Gender Disparities in the Access and Use of Urban Public Transport in Abuja, Nigeria

: In Nigerian cities, many different urban mass transit modes convey people from one point to another. However, each gender faces unique challenges and has different experiences of accessing and using public transport systems in metropolitan cities such as Abuja, especially with its growing increase in infrastructural development and its being the seat of government. Most studies of urban mobility have been undertaken in developed countries; there is little evidence on this subject in developing countries such as Nigeria. This paper aims to assess gender disparities in the access and use of urban public transport in Abuja, Nigeria. This research explored individual experiences and challenges in accessing and using public transport services and making recommendations for improvements. A mixed design approach was used to collect primary data comprising qualitative and quantitative data to achieve the research goal. Qualitative data were collected by conducting a focus group discussion which aided the researcher in gathering the overall perceptions of public transport commuters in terms of structure, experience, and challenges, and was subsequently used in designing a questionnaire for the quantitative data. This research sought to ﬁll a gap in knowledge of gender disparities in public transport use in Abuja, Nigeria, by looking into the structure of the public transport system and how it affects men and women differently. The research ﬁndings revealed that females use more public transport services than males, that demographic characteristics affected respondents’ choices of public transport use, and that trip-related characteristics played a vital role in their use of public transport. It further revealed that men are generally more satisﬁed and face fewer challenges than women in accessing and using public transport services. There is, therefore, a need to improve the system to cater for the different mobility needs of women and to develop policies and frameworks to regulate the delivery of public transport services in Nigeria.


Introduction
In the 1990s, it became widely known that women and men have significantly different demand patterns for transportation services and that transportation sector interventions typically did not adequately address women's demands.The scope of the challenge and prospects were discussed in the context of poverty reduction and the relevance of gender equality [1].Gender is commonly identified as a key explanatory factor for travel behaviour; since women's role in societal structure has changed in the past few decades, the question arises as to whether the "gender" factor still plays a decisive role in differences in mobility within the working population [2].It is well known that travel behaviour is gendered.While there are differences in public transportation access between places, they all have one thing in common: women's travel patterns differ from those of men [3].Generally, women travel shorter distances but spend more time travelling than males [4].Since they make more non-work-related journeys, women make more and more complex trips than men.Women's journeys are often of longer durations than men's due to the prevalence of trip

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What is the structure of public transport services in terms of men's and women's accessibility and usage in Abuja?

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What are the various experiences of men and women in accessing and using public transport services in Abuja?

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What challenges do men and women encounter in accessing and using public transport systems in Abuja?

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What interventions can be recommended to address gender disparities in public transport access in Abuja?
Gender and public transportation studies are critical for a nation's social and economic development, particularly in a developing country such as Nigeria.Men and women use public transportation due to their different social roles and economic activities.In other words, good public transportation improves or expands opportunities in health, education, and employment.Consequently, understanding the gender differences in accessibility will be crucial to enhancing existing transport services and helping design more efficient transport policies.This study reviewed current considerations of gender requirements in public transportation practices and presented the results of focus group discussions by means of which gender experiences were collected from various public transportation terminals by exploring gender perceptions and attitudes toward mobility access.The knowledge collected through these methods aided in discovering new information about gendered transportation accessibility.More importantly, this research serves as the foundation for a survey that will look into the differences in female and male travel experiences and assessments of the level of mobility available.The findings of this study will highlight gender disparities in transportation accessibility in Nigeria and contribute to the elimination of disparities in Abuja's public transportation systems.

Literature Review 2.1. The Structure and Institutional Arrangement of Urban Transportation in Africa
Cities in Africa are rapidly expanding.In 2000, one out of three Africans lived in urban centres, and this figure is projected to be one out of two by 2030 [15].As a growing percentage of the world population lives in cities, urbanisation in Africa has become one of the most important contemporary phenomena.In light of this tendency, urban transportation concerns are critical for meeting big urban agglomerations' passenger and freight mobility needs.Due to the various forms of transportation, the numerous sources and destinations, and the volume and variety of traffic, transportation in metropolitan areas is highly complicated.Public transport is an essential mode of transportation, particularly in densely populated areas [16].Contemporary cities are extremely complicated and are serviced with transportation facilities to facilitate the essential functional interrelationships among the various land uses in urban regions.Transport systems serve as the veins and arteries of cities, connecting social and functional zones.Intra-urban transportation, in particular, serves to connect the city's many parts: work, school, recreation, and so on, into a coherent whole.As a result, urban centres as we know them today will not be viable until transportation provides for the mobility of people and things that allows them to function [17].
The private sector (individuals, cooperative organisations, enterprises, and transport unions) and the government mass transit outfit, operated by the Abuja Urban Mass Transit Company (AUMTCO), provide public transportation services in the Federal Capital Territory.The latter is often unregulated, but the former is responsible for scheduling, bus routing, and fare charges.Nigeria's urbanisation is accelerating at a fast pace.Nigeria has the largest population and highest average population density in Africa, with a population of over 200 million people living in an area of around one million square kilometres.Between 2000 and 2004, the proportion of people living in cities increased from 36% to 38%.An increase in urban transportation accompanies urbanisation [18].According to studies in urban transportation, more than 75% of city dwellers rely on public transport, while only 25% rely on private mobility.Nigerians' socio-economic characteristics play a significant role in this.The general decline in Nigeria's economy, which resulted from the worldwide recession of the 1980s, impacted all sectors, including the transportation system.Most Nigerians in cities were more affected than those in rural areas because people's commuting distances in cities had increased significantly.This demonstrates that commuting in cities is becoming increasingly difficult and inefficient as the city's territory expands [19].

