav and Pathak [22].

H3. 

Perceived behavioral control positively and significantly influences consumers’ behavioral intention to purchase sustainable argan oil.

2.4. Willingness to Pay

Willingness to pay (WTP) represents a central concept in economic valuation and reflects the maximum amount an individual is prepared to spend for a good or service. It is widely used to assess both the financial and emotional value consumers assign to products [37,38]. Prior research shows that consumers often express a greater willingness to pay higher prices for environmentally friendly products, driven by perceived environmental and social benefits [39,40,41,42]. Ng et al. [43] further demonstrated a positive and significant relationship between consumers’ willingness to pay a premium and their intention to purchase green products. In addition, a global survey conducted by Nielsen reported that more than 55% of consumers were willing to pay a premium to support environmentally responsible companies, and 52% had purchased at least one product or service from such companies within the preceding six months [44].

Based on Ng et al. [43] and the Nielsen survey [44], we propose the following hypothesis:

H4. 

Willingness to pay positively and significantly influences consumers’ behavioral intention to purchase sustainable argan oil.

2.5. Ecological Literacy

Ecological literacy, defined as the ability to identify ecological symbols, concepts, and behaviors [45], influences several stages of the decision-making process by shaping positive or negative attitudes toward certain behaviors [46]. Promoting pro-environmental behavior requires raising awareness and improving consumers’ understanding of the environmental impacts of products and production processes.

Prior research has shown that higher levels of environmental knowledge may increase the likelihood of strong purchase intention [47,48], and that ecological literacy exerts a positive influence on the intention to purchase green products [49,50]. Based on this evidence, we formulate the following hypothesis:

H5. 

Ecological literacy will positively and significantly influence Moroccan consumers’ behavioral intention to purchase eco-friendly argan oil.

Additional studies have suggested that ecological literacy is positively associated with attitudes toward environmentally friendly products [49,51,52], leading to the second hypothesis:

H7. 

Ecological literacy will be positively related to attitudes toward purchasing eco-friendly argan oil.

Furthermore, subjective knowledge can motivate individuals to act upon what they believe they know [53], and may also relate to subjective norms, as individuals who conform to social expectations tend to expand their knowledge base [54]. Therefore, we propose:

H8. 

Ecological literacy will be positively associated with subjective norms.

An increase in knowledge may also strengthen individuals’ beliefs regarding their ability to control a situation, thereby enhancing perceived behavioral control [55]. Thus, we formulate:

H9. 

Ecological literacy will be positively associated with perceived behavioral control.

Finally, consumers must be well informed about environmental issues and recycling practices to accurately evaluate the ecological benefits of green products [56,57]. Greater knowledge enhances their perception of the added value of environmentally friendly alternatives. Consequently, we propose the final hypothesis:

H10. 

Higher ecological literacy, reflecting a deeper understanding of environmental issues, will be positively associated with the willingness to pay for eco-friendly argan oil.

2.6. Ecological Concern

Environmental concern, defined as individuals’ awareness of and support for efforts aimed at addressing environmental problems, is recognized as a key determinant in consumer decision-making processes regarding sustainable products [58]. It has been widely acknowledged as a major motivational driver for green purchasing behavior, as shown in several studies [56,59,60]. Empirical work, including that of Irawan and Darmayanti, has demonstrated that higher levels of environmental concern positively influence consumers’ intention to purchase environmentally friendly products, which leads to the following hypothesis:

H6. 

Environmental concern will positively and significantly influence Moroccan consumers’ behavioral intention to purchase eco-friendly argan oil.

Environmental concern has also been associated with the development of favorable attitudes toward ecological products [22,61], which subsequently shape purchase intention [49,61,62]. Bamberg [62] and Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez [63] established significant links between environmental concern, attitude, and intention to purchase ecological products. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:

H11. 

Environmental concern will be positively associated with attitude toward purchasing ecological argan products.

Furthermore, Bamberg [62] suggested that environmental concern also shapes subjective norms by reinforcing perceived social support for ecological behavior. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H12. 

Environmental concern will be positively associated with subjective norm.

Finally, previous studies have indicated a relationship between environmental concern and perceived behavioral control, which in turn influences purchase intention [62,64]. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H13. 

