Emotional Regulation in Parental Optimism—The Inﬂuence of Parenting Style

: This study contributes to determining the relationship between parental emotional regulation, optimism, and parenting style. The responses collected from respondents with parental status were used in the research. The majority of respondents were female; in terms of the age of participants, they were predominantly in the category of 31–40 years, followed by those in the category 41–50 years. The data were analyzed statistically through operations such as correlations, regression, and analysis of variance. The results indicate that the authoritative parenting style is associated with the emotional regulation of parents (r = 0.25, p < 0.001), but also with their level of optimism (r = 0.29, p < 0.001). It has been demonstrated both through correlations and through conﬁrmatory factor analysis that optimism and emotional regulation are two factors that contribute to the adoption of the authoritative parenting style. The analysis of variance indicated that the emotional regulation of the parents does not vary according to their age. Based on multiple linear regression, it was established that 5% of parents’ level of optimism is predicted by their level of emotional regulation. These new results reveal the contribution of emotional regulation and parental optimism in the process of raising and educating a child.


Introduction
The trends in parenting are diverse in the last decades, as shown by D. Baumrind's [1] research, which classifies parenting styles into the following categories: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive [2]. These parenting styles, with decisive effects on children's personalities [1], are presented according to the dimensions of authority and affection [3]. Kazdin [4], who is also well-known, presents the concept of parenting in the form of three directions: the parent's responsibility for the child's health and safety, the child's preparation for a quality adult life, and the transmission of cultural values. Science presents complex information about the three concepts: emotional regulation, optimism, and parental style, but does not deal with the interdependent relationship between the three. It is known that parents' emotional regulation influences the child's emotional regulation [5], and that parents contribute to the development of children's emotional regulation [6], but it has not been established the way in which the parent's emotional regulation influences the level of optimism.
The research of emotional regulation has become an increasingly popular concept in the literature, along with the concept of optimism. The level of optimism is intended to be as high as possible to ensure well-being. The parenting style incorporates the parental principles used for raising and educating the child. Research aims to identify how emotional regulation and parental optimism contribute to the parenting process. self-esteem [23], but also with the receptivity of parents to the needs of their children [24]. The authoritative parenting style was associated with a greater ability of children to achieve their goals (psychological flexibility), contrary to the situation in which parents are followers of the authoritarian style, in which case, children did not show psychological flexibility [25]. According to parental style, the variable optimism was studied from the children's perspective, concluding that the relationship between the authoritative parental style and the child's adaptation is mediated by their level of optimism. Thus, children's perception of the parent who has adopted the authoritative style is associated with a high level of self-esteem, and with a low level of depression. This perception was mediated by the child's level of optimism [26].
According to D. Baumrind [1], the authoritative style is characterized by granting the child's autonomy in accordance with their age, the parents' understanding that their own emotions have effects on the child, and the adaptation of the discipline to the child's age peculiarities. The authoritarian style considers high expectations from the child, the imposition of strict limits and punishments, as well as a low level of affectivity offered to the child. The permissive style is defined by the absence of limits, diminished control by parents, and lack of encouragement for the child to obtain constructive behaviors [27]. According to Diana Baumrind [28], authoritarian and authoritative parenting styles differ depending to the parental power exercised over children. The authoritative parenting style is specific to power manifested through negotiation, whereas the authoritarian parenting style is specific to domination-oriented power. A balance of parental authority is needed to ensure a child's independence [29]. It has been shown that the parenting style approached in the relationship with a child can become their own parenting style in adult life [30]. Authoritarian parenting is associated with diminished communication skills, whereas authoritative parenting style leads to confidence in parenting skills, as well as effective parent-child communication [31]. The permissive parenting style can induce atypical behaviors in the child, but also generalized anxiety [32]. It has been found that parental authority contributes to the formation of aggressive behaviors of the child [30,33] and to the decrease of autonomy [34], whereas permissiveness parents can lead to narcissism [35].

Research Purpose and Research Hypotheses
The three concepts on which the research was implemented refer to emotional regulation, optimism, and parenting style. The three concepts that take the form of research variables determine the purpose of the study: to identify how parental emotional regulation and the level of optimism influence the style of parenting adopted.
The research started with the following questions Research Question 1 (RQ1): What is the parenting style associated with increasing parental emotional regulation?
Research Question 2 (RQ2): What is the parenting style associated with increasing parental optimism?
Research Question 3 (RQ3): What is the variable according to which the emotional regulation of the parents varies?
Research Question 4 (RQ4): Which variable predicts the level of optimism of the parents? Research Question 5 (RQ5): What is the parenting style that predicts the level of optimism of the parents?
Research Question 6 (RQ6): What are the factors that determine parents' preference for authoritative style?
Based on the literature review, the following hypotheses were proposed: Hypothesis 1 (H1). The authoritative parenting style is associated with the emotional regulation of parents.

Hypothesis 2 (H2).
The authoritative parenting is associated with increased parental optimism.

Hypothesis 3 (H3).
The level of emotional regulation of parents varies depending on the age of the parents.

Hypothesis 4 (H4).
The variability of the parents' level of optimism is predicted by the level of emotional regulation.
Hypothesis 5 (H5). The variability of the parents' level of optimism is predicted by the authoritative parenting style.
Hypothesis 6 (H6). The authoritative parenting style is determined by the factors: emotional regulation and parental optimism.

Research Methodology
The research is part of the quantitative paradigm. It is objective because it aims at accurate measurement and analysis of data, using a representative number of cases specific to the parent population, and the researchers show an objective attitude towards the subject [36][37][38]. Being of a quantitative nature, this research is based on causality [39]. Along with the objective character of the research, it also fulfills the descriptive character because it is based on the description of the variables, followed by statistical analyses [40].