Gender Differences in Access to Public Transport Services
The increased participation of women in the job market has increased the necessity for travel; children are less commonly home-schooled, and hospital visits and caregiving are sometimes delegated to nurseries, among other developments.Nonetheless, because household duties have not changed at the same rate as women's engagement in the labour market, many women are forced to accept harsh working circumstances in the informal sector, resulting in a gender pay gap [20].On average, women in metropolitan areas make more and shorter excursions at varied times than men.They take public transportation and walk more than males, and they travel to more distant destinations during off-peak and non-working hours [21].They are also more prone to trip chains, which means that they travel for different purposes and to multiple destinations in the same trip.This can be factored into fare structures and the design of new transportation routes.Women primarily rely on public transportation and its accessibility: when there is only one vehicle in the house, the male is more likely to use it.Women, aside from walking, rely heavily on public transportation [21].Accessing public transportation is challenging for anyone with a physical impairment.They have difficulty boarding and alighting, whether when travelling with children and packages or because the steps are excessively steep.Women are also more impacted by issues of quality or capability.Overcrowding, for example, presents a security risk for women since it encourages grabbing and other unwanted behaviour [21].
Women are more likely than men to use public transportation, who, in typical societies, drive to work and have the first right to use a car in the home [13].Minelgait ė et al. [22] revealed that women often engage in time-consuming activities, such as synchronising, planning, and coordinating with household members, as well as the temporal and spatial patterns of public transportation and those of other facilities and services, such as shops, schools, and childcare, among others.All of this stem from developing far more complicated trip chaining for women.As a result, to properly comprehend gender-based mobility, one must first contextualise the institutional and familial context in which each individual lives.Characteristics such as their families' poor income, places of residency, age, or social background, according to [23], compound the differences identified in the travel patterns of the different genders.Other characteristics, such as race, social status, money, age, work, and family responsibilities, might influence gendered patterns, and these differences are reflected in aggregate statistics.However, research shows that the differences in men's and women's travel patterns are due to more than a few factors, indicating that, regardless of the household, there are still differences in how men and women access public transport [24].
In comparison to men, women have a wider range of modal options.When public transportation is available and longer distances must be travelled, they are more likely to use it.As a result, they spend more time travelling and thus suffer from time poverty, or they seek work in regions that requires them to travel shorter distances.Even in some situations, women are more likely than males to work from home.As a result, women favour forms of transportation that allow for multipurpose journeys; [25,26] reported that in the Southwestern part of Nigeria, men's and women's decisions on whether or not to live in a city are influenced by their household income.According to the study, men commute by automobile to various activity patterns, but women commute by foot for short distances and rely on public transportation, which has high costs.Withers [27] highlighted the indices of an accessible public transport system, which include: safety, reliability, comfort, availability, public transport fare, distance to access points, and convenience.According to Ng and Acker [4], several empirical studies conducted in developed and developing countries have shown that women travel shorter distances, spend more time travelling, and prefer public transport and taxi services to cars more than men.Scarcity of resources, economic instability, and environmental collapse increasingly diminish human well-being.The largest portion of the burden of environmental crisis is borne by women and specifically by women in developing countries [28].This burden adds to the economic, social, and political participation inequities already faced by women, and the lack of voice leads to negative social justice outcomes for women, children, families, and communities.Women's access, as leaders, administrators, advocates, and citizen experts, creates opportunities to exercise their decision-making and problem-solving proficiencies and leads to more inclusive and therefore more responsive public action [29].Due to the nature of responsibilities, often women are forced to take short but more frequent trips than men [30].
Moreover, land use, the physical layout and design of road networks, the interior design of buses, as well as the design of bus stops and connecting sidewalks, greatly affect the needs of women in terms of ease, comfort, and safety [31,32].However, public transit infrastructures (i.e., footpaths, bus stops, routes, and buses) are designed so that they are insensitive to their needs [33].Therefore, diligent attention needs to be paid to the design of infrastructures, with an account of their common need profile and a special provision for pregnant women and those who travel with children [13].
The majority of research studies on the mode of operation of public transportation services in Nigeria ignore the quality of transportation services in terms of comfort, affordability, safety, and income level, which are critical to urban inhabitants' mobility patterns in any nation.Therefore, this research aims to assess gender disparities in the access and use of urban public transport in Abuja, Nigeria.The study also analyses the experiences of men and women in using urban public transport services and investigates the factors that influence their choice of transport.
Moreover, rapid growth in Nigeria's major cities is an essential element of urbanisation.However, insufficient transportation infrastructure and services have made urban mobility chaotic, complicated, and uncomfortable for commuters.In general, Nigeria's transportation system shows a sector with a skewed developmental approach, posing significant issues in urban mobility.Understandings of the nature of Nigeria's transportation system, the state of transportation infrastructure, gender, and difficulties with urban public transportation services were all suggested in the study.However, it is sufficient to highlight that most research on public transportation operations in Nigeria were conducted in the country's southwest, with little attention paid to the North Central zone, where the study region is located.Therefore, there is a need for comprehensive studies in exploring disparities in the access and use of the urban public transport system, especially in Abuja, the country's capital and seat of government.