Environmental concern will be positively associated with perceived behavioral control.

Individuals with strong environmental concerns are generally more active in initiatives aimed at environmental protection [65,66]. Given the increasing ecological challenges, such individuals are likely to exhibit heightened motivation to act responsibly as consumers, favoring environmentally friendly and ethically produced goods [62,66,67]. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

H14. 

Environmental concern (EC) will positively and significantly influence willingness to pay for eco-friendly argan oil.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Sample and Data Collection

The research prioritized online and email-based surveys due to their accessibility, convenience, ability to reduce respondent bias, cost-effectiveness, and methodological similarity to traditional questionnaires. Although online sampling can overrepresent individuals who are comfortable with the Internet, this limitation is mitigated by Morocco’s high Internet penetration rate—69% of the population—who spend an average of 3 h and 31 min online daily. To complement the online survey, face-to-face interviews were conducted in shopping centers in Inzegane and Agadir to gather contextual insights related to argan oil, a product with strong regional significance. This mixed-mode approach allowed the collection of nuanced behavioral data specific to the local context.

The study ensured broad national coverage, capturing diverse lifestyles and consumer behavior patterns related to eco-friendly argan oil. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was adopted as the primary analytical method, following the recommendations of Kline [68] and Hair et al. [69] for sample adequacy and model specification. A robust total sample of 881 respondents was obtained well above the minimum required for the 31 parameters analyzed ensuring strong statistical validity.

The sampling strategy relied on simple random sampling using institutional and organizational databases, supplemented by personalized email invitations and a snowball recruitment approach to broaden participation. Convenience sampling was also applied for the online questionnaire distribution, while face-to-face interviews were conducted to enhance the diversity and representativeness of the sample. Together, these methods provided a reliable basis for analyzing Moroccan consumers’ interest in and purchasing behavior regarding ecological argan oil.

Prior to the main data collection, a pre-test of the questionnaire was conducted to assess clarity, coherence, and comprehension of the survey items. Feedback obtained during this phase was used to refine the wording and structure of the questionnaire, ensuring that the final version was clear and accessible to respondents (

Table 1. Profile of respondents.

Variable	Grouped Sample (881)		Online Survey (761)		Direct Interview (120)
	Frequency	Percentage	Frequency	Percentage	Frequency	Percentage
Gender
Male	382	43.4	327	43.0	55	45.8
Female	499	56.6	434	57.0	65	54.2
Age
46 or over	67	7.6	59	7.8	8	6.7
36–45 years old	137	15.6	121	15.9	16	13.3
26–35 years old	395	44.8	338	44.4	57	47.5
18–25 years old	282	32.0	243	31.9	39	32.5
Academic level
Doctorate or higher	162	18.4	153	20.1	9	7.5
Bac + 5	540	61.3	461	60.6	79	65.8
Bac + 3	124	14.1	106	13.9	18	15.0
Bac + 2	51	5.8	38	5.0	13	10.8
Baccalaureate	4	0.5	3	0.4	1	0.8
Household size
More than 10 pers	3	0.3	3	0.4	0	0
7 to 10 people	48	5.4	42	5.5	6	5.0
4 to 6 persons	406	46.1	342	44.9	64	53.3
Less than 4 pers	424	48.1	374	49.1	50	41.7
Net annual income
More than 360,001	20	2.3	18	2.4	2	1.7
240,001–360,000	39	4.4	33	4.3	4	3.3
180,001–240,000	38	4.3	34	4.5	14	11.7
130,001–180,000	111	12.6	97	12.7	13	10.8
110,001–130,000	105	11.9	92	12.1	11	9.2
90,001–110,000	98	11.1	87	11.4	7	5.8
70,001–90,000	48	5.4	41	5.4	14	11.7
50,001–70,000	71	8.1	57	7.5	4	3.3
30,001–50,000	40	4.5	36	4.7	11	9.2
0–30,000 dirhams	311	35.3	266	35.0	45	37.5

).

3.2. Measures

In the conducted research, conceptual variables were evaluated using a predominant 7-point Likert scale, while a 5-point scale was reserved for assessing willingness to pay. The Likert scale is a widely recognized tool for measuring agreement intensity in the social sciences, ensuring balanced and equitable data for both positive and negative response points [70]. The selection of a 7-point scale was guided by its ability to allow respondents to express more nuanced opinions [71] and its tendency to yield larger variances, thereby increasing measurement reliability [72]. Furthermore, using a more extensive scale is particularly advantageous when applying advanced statistical techniques such as Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), where the precision of correlations between variables is essential.

The conceptual model of the study includes six central variables: (1) ecological literacy, (2) environmental concern, (3) attitudes toward green products, (4) subjective norms, (5) perceived behavioral control, and (6) purchase intention of ecological argan oil. Each construct, derived from a comprehensive literature review, is measured using dedicated items, with all measurement indicators presented in

Table 2. Development of measurement items.

Variables		Mean	Standard Deviation	Factor Saturation
Ecological literacy [23,49]
LE1	You prefer to check eco-labels and certifications on green products before you buy.	5.14	1.77	0.57
LE2	You prefer to get information about green products before you buy them.	5.7	1.62	0.52
LE3	Your environmental knowledge helps you buy eco-friendly products and packaging.	4.99	1.93	0.55
LE4	You know about biodegradable products and packaging.	4.68	2.04	0.61
Environmental concerns [73]
PE1	You prefer to check eco-labels and certifications on green products before buying them.	5.51	1.86	0.59
PE2	You prefer to obtain information on green products before buying them.	5.94	1.73	0.65
PE3	Your environmental knowledge helps you buy eco-friendly products and packaging.	5.97	1.72	0.65
PE4	You know about biodegradable products and packaging.	5.9	1.78	0.61
Attitudes towards environmentally friendly products [23,74]
APRE1	Protecting the natural ecosystem is important to you when you decide to buy a product.	5.2	1.85	0.52
APRE2	Would you prefer an ecological product to a conventional one?	5.98	1.42	0.55
APRE3	The adoption of environmentally friendly techniques is necessary for the preservation of the natural ecosystem.	6.35	1.08	0.56
APRE4	You think that buying ecological products is a positive step.	6.1	1.24	0.52
Subjective norms [75]
NS1	Does your family share your eco-friendly attitude?	4.94	1.66	0.54
NS2	Do your friends share your respect for the environment?	4.41	1.60	0.55
NS3	Your family shares your decision to buy ecological products.	4.93	1.76	0.50
NS4	Your friends share your decision to buy eco-friendly products.	4.48	1.72	0.53
Perceived behavioral control [23]
CCP1	You think you’ll be able to buy eco-friendly products in the future.	4.68	1.78	0.51
CCP2	You have the financial resources to buy eco-friendly products.	4.56	1.86	0.56
CCP3	You have the will to buy eco-friendly argan products.	4.23	1.79	0.58
CCP4	You are likely to have many opportunities to buy eco-friendly argan products.	4.38	1.78	0.58
Willingness to pay for sustainable argan oil “For sustainable argan oil, I am willing to pay a premium price higher than the conventional argan oil price of:”
CAP1	Between 0 and 10 dirhams	3.51	1.55	0.55
CAP2	Between 10 and 20 dirhams	3.43	1.47	0.52
CAP3	Between 20 and 30 dirhams	3.31	1.45	0.61
CAP4	Between 30 and 40 dirhams	2.77	1.38	0.67
CAP5	Between 40 and 50 dirhams	2.46	1.32	0.62
CAP6	Between 50 and 100 dirhams	2.17	1.26	0.54
CAP7	Between 100 and 200 dirhams	1.93	1.17	0.57
Purchase intention for sustainable argan oil [76]
INT1	You are likely to buy eco-friendly argan oil rather than conventional argan oil.	4.44	1.90	0.62
INT2	You plan to buy eco-friendly argan oil the next time you need argan oil.	5.02	1.87	0.65
INT3	You would actively look for eco-friendly argan oil when shopping.	4.88	1.72	0.72
INT4	You will choose eco-friendly argan oil when it is available.	4.86	1.64	0.74
INT5	You intend to purchase eco-friendly argan oil in the near future.	4.93	1.65	0.79

, providing clear definitions of the concepts under investigation.