Research Design
The underlying research method is based on McCusker and Gunaydin [34], which suggests that a mixed research design combining qualitative and quantitative research methods can be advantageous when investigating complex research problems.For example, while qualitative data allow for a more in-depth comprehension of survey responses, statistical analysis allows for a complete assessment of response patterns [34].In addition, the research method enables the analysis of various aspects, some of which may be linked or impact one another, allowing a deeper look at issues related to gender and transport accessibility in Nigeria.
Thus, to achieve the research objectives and properly answer the research questions, the researchers carried out a qualitative study to gain a general overview of the individual experiences of both men and women in public transport, their opinions, and information regarding the challenges they faced.Information from the qualitative data was used to complement the information from the literature review to design the questionnaire for the quantitative aspect of the study; this is because the findings from the literature address issues from various parts of the world but are not entirely specific to the study area.

Data Collection Techniques
The participants selected for data collection were divided into two groups.The first group consisted of the respondents involved in the qualitative study (focus group discussion); the second consisted of those involved in the quantitative research (questionnaire survey).Purposive sampling was used to choose participants for the focus group discussion [35].This method was adopted because of its ability to recruit participants based on their relevance to the study according to their experience of accessibility and usage of the public transport system, which was a criterion for sample selection [36].The aim of carrying out the focus group discussion was to gather perceptions and various experiences of people in accessing public transport systems; therefore, the purposive sampling technique was applicable here.The second category of respondents were those taking part in the questionnaire survey.These participants were chosen based on a simple random sampling technique to ensure that each member of the population had an equal probability of being selected [37].
Focus groups: Three focus group discussions were conducted at three public transport terminals (Nyanya, Aya, and Mararaba/Karu).Eighteen participants took part in the focus group discussions, comprising eight men and ten women in three separate groups.Out of the eighteen, seven were from Nyanya, six from Aya, and five from Mararaba/Karu.The majority of the participants were civil servants, while the others were businesswomen, ICT consultants, a Youth Corper and private workers.The monthly income of the participants who provided their income details ranged between NGN 30,000 and NGN 80,000.The participants were found to have academic qualifications ranging from diploma to bachelor's degrees (BSc).
The qualitative data obtained from the focus group discussion can be discussed according to five broad themes, namely, accessibility and usage, safety, cost of services, major barriers and key challenges, and needs and requirements.These five themes formed the basis for developing sections three to five of the questionnaire survey instrument.
Questionnaire design: A questionnaire survey was employed to collect quantitative data for the study.This qualitative survey method assists the researcher when collecting a large amount of data due to its efficiency [38].Combining qualitative (questionnaire development through focus groups) and quantitative research tools is an attempt to improve methodological reliability and the ability to capture several "non-statistical" dimensions of a phenomenon that are often overlooked when a single methodological approach is used [39].
The questionnaire was divided into five sections.The first section of the questionnaire sought information about the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents.The second section probed into trip-related characteristics.Here, participants were asked questions about the particular mode of public transport they used the most, the time it is used, the purpose and frequency of their trips, the weekly cost, and travel time.The third section focused on the various user experiences of using public transport services.A couple of statements were presented for commuters to choose from according to how well they agreed or disagreed with them.The statements revolved around comfort, availability, reliability, safety, and congestion along users' daily routes.The fourth section dealt with the different challenges and barriers encountered by participants in their use of public transport.Challenges such as unstable transportation fares, poor vehicle maintenance, fewer buses at the terminal, and inadequate lighting and facilities at the bus terminals were among those presented to participants for which they were to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement.The last part of the questionnaire concerned suggestions to ensure gender equity.The last three sections of the questionnaire were primarily developed from the focus group discussion results and measured on a five-point Likert scale.Table 1, below, shows the structure of the survey instrument.
Main Survey: Increasing global access to the internet makes online data collection popular, fast, and efficient [40].However, due to the low internet usage of older demographics and rural dwellers, the main survey was carried out using a combination of online and paper-and-pencil survey methods to prevent response bias.The survey data were collected between 20 September and 6 October 2021 at the transport terminals.In addition, ethical considerations, such as participants' consent and anonymity and data protection guidelines, were strictly adhered to.

Data Analysis
We used the constant comparison analysis technique to analyse the qualitative data from the focus group discussion.This method was preferred because of its advantage over other methods when analysing multiple focus groups within the same study, such as this study with three focus groups [41].Descriptive statistics were used to describe and present the characteristics of the sample data and the study population.Mean score (MS) analysis was also used to describe the relative rankings of the participants' perceptions in the form of user experiences, challenges, and solutions relating to gender and equity in the delivery of public transport services in the study area.The Mann-Whitney U test was used to test for differences between the two independent groups of interest in this study (male and female) on continuous measures.This non-parametric test provides an alternative to the t-test for independent samples.The Mann-Whitney U Test compared median scores to the mean scores of the two groups in the t-test [42].This method was adopted to investigate the difference in responses of the male and female respondents because of its relative strength in detecting differences between population groups compared with the t-test [43].

Qualitative Data
The analysis of the qualitative data obtained from the three focus group discussions yielded five themes, namely, Accessibility and Usage, Safety, Cost of Services, Major Barriers and Key Challenges, and Needs and Requirements.These themes are briefly discussed below.
Accessibility and Usage: Participants of all three focus groups raised issues regarding the availability, frequency of usage, modes, comfortability, travel time, and average distance covered by public transport.All the respondents (P1-P18 for anonymity) indicated that public transportation is available, but its reliability is questionable.For instance, P1 stated, "Yes, it is available, but the reliability is not guaranteed".Even though some respondents (P8 and P9) were less concerned about reliability and accessibility because of the level of service from ride-hailing companies, such as Uber, Bolt and Taxify, the cost of these services was of significant concern.Notably, P8 stated, "Yes, much available because I use Bolt App.It is always available and convenient but expensive".Most of the respondents (P1-P2, P4-P9, and P11-P17) used public transport daily, while some used it occasionally because they had private vehicles (P3, P10, and P18).The respondents indicated that their mode of transportation was a matter of distance and destination.P1 stated, "Depending on where I am going, bike for short distance and Taxi, bus and Keke Napep for long-distance".Local taxis, buses, bikes, and tricycles were the common modes of transportation, while very few used private cars and modern taxi services, such as Uber, Bolt, and Taxify.Participants were dissatisfied with the level of comfort of public transport services.It was observed from their responses that a few factors, such as overloading of passengers, long waiting times, and few buses, were responsible for poor comfort and low satisfaction.For instance, P12 stated, "Yes, to some extent, I think it is not really convenient because of overloading of persons.Imagine two in front and four in the back seat".
Safety: Given the country's insecurity level, many of the participants preferred to enter public transport from the park because it reduces the risk of being kidnapped or robbed.For instance, P1 stated, "Safe to enter transport from parks rather than roadside," while P7 indicated, "I feel safe using public transport, especially with this high rise of insecurity".In summary, the participants had a general sense of insecurity, and most of them preferred to travel with others for security reasons.
Cost of Services: The participants (P1-P3, P7, P12-P13) using public transport spent between NGN 500 and NGN 1200 per day on transport, while those using taxis (P8 and P9) spent between NGN 4500 and NGN 6500 per day.Despite being a means of public transport, it is clear that modern taxi companies charge commuters more money due to the comfort and level of technology integration.However, not everyone can afford to spend so much money on transport.
Major Barriers and Challenges: According to the focus group participants, the major challenges facing public transport users include long waiting times and accessibility.For instance, P10 emphasised that "Accessing public transport in the morning is very difficult", while P11 stated, "I have to trek a far distance before I get bus . . . . . ." This means that users have to struggle to occupy the few available buses because of the limited services at certain times of the day, particularly during peak hours.Participants also highlighted the high cost of transportation, traffic congestion, scarcity of buses, inadequate public transport services to match the high rate of population and demand in the area, and poor management as some of the transport challenges.
Needs and Requirements: The majority of participants (60%) believed that the provision of more buses by the government at a subsidised cost on major routes, staff development, provision of incentives to drivers, proactive maintenance of existing buses, checkmating corruption, partnership with network giants to increase network coverage, a collaboration between government and the private sectors, and allowing bike and tricycle use in strategic areas would facilitate movement and reduce pressures on buses.

Demographic Characteristics
This study was carried out to assess gender disparities in the access and use of urban public transport in Abuja, Nigeria.Table 2 and Figure 1 show the demographic characteristics of the respondents.Estimates indicate that 51.90% of the respondents were female, while 48.10% were male.The age distribution in Figure 1a shows that almost all age groups were well represented.Figure 1f highlights the educational attainment gap between men and women in Nigeria.We found that men were more educated than women.The majority of the women (56.9%) were educated to Diploma or A-level compared to 26.3% of their male counterparts.More men than women had either a first degree, a master's degree, or a Ph.D. The results explain the gender inequality in the Nigerian education system and society [44], particularly in the northern part of Nigeria.
Similarly, Figure 1b compares the monthly income of women and men.The figure shows that women in the study area earn less than men: 72.1% of women earn less than NGN 5000 monthly compared to 31.2% of men.While 68.8% of men were found to earn a higher income (above NGN 5000), only 27.9% of women reported earning a similar amount monthly.The sample estimates indicate that the sample data adequately represent the study population in all the demographic characteristics presented.26.3% of their male counterparts.More men than women had either a first degree, a master's degree, or a Ph.D. The results explain the gender inequality in the Nigerian education system and society [44], particularly in the northern part of Nigeria.Similarly, Figure 1b compares the monthly income of women and men.The figure shows that women in the study area earn less than men: 72.1% of women earn less than NGN 5000 monthly compared to 31.2% of men.While 68.8% of men were found to earn a higher income (above NGN 5000), only 27.9% of women reported earning a similar amount monthly.The sample estimates indicate that the sample data adequately represent the study population in all the demographic characteristics presented.