3.3. Tools for Analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS 23.0 and AMOS 23.0 software to meet the study objectives and test the proposed hypotheses. Descriptive analyses were conducted in SPSS to summarize demographic characteristics and initial data trends. Reliability analysis was performed using Cronbach’s alpha (α) to assess the internal consistency of all measurement scales.

Subsequently, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed in AMOS to evaluate the validity of the measurement model and verify both convergent and discriminant validity among constructs. Finally, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to test the hypothesized causal relationships and assess the overall model fit. This sequential analytical approach enabled rigorous testing of the theoretical framework, ensuring the robustness and interpretability of the empirical findings.

4. Results

4.1. Testing of Reliability and Validity of the Measurement Model

The measurement model fit was evaluated using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to verify the factor loadings of the seven constructs: Attitude (ATT), Subjective Norm (SN), Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), Environmental Concern (EC), Ecological Literacy (EL), Willingness to Pay (WTP), and Purchase Intention (PI) for green products. Convergent and discriminant validities, as well as the overall model fit, were assessed to ensure the reliability and validity of the measurement structure.

Internal consistency for each construct was examined using Cronbach’s alpha (α). As shown in

Table 3. Reliability and validity of the constructs.

	Question Item	Cronbach’s α	Standardized Factor Loading	Composite Reliability	Average Variance Extracted
Attitude towards purchasing green products (APRE)	APRE1	0.729	0.592	0.75	0.43
	APRE2		0.818
	APRE3		0.544
	APRE4		0.651
Perceived behavioral control (CCP)	CCP1	0.805	0.502	0.79	0.51
	CCP2		0.429
	CCP3		0.881
	CCP4		0.905
Subjective norm (NS)	NS1	0.833	0.764	0.88	0.64
	NS2		0.755
	NS3		0.72
	NS4		0.947
Eco-literacy (LE)	LE1	0.701	0.717	0.73	0.48
	LE2		0.736
	LE3		0.609
Environmental concern (PE)	PE1	0.951	0.783	0.95	0.83
	PE2		0.942
	PE3		0.987
	PE4		0.926
Willingness to pay for sustainable argan’s oil (CAP)	CAP1	0.896	0.346	0.88	0.53
	CAP2		0.469
	CAP3		0.644
	CAP4		0.851
	CAP5		0.979
	CAP6		0.871
	CAP7		0.704
Intention to buy sustainable argan’s oil	INT 1	0.893	0.646	0.80	0.65
	INT 2		0.673
	INT 3		0.853
	INT 4		0.894
	INT 5		0.916

, α values ranged from 0.701 to 0.951, exceeding the minimum threshold of 0.700 recommended in the literature [77]. These results confirm that all constructs exhibit acceptable internal consistency and reliability.

According to Hair et al. [69], factor loadings above 0.700 were considered satisfactory. The standardized loadings obtained through CFA revealed a strong factorial structure across most items, with the majority exceeding the 0.7 threshold, thereby confirming solid convergent validity. A few items displayed moderate loadings (between 0.5 and 0.7), indicating reasonable contributions to their latent constructs, while a small number showed loadings below 0.5, suggesting weaker associations.

Common method bias (CMB) was examined using Harman’s single-factor test [78]. The first unrotated factor explained less than 26% of the variance, far below the 50% threshold. Therefore, CMB is unlikely to threaten the validity of our results.

Construct reliability was further assessed using Composite Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE). The CR measures the internal consistency of items associated with a given construct, while AVE evaluates the proportion of variance explained by the construct relative to the measurement error. Following the recommendations of Hair et al. [69], CR and AVE values should exceed 0.700 and 0.500, respectively. As shown in Table 3, CR values ranged from 0.730 to 0.950, while AVE values ranged from 0.430 to 0.830.

Although certain AVE values were slightly below the conventional threshold, the consistently high CR values (greater than 0.700) provide sufficient evidence of construct reliability. This robustness compensates for minor AVE deviations and confirms that the constructs were measured with satisfactory precision and stability, adequately capturing their theoretical dimensions.

The discriminant validity of the measurement model was assessed using the Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT), following the recommendations of Henseler et al. [79].