Trip-Related Characteristics
Table 3 and Figure 2 show the trip-related characteristics of the respondents.Figure 1a shows that most of the respondents (58.12%) travelled by shared taxi, 10.18% by tricycles (locally called Keke), 16.3% used ride-hailing services (such as Uber, Bolt and Taxify), 8.22% travelled by bus, and 7.05% used Okada (motorbike taxi).While a significant proportion of women travelled by shared taxi, more women than men travelled by Keke and Okada.Similar to earlier research findings, Figure 2c,e indicate that women make more trips per week and spend more on transport than men, respectively [45].Meanwhile, contrary to the assertion that women seek work in regions that require them to travel short distances [4,26], we found that women travel greater distances than men (refer to Figure 2d).Additionally, 44.81% of the respondents spend between 10 and 30 minutes, 27.98% spend between 30 and 45 minutes, 25.24% spend more than 45 minutes, and 1.96% spend less than 10 minutes on a trip.Figure 2b compares the travel time of men and women; it can be seen that the travel time of most men (68.8%) compared to 26.4% of women is between 0 and 30 minutes.Meanwhile, 73.6% of women reported a travel time above 30 minutes compared to 31.2% of men.In summary, women spend more time and money on travel and travel longer distances than men.However, we hold the view that due to the high cost of accommodation in most city centres and considering the low-income levels of women, their tendency to make more trips and the odds of spending more on transport, as a result, explain this observation.We believe that women are more likely to rent in regions with low rental charges, which may require longer commute distances.
Regarding the time of trips, 54.60% used public transport at any time of the day, 28.57% used public transport in the morning, 10.18% used public transport in the evening while 6.65% used it in the afternoon.While men used public transportation in the morning, afternoon and evening, women used public transport at any time of the day.Concerning the use of public transport, 47.75% used only public transport, while 52.25% combined public transport with a private mode of transport.Most women used only public transport, while men preferred to combine public with private transport.Of the respondents, 62.82% embarked on trips for work, 8.22% for school/education, 8.02% for recreational activities, 7.83% for shopping, 7.05% for medical reasons, 5.68% for religious engagement, while others (0.39%) embarked on trips for personal reasons.
Table 4 shows the results of the Mann-Whitney U and Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) Z tests carried out for the trip-related characteristics from both gender perspectives (Male and Female).Trip-related characteristics significantly different at a 95% confidence level are listed below:

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TC3: "Trip time of day" between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265), U = 19322.00,W = 49703.00,Z = −8.83,p = 0.00, and KS (Z = 4.81, p = 0.00).Males have a mean rank of 202.04, while females have a mean rank of 306.09.This means that women's patterns significantly differ from men's.Women have no definitive time they use public transport, possibly due to women's complex trips patterns and the theorised triple burdens of women [33,46], while men have structured times at which they use public transport services.

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TC4: "Public transport usage" between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265), U = 14847.00,W = 50092.00,Z = −12.30,p = 0.00, and KS (Z = 6.15, p = 0.00).Males have a mean rank of 328.15, while females have a mean rank of 189.03.This indicates that males have much more flexibility over their choice of public transport usage and appear less captive than females.Comparatively, men were found to earn a higher income than women (refer to Figure 1b) and therefore are more likely to be able to afford to own a car than women.• TC6: "Frequency of trip" between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265), U = 23171.50,W = 53552.50,Z = −5.81,p = 0.00, and KS (Z = 2.34, p = 0.00).Men have a mean rank of 217.69, while the mean rank of women is 291.56.The significant difference in ranking between men and women indicates that women make more trips than men.
The findings support the assertion that women make more trips than men [45].• TC7: "Trip cost" between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265), U = 19986.50,W = 50367.50,Z = −8.25,p = 0.00, and KS (Z = 4.83, p = 0.00).The mean rank of women (303.58)compared with 204.75 for men suggests that women spend more on transport fares than men.Women's high number of trips coupled with their lower earnings implies that women spend a higher proportion of their income on transport than men.This is one of the reasons for poverty among women in sub-Saharan Africa [47].• TC8: "Trip duration" between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265), U = 19175.00,W = 49556.00,Z = −8.62,p = 0.00, and KS (Z = 4.78, p = 0.00).Men have a mean rank of 201.45 compared to a mean rank of 306.64 for women.The results indicate that women spend more time travelling than men.This result buttress the findings of Ng and Acker [4].The amount of time women spend travelling could have a significant impact on their space-activity-time budget [48] and consequently on job options and wellbeing.

Experiences in the Access and Use of Public Transport Services in Abuja
Table 5 shows the ranking of the ten (10) experiences in the access and use of public transport in Abuja with respect to the mean scores in descending order.Women reported significantly lower satisfaction with public transport accessibility, safety, reliability, and comfort than men.With a mean score of 4.60, women considered the transport fares high, compared to 3.02 for men.Table 2 indicates that 33.3% of men have a household income above NGN 100,000 whiles only 14.7% of women earn that much.Assuming that both gender spend the same amount on transport per week, then, the percentage of women income spent on transport fares will be higher than that of men.
Table 6 shows the results of Mann-Whitney U and Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z tests carried out for the experiences of access and use of public transport from both gender perspectives (Male and Female).All the ten (10) experiences were significant at a 0.05 level.However, E10 was not significant based on the KS test p-value.The experience statements are statistically significantly different at a 0.05 level of significance.Furthermore, the differences in the responses of both sexes are descriptively presented using a violin plot, as shown in Figure 3.It is evident from the plot that men are generally more satisfied with the public transport service compared to women.Women selected lower scores for E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E9, and E10 compared to men.Women are less satisfied with the level of accessibility and safety, comfort, reliability, availability, fulfilment of daily needs, and waiting time than men.It can be seen from the plot that men have fewer challenges accessing and using public transport compared to women, as shown in Figure 3.A greater percentage of women use only public transport to meet their mobility needs than men.Likewise, more women make shopping trips and trip chain than men, as shown in Table 5.This means they commute with shopping bags and kids in some cases, and the existing transport system does not cater for such needs, causing discomfort and other inconveniences.However, women selected high scores for E6, E7, and E8.This is because the issue of transport cost, traffic congestion, and car ownership affect most women due to their trip frequencies, longer travel times and low-income levels.

Challenges against Gender Equity in Service Delivery
Table 7 shows the ranking of the twelve ( 12) challenges against gender equity in vice delivery with respect to the mean scores in descending order.Using the one-sa t-test, the table also reveals that most (83%) of the hypothesised experiences show s icant (p < 0.05) differences between men and women.

Challenges against Gender Equity in Service Delivery
Table 7 shows the ranking of the twelve ( 12) challenges against gender equity in service delivery with respect to the mean scores in descending order.Using the one-sample t-test, the table also reveals that most (83%) of the hypothesised experiences show significant (p < 0.05) differences between men and women.
Table 8 shows the results of Mann-Whitney U and Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z tests carried out on the challenges against gender equity in service delivery from both gender perspectives (Male and Female).All the twelve (12) statements were found to be statistically significantly different at a 0.05 level of confidence.
The difference in the responses of both sexes are presented graphically using a violin plot, as shown in Figure 4.It is evident from the plot that women are more concerned about challenges presented in the study compared to men because the mean scores for women for each of the challenges are higher than those for men, as presented in Table 7. Variables such as inadequate lighting, unhygienic facilities, provision of backrests, and shelter against harsh weather conditions are some of the transport challenges in Abuja.The results indicate that women are more concerned about these challenges than men, possibly because women are more likely to travel encumbered or accompanied compared to men.Furthermore, high and unstable transportation fares is a major challenge for most women due to their low-income level compared to men.In addition, the lack of buses at the terminal and overcrowding lead to women being susceptible to harassment and danger because of the long waiting times, hence leaving them vulnerable.
plot, as shown in Figure 4.It is evident from the plot that women are more c about challenges presented in the study compared to men because the mean women for each of the challenges are higher than those for men, as presented i Variables such as inadequate lighting, unhygienic facilities, provision of back shelter against harsh weather conditions are some of the transport challenges The results indicate that women are more concerned about these challenges t possibly because women are more likely to travel encumbered or accompanied c to men.Furthermore, high and unstable transportation fares is a major challeng women due to their low-income level compared to men.In addition, the lack o the terminal and overcrowding lead to women being susceptible to harassment ger because of the long waiting times, hence leaving them vulnerable.

The Need to Ensure Gender Equity
Table 9 shows the ranking of the twelve (12) suggested solutions to achieve gender equity in transport.The table also shows that all the hypothesised statements are statistically significant (p < 0.05) using the one-sample t-test.To obtain the most significant solutions based on the mean score, a threshold of 3.50 was set with a reference to the p-value, which should be less than 0.05 for each of the significant variable.Therefore, only eleven (11) solutions were considered significant because they were above the set 3.50 threshold.
Table 10 shows the Mann-Whitney U and Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z tests carried out on the recommendations to ensure gender equity in public transport from both gender perspectives (Male and Female).Out of the twelve (12) suggested solutions, only one (1) was not significant (S3), while the rest were statistically significantly different at a 0.05 confidence level.
The differences in the responses of both sexes are shown graphically using a violin plot in Figure 5. Table 9 shows the mean scores of the responses of women and men. Figure 5 and Table 9 show that both men and women agree that the implementation of items S1 to S12 are likely to enhance the service quality of and user satisfaction with the transport services and deliver gender equity in the transport sector.In general, while both sexes agree on the relevance of the suggested measures, women are observed to consider the suggested measures more highly than men.The difference in acceptance of the suggested measures is observed to be statistically different at a 95% confidence level (refer to Table 10).the suggested measures more highly than men.The difference in acceptance o gested measures is observed to be statistically different at a 95% confidence leve Table 10).

Discussion
This study assesses the gender disparities in the access and use of urb transport in Abuja, Nigeria.The study has a total of four objectives which in assessing the structure of public transport services and how they cater for the needs of men and women in Abuja; (2) analysing the various experiences of