Table 4. Discriminant Validity (HTMT Matrix).

	CAP	PE	LE	NS	CCP	APRE
CAP	—
PE	0.112	—
LE	0.052	0.291	—
NS	0.129	0.037	0.307	—
CCP	0.125	0.022	0.366	0.170	—
APRE	0.169	0.216	0.592	0.453	0.259	—

presents the HTMT values for all construct pairs. All coefficients are below the threshold of 0.90, indicating that each latent variable is empirically distinct from the others.

These results confirm that the constructs share more variance with their own indicators than with other constructs, thus supporting the discriminant validity of the measurement model.

Overall, the CFA results confirmed that the measurement model demonstrated acceptable convergent and discriminant validity. The hypothesized structure was therefore considered reliable and suitable for further structural analysis.

Following the recommendations of Kline [68], the adequacy of the model was assessed using multiple goodness-of-fit indices. A satisfactory model should exhibit values greater than 0.900 for the Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI), Relative Fit Index (RFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Normed Fit Index (NFI), while the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Root Mean Square Residual (RMR) should remain below 0.080.

As summarized in

Table 5. Measurement model fit indices.

Fit Indices	Criteria	Indicators	Source
Chi-square	p > 0.05	1210.989	[68]
Chi-square/df	<5.00	4.485
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI)	>0.90	0.905
Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI)	>0.90	0.876
Relative Fit Index (RFI)	>0.90	0.914
Normed Fit Index (NFI)	>0.90	0.928
Comparative Fit Index (CFI)	>0.90	0.943
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA)	<0.08	0.063
Root Mean Square Residual (RMR)	<0.08	0.0812

, the CFA results yielded the following statistics: χ² = 1210.989, df = 270, p < 0.001, resulting in a χ²/df ratio of 4.485, which lies within the acceptable range of 2–5 [80]. Additional indices showed values of GFI = 0.905, RFI = 0.914, NFI = 0.928, CFI = 0.943, and RMSEA = 0.063, all exceeding the commonly accepted thresholds. The AGFI value (0.876) and RMR value (0.0812) were slightly below the ideal limits (0.90 and 0.08, respectively).

Despite these minor deviations, the overall fit indices confirm the robustness and reliability of the measurement model. The results indicate a reasonable fit between the hypothesized framework and the observed data, while identifying marginal areas for improvement in future model refinements.

4.2. Testing of the Structural Equation Model

The Structural Equation Model (SEM) was estimated using AMOS 23.0 with the maximum likelihood estimation method to evaluate the hypothesized conceptual framework of this study (Figure 2). As shown in

Table 6. Goodness-of-fit indices of the research model.

Fit Indices	Criteria	Indicators	Source
Chi-square	p > 0.05	1802.531	[68]
Chi-square/df	<5.00	4.462
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI)	>0.90	0.884
Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI)	>0.90	0.857
Relative Fit Index (RFI)	>0.90	0.900
Normed Fit Index (NFI)	>0.90	0.913
Comparative Fit Index (CFI)	>0.90	0.931
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA)	<0.08	0.063
Root Mean Square Residual (RMR)	<0.08	0.090

, the ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom (χ²/df) was 4.46, which is below the recommended upper threshold of 5, indicating an acceptable model fit. Furthermore, all estimated fit indices (CFI = 0.931, IFI = 0.931, TLI = 0.921, RMSEA = 0.063, and SRMR = 0.090) fall within acceptable ranges, supporting the plausibility and robustness of the structural model. However, it is noteworthy that the GFI (0.884) and AGFI (0.857) values are slightly below the conventional acceptance threshold of 0.90.

The results of the structural model assessing the intention to purchase sustainable argan oil (Figure 2) are summarized in

Table 7. Hypotheses results for the structural model.