Discussion
This study assesses the gender disparities in the access and use of urban public transport in Abuja, Nigeria.The study has a total of four objectives which include: (1) assessing the structure of public transport services and how they cater for the mobility needs of men and women in Abuja; (2) analysing the various experiences of men and women in the access and use of public transport services in Abuja; (3) examining the barriers to the access and use of public transport systems in Abuja; and (4) recommending interventions to address gender disparities in public transportation accessibility in Abuja.The study used descriptive (frequency distribution table, mean score) and inferential (Mann-Whitney U Test) statistics to achieve the research objectives.
The first objective assessed the structure of public transport services.New Nyanya, Berger Junction, and Deidei were revealed as the top three terminals many commuters use.This finding agrees with the research of Nwankwo and Barimoda [49].The researchers found that most commuters move through the Nyanya route.The results also show that more than half of the public transport users in Abuja prefer to use shared taxis.
It has been reported that car ownership and the percentage of the population of Abuja who drive have shown rising trends [50].This observation is occasioned by the convenience and flexibility car ownership provides its users and commuters' dissatisfaction with public transportation services.For instance, Harcourt et al. [50] indicated that most commuters in Abuja who use public buses are dissatisfied with their services.A substantial percentage of commuters (62.80%) make trips for work, while many commuters (52.20%) take public transportation five to six times per week.It was found that women make more trips than men: 69.1% of women were found to make five or more trips in a week compared to 48.6% of men.This finding is consistent with research in gender studies suggesting that women make more trips per week than men [45].Most women (83.6%) spend at least NGN 1000 on transportation compared to 40.9% of men, while 59.1% of men reported spending less than NGN 1000 on transport compared to only 16.4% of women.Public transportation in Nigeria is largely operated by private operators who are motivated by profit.Nigeria has no social interventions to support its low-income and vulnerable populations.Thus, even though they are earning less than men, women spend a higher proportion of their income on transport due to the absence of any form of support for the poor and vulnerable.Sunday and Ademola [51] argued that because commuters work on a fixed budget for the workplace and other forms of commuting, there is a relationship between public transportation operator charges and commuter patronage.Odumosu [52] argued that transport costs should not exceed 30% of an individual's disposable income.Lower costs for public transport would encourage more people to embrace it as their primary means of transportation and would be welcomed by low-income earners, particularly women.
A large portion (72.8%) of the commuters sampled spent between 10 and 45 minutes commuting, covering between 1 and over 5 km (97.4%).Most women (73.6%) had travel times above 30 minutes compared to 31.2% of men, while 68.8% of men compared to 26.4% of women had commuting times between 0 and 30 minutes.Additionally, women were found to travel greater distances than men (refer to Figure 1d), contrary to the assertion that women seek work in regions that require them to travel shorter distances [4,26].Women make more trips per week and spend more on transport than men [45].
We assert that due to the high rental cost in most city centres and considering the lowincome levels of most women, the tendency to make more trips and the odds of spending more on transport explain this observation.We believe women are more likely to rent in regions with low rental charges, which may require longer commute distances.
The second research objective analysed the experience of both genders in the access and use of public transport.The non-parametric test (Mann-Whitney U Test) showed a disparity between both sexes regarding their experience and satisfaction with the public transport system.This means that men and women have different mobility characteristics and different needs.Men are generally satisfied with the accessibility, comfort, reliability, availability, and travel time.Women are less enthusiastic about and more dissatisfied with the level and quality of the public transport system in terms of high transportation fares, shortage of buses, safety and security in accessing public transport, and unreliability and discomfort.These results support the findings by Jorritsma and Schaap [45] that women make more and more complex trips than men.Since women undertake more non-work-related trips, their experiences differ significantly with respect to almost every form of accessibility.The findings can also be linked to a study by Kamargianni and Polydoropoulou [53].The division of duties in the labour market and the home impacts women's employment conditions, income levels, and mobility needs, and is mainly responsible for gender variations in travel patterns.Women commute with groceries and children and are paid less in most workplaces, causing them to spend more on transportation than males.The availability of public transportation outside of rush hours, the physical and financial accessibility of transportation facilities for women traveling with children or disabled people, and safety conditions are all important factors to consider when designing women-friendly transportation systems.
The results also showed that most male respondents own cars, while the opposite is true for females.Hurez and Richer [54] mentioned that the proliferation of new forms of work and growing labour market engagement by women along with technological development are anticipated to expand the challenges women face in using public transportation services and in their mobility patterns.As a result, we call for a transportation policy that can balance sustainability with gender-specific mobility needs.
The third objective examined the challenges men and women encounter in accessing and using public transport systems in Abuja.The challenges with public transport are general problems in developed and developing countries due to the rate of urbanisation [55].In particular, there are inherent public transport issues in urban areas in many developed countries [56].Nwankwo and Barimoda [49] indicated a strong correlation between level of education and the challenges commuters encounter.Furthermore, the findings of this study still agree with Nwankwo and Barimoda [49], in which traffic congestion, overcrowding, high fare, and delay are regarded as the top four challenges commuters experience.Stachyra and Roman [57] reported that the most serious issues in public transportation are lack of punctuality, congestion, and inadequate air conditioning.This study also agrees with Belwal and Belwal [58], who studied the public perception of public transport in Oman and found poor mobility, traffic congestion, and high individual transport costs to be the major problems with public transport.The non-parametric test revealed that there is disparity between both genders regarding the challenges against gender equity in service delivery.This means that both genders have different views regarding the challenges they experience in public transport.In the same vein, the test showed that the challenges mostly affect women because a large number of women heavily rely on public transport.This means they are usually exposed to a number of these challenges.
While men were less critical about crowded conditions and the provision of facilities such as seating and backrests, issues of harassment along travel routes or at the terminal, adequate lighting and the availability of hygiene facilities at terminals, women deemed all of these very important.The results also corroborate the assertion that women emphasise comfort attributes to a greater extent than men.Overall, all the challenges listed more grossly affect women than men, as seen in the means.This result is supported by Silveira et al.'s [59] findings, highlighting the importance of public policies that target improving women's access to public transport services.
The fourth objective evaluated the possible solutions or interventions that will address the issue of gender disparities in public transport access in Abuja.Nwankwo and Barimoda [49] indicated that government support is crucial in providing quality public transport services.The non-parametric test showed that both genders see incentives to drivers as a viable solution to improving gender disparity.In addition, it was observed from the mean rank that women strongly feel all the strategies to ensure gender equity in public transport systems are relevant to them and would like to see them implemented; this means it is critical to implement these strategies to improve the transport services and close the gender equity gap in the delivery of public transport services.
Implementing the proposed equity measures would improve the public transportation systems so as to meet the needs and requirements of women.This could have a commercial benefit because women are the primary users of this mode of transportation, and low service quality and poor accessibility could be counterproductive.As a result, incorporating women's demands into the planning process could have significant policy implications [60] and could help to prevent an increase in car use.
Conclusively, the analysis revealed that men are generally more satisfied with public transport services compared to women.The same goes for challenges, and it is evident from the sample data and the analysis that women face greater challenges in accessing and using public transport systems in Abuja than men, suggesting that there is a need to address the challenges and improve the services for and satisfaction of women.

Conclusions
The study findings revealed that shared taxis are the most used public transport mode.Commuters make use of public transport at any time of the day.Most commuters prefer to use public and private transport alternately due to personal comfort and schedules.Work is the primary reason commuters move from one place to another; both sexes have a similar attitude towards most trip-related characteristics, such as terminals and trip purposes.Women are more likely to travel by transport modes with low transport fares, such as Keke and Okada (motorbike taxi).The study highlights the educational attainment gap between men and women in Nigeria.Majority of the women (56.9%) have a diploma or A-level certificate as their highest level of education compared to 26.3% of men.More men (73.7%) than women (43.1) either have their first degree, a master's degree, or a Ph.D. Women were found to earn lower incomes compared to men: 72.1% of women earn less than NGN 5000 monthly compared to 31.2% of men, while 68.8% of men were found to earn a higher income (above NGN 5000).Even though women earn less than men, the study found that women make more trips per week and spend more on transport than men.
Furthermore, contrary to the assertion that women seek work in regions that require them to travel shorter distances, we found that women travel greater distances than men.Additionally, a significant difference was found between the travel times of men and women.Women spend more time and money on travel and travel longer distances than men.The travel time of most men (68.8%) is between 0 and 30 minutes compared to 26.4% of women.Meanwhile, 73.6% of women reported a travel time above 30 minutes compared to 31.2% of men.The difference in travel times between men and women is believed to result from the high cost of accommodation in most city centres, which causes more women to rent in regions with low rental charges, requiring longer commute distances.The low-income levels of women, their tendency to make more trips and the odds of spending more on transport means that they spend a higher proportion of their income on transport than men-a possible cause of poverty among women in sub-Saharan Africa.
Women reported a significantly lower level of satisfaction with regard to public transport accessibility, safety, reliability, and comfort than men.It is evident that men are generally more satisfied with public transport services compared to women.Women were found to be less satisfied with the level of accessibility and safety, comfort, reliability, availability, fulfilment of daily needs, and waiting times than men.The study revealed a dire need to scale up public transport in Abuja to meet the masses' demands, with particular attention to be paid to women's mobility.This scaling up could include the expansion of existing terminals and provision of more buses.Additionally, most female commuters use public transport as their sole means of daily commute.This can be attributed to the fact that work is the major motivation for going out because households now depend on more than one source of income to pay bills.To ensure the safety of commuters, particularly women, transport operators and government should ensure that the necessary measures are put in place to ensure the safety and comfort of commuters.Lastly, the findings of this study necessitate the development of a national public transport framework and policies to regulate the practices of operators, users, and government parastatals.There would also be a need for re-evaluation of the framework and policies as the population and transport infrastructure change rapidly.

Limitations and Areas for Future Studies
The study is limited to road users only and restricted to only motorised public transport systems.There is also a limitation in terms of geographical context.Future studies should include more states in Nigeria with high populations, such as Lagos State and Kano State.This would help improve the generalisation of this study.Future studies should also conduct a detailed survey to measure actual transport times and costs across different locations in Abuja or other states in Nigeria.Future studies could also examine public transport use among different age groups and those with disabilities.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Trip and demographic characteristics.Figure 2. Trip and demographic characteristics.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Trip and demographic characteristics.Figure 2. Trip and demographic characteristics.

Table 4 .
Mann-Whitney U and Kolmogorov-Smirnov for trip-related characteristics.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3.Comparison of mean responses for experience.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Comparison of mean responses for challenges.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Comparison of mean responses for challenges.

Figure 5 .
Figure 5.Comparison of mean responses for solutions.

Figure 5 .
Figure 5.Comparison of mean responses for solutions.

Table 1 .
Structure of the survey instrument.

Table 5 .
Experiences of access and use of public transport.

Table 6 .
Mann-Whitney U and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests for experiences of access and use of public transport.

Table 7 .
Challenges against gender equity in service delivery.

Table 7 .
Challenges against gender equity in service delivery.

Table 8 .
Mann-Whitney U and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests for challenges against gender equity.

Table 9 .
Suggested solutions to ensure public transport gender equity.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Table 10 .
Mann-Whitney U and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests for solutions to ensure gender equity.