Hypotheses	Constructs Relationships	Standardized Estimation (β)	Proposed Effect	Significance (p)	Decision
H1 (+)	APRE → INT	0.695	Positive	***	Accepted
H2 (+)	NS → INT	−0.025	Negative	0.334	Rejected
H3 (+)	CCP → INT	0.171	Positive	***	Accepted
H4 (+)	CAP → INT	0.173	Positive	***	Accepted
H5 (+)	LE → INT	−0.02	Negative	0.743	Rejected
H6 (+)	PE → INT	−0.046	Negative	0.126	Rejected
H7 (+)	LE → APRE	0.678	Positive	***	Accepted
H8 (+)	PE → APRE	0.029	Positive	0.444	Rejected
H9 (+)	LE → NS	0.367	Positive	***	Accepted
H10 (+)	PE → NS	−0.07	Negative	*	Rejected
H11 (+)	LE → CCP	0.441	Positive	***	Accepted
H12 (+)	PE → CCP	−0.108	Negative	**	Rejected
H13 (+)	LE → CAP	0.101	Positive	**	Accepted
H14 (+)	PE → CAP	0.094	Positive	*	Accepted

* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

. Of the fourteen causal paths specified in the initially proposed model, seven were found to be statistically significant, indicating the relative influence of these factors on consumers’ sustainable purchase intentions.

The results show that Attitude (ATT) towards green purchasing exerts a positive and significant impact on consumers’ intention to purchase sustainable argan oil, confirming Hypothesis H1. The Subjective Norm (SN), however, does not demonstrate a significant positive relationship with purchase intention; thus, H2 is rejected. Hypothesis H3, proposing a positive relationship between Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) and purchase intention, is confirmed. Similarly, Hypothesis H4, which suggests a positive relationship between Willingness to Pay (WTP) and purchase intention, is supported.

In contrast, Hypotheses H5 and H6, which posited positive relationships between Ecological Literacy (EL), Environmental Concern (EC), and purchase intention, were rejected due to negative and statistically insignificant effects.

Further analysis revealed that Hypotheses H7, H9, H11, and H13, which proposed positive and significant relationships between EL, ATT, SN, PBC, and WTP, were confirmed. Conversely, Hypotheses H8, H10, and H12, which proposed links between EC and the three constructs of the TPB, were rejected. Finally, Hypothesis H14, suggesting a positive relationship between EC and WTP, was confirmed.

Overall, these findings validate the extended TPB framework in explaining sustainable purchase behavior. ATT, PBC, and WTP emerged as the primary determinants influencing consumers’ intention to purchase sustainable argan oil, while EL and EC exerted indirect or limited effects.

5. Discussion

This study examined an extended TPB framework by incorporating willingness to pay (WTP), environmental concern (EC), and ecological literacy (EL) as additional antecedents of purchase intention toward sustainable argan oil among Moroccan consumers aged 18 and above. The findings provide robust empirical evidence on how behavioral, cognitive, and economic factors jointly shape sustainable consumption decisions in an environmentally sensitive agri-food context.

Overall, the proposed model explains 56.1% of the variance in purchase intention, which is substantially higher than the average explanatory power reported in classical TPB studies (around 39%) [35]. This result confirms that extending the TPB with ecological and economic constructs significantly enhances its predictive capacity in the context of sustainable argan oil.

5.1. Core TPB Relationships

The results show that attitude toward sustainable argan oil (H1) has a strong and positive effect on purchase intention. This confirms that favorable evaluations of sustainability-related attributes such as environmental protection, fair compensation of forest users, and product authenticity significantly encourage green purchasing behavior. This finding is consistent with previous studies on green and sustainable products [23,81] and highlights the importance of communication strategies that emphasize both environmental and socio-economic benefits.

In contrast, subjective norms (H2) do not significantly influence purchase intention. This result aligns with earlier research suggesting that social pressure may play a limited role in certain green consumption contexts [46,82], although it differs from studies reporting a strong normative influence [14,64]. In the Moroccan context, this weak effect may reflect limited social visibility of sustainable argan oil, insufficient collective discourse on sustainable consumption, or the perception that purchasing eco-friendly products is a personal rather than socially driven decision.

Perceived behavioral control (H3) has a significant and positive effect on purchase intention, indicating that consumers who feel capable of identifying, accessing, and affording sustainable argan oil are more likely to intend to purchase it. This result is consistent with studies on sustainable food and organic products [22,83,84]. It underlines the importance of product availability, trust in eco-labels, and perceived affordability in facilitating sustainable purchasing behavior.

Finally, willingness to pay (H4) emerges as a significant predictor of purchase intention. This finding confirms that acceptance of price premiums is a key mechanism through which pro-environmental attitudes and motivations translate into effective market demand for sustainable argan oil. Similar conclusions have been reported in studies on eco-labeled and sustainable products [85,86].

5.2. Role of Ecological Literacy

The results indicate that ecological literacy does not directly influence purchase intention (H5 rejected), suggesting that environmental knowledge alone is insufficient to trigger sustainable purchasing behavior. However, ecological literacy has significant and positive effects on attitude (H7 accepted), subjective norms (H9 accepted), perceived behavioral control, and willingness to pay (H11 accepted). These findings demonstrate that ecological literacy mainly operates through indirect pathways, by shaping cognitive evaluations and economic readiness rather than acting as a direct driver of intention.

This pattern is consistent with previous studies showing that environmental knowledge enhances positive attitudes and perceived competence toward green products [87,88,89,90]. Moreover, the positive relationship between ecological literacy and willingness to pay supports earlier findings that informed consumers are more inclined to accept higher prices for environmentally responsible products [91], although contradictory results have been observed in some contexts [41].

5.3. Role of Environmental

Environmental concern does not have a direct effect on purchase intention (H6 rejected) nor on attitude toward sustainable argan oil (H8 rejected). This suggests that concern for environmental issues does not automatically translate into favorable product evaluations or purchasing intentions. However, environmental concern significantly influences subjective norms (H10 accepted), willingness to pay (H12 accepted), and perceived behavioral control (H14 accepted), thereby exerting an indirect effect on purchase intention.

The acceptance of H14 indicates that environmentally concerned consumers feel more capable of making sustainable purchasing decisions, possibly due to stronger internal motivation to overcome informational, financial, or accessibility barriers. This result is consistent with previous research showing that environmental concern strengthens internal commitment and economic acceptance of green products [46,64].

Overall, these findings support the view that environmental concern primarily influences sustainable consumption through cognitive and economic mediators rather than through direct intention formation [85,92,93].

6. Conclusions, Limitations, and Future Research

This study provides both theoretical and managerial contributions to the understanding of sustainable consumption behavior. From a theoretical perspective, it offers an advanced application of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to explain Moroccan consumers’ purchase intention toward eco-friendly argan oil. The findings confirm the robustness of the TPB framework and demonstrate the added explanatory value of integrating willingness to pay (WTP), ecological literacy (EL), and environmental concern (EC). By incorporating these cognitive, affective, and economic dimensions, the extended model improves the understanding of how sustainability-related motivations translate into purchase intentions for environmentally sensitive agri-food products.

From a managerial and policy perspective, the results provide actionable insights for stakeholders in the argan oil value chain. Strengthening positive attitudes through sustainability-oriented communication, enhancing perceived behavioral control by improving product accessibility and trust in eco-labels, and increasing ecological literacy through awareness and education initiatives can positively influence consumers’ willingness to pay and market demand for eco-friendly argan oil. Policymakers, cooperatives, and private actors can use these findings to design targeted eco-labeling schemes, transparent pricing strategies, and public awareness programs that emphasize the environmental and social value of sustainable argan production.

Despite these contributions, several limitations should be acknowledged. Although the extended TPB model explains a substantial share of variance in purchase intention (56.1%), a meaningful proportion remains unexplained, indicating that sustainable consumption behavior is influenced by additional factors. Variables such as perceived consumer effectiveness, trust in eco-labels, perceived product quality, and cultural or contextual factors were not included in the model and may further enhance its explanatory power. In addition, the measurement of subjective norms may require refinement, as alternative indicators could better capture social influence in the Moroccan context.

Finally, this study relies on a quantitative, cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to capture deeper motivations, values, and lived experiences underlying consumers’ decisions. Future research could adopt mixed or qualitative approaches to explore these dimensions in greater depth. Moreover, extending the model to different cultural contexts, testing moderating variables, or integrating complementary frameworks such as the Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) or Norm Activation Theory (NAT) could further enrich the understanding of sustainable consumer behavior in environmentally sensitive value chains.