Participants
The research data were obtained from an investigation of parents from the perspective of emotional regulation and optimism with influences on the parenting style. This study was approved by the Commission of Ethics and Academic Professional Ethics of the University of Bucharest. The current study (January-April 2021) exploited part of a larger ongoing research. The inclusion criterion of the participants was to have the status of parent, and the exclusion criterion was providing incomplete answers that could not be interpreted statistically. All respondents agreed to participate in the research, obtaining information on gender, age range, educational level, number of children, and children. Of the 181 people who started the survey, 3 were excluded due to lack of answers. As a result, a total of n = 178 was used for current research. Table 1 presents a series of sociodemographic data of the participants. It was found that the research involved mainly female responses, 166, and 12 male responses. The predominant age range in which the participants fell is 31-40 years, 70, followed by the range of 41-50 years, in which they fell 59. Most participants are characterized by higher education from an educational point of view, with 159 responses included in this category. From the perspective of the number of children, the majority category is the one that declared that they only had one child (96 answers).

Instruments
The research is part of the quantitative paradigm using the survey method. The instruments used are three questionnaires delimited in specific scales. In order to identify the level of emotional regulation of the parents, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire [41] was used. Emotional regulation was measured through expressive suppression (SE) and cognitive reassessment (CR). The average of items is 4.42. The value of this average demonstrates a preference for an increased level of emotional regulation. The internal consistency of the items is characterized by an alpha Cronbach's coefficient (CR > 0.7) of a recommended value.
The level of optimism for parents was measured with the questionnaire called Optimism, used in the study of Goldberg, Johnson, and others [42]. The average of items is 4.04. The value of this average demonstrates a high level of optimism in the research sample. The internal consistency of the items is characterized by an alpha Cronbach's coefficient (CR > 0.7) of a recommended value. Note: H a is proportion = 0.5.
The parenting style was identified through the questionnaire developed by Robinson, Mandleco, and others [43]. The authoritative parenting style was measured using a scale whose internal consistency was (CR > 0.7). The average of items is 5.48, which indicates a preference for the authoritarian-communicative style. The authoritarian parenting style was measured using a scale with an internal consistency of (CR > 0.7). The average of items is 2.37, which indicates a low sample preference for this parenting style. The permissive parenting style was measured using a scale with an internal consistency of (CR < 0.7), which is considered a questionable value. The average of items is 2.64, which indicates a higher preference for the permissive style over the authoritarian one.
The three instruments were organized in the form of a single survey using Google Forms. The questionnaire consisted of three parts represented by the three variables of the research: emotional regulation, optimism, and parenting style. The database was compiled using the Jamovi statistics program.

Procedures
In order to implement the research, permission was obtained from the Commission on Ethics and Academic Professional Ethics of the University of Bucharest. Participants had the period of January-April 2021 to complete the questionnaire that was available on the Google Forms platform. Participants had access to the questionnaire through a link that was sent either in person or distributed on social networks. Thus, the snowball method was used to recruit participants. The response number was determined by performing the power test of the statistical test. This procedure was performed using the Jpower mode, specific to the Jamovi program. For a statistical power with the value 0.8 and the effect size d = 0.2, a sample of 199 subjects is required.

Data Analysis
The variables for the study are: emotional regulation, optimism, and parenting style. Dependent variables are represented by emotional regulation and optimism, and the independent variable is represented by parental style. The variable emotional regulation is measured through expressive suppression (SE) and cognitive reassessment (CR).
The data analysis was performed through a series of statistical procedures from the simplest to the most complex. For each study variable, parameters specific to descriptive statistics were measured.
Correlation analysis was used to determine the degree of association between variables. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to determine the factors acting on a dependent variable. The variation of one variable over another variable was measured using ANOVA analysis of variance, and the estimation of the values of one variable relative to another variable was based on multiple linear regression. These statistical procedures have been applied in the parenting domain.

Descriptive Analysis of Study Variables
See Descriptive Analysis of Study Variables (Table 2) below.  The hypothesis that the authoritative parenting style is associated with the emotional regulation of parents is supported by data. The variable expressive suppression is associated with the variable cognitive reassessment. The value of the correlation coefficient (Pearson < 0.001) indicates a positive effect of expressive suppression on cognitive reassessment, for a coefficient of r = 0.30.

Correlations between
The variable authoritative parenting is associated with the variable cognitive reassessment. The value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (<0.001) and the value of r = 0.25 indicate that the preference for the authoritative parenting style is associated with the process of cognitive reassessment; hence, the preference for emotional regulation.
The variable authoritarian parenting is associated with the variable expressive suppression. The value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (<0.001) and the value of r = 0.27 indicate that the authoritarian parenting style is associated with the preference for expressive suppression, the second component of the process of emotional regulation.
The variable permissive parenting is associated with the variable authoritarian parenting. The value of the Pearson correlation coefficient (<0.001) and the value of r = 0.50 indicate that the permissive authoritarian style is associated with characteristics specific to the authoritarian parenting style ( Table 2).
The hypothesis that authoritative parenting is associated with increased parental optimism is supported by the data. The variable optimism is associated with the three parenting styles. As the level of optimism increases, so does the preference for the authoritative parenting style (p < 0.001, r = 0.29). The increased level of optimism decreases the preference for the authoritarian parenting style (p < 0.001, r = −0.26) and for the permissive style (p < 0.001, r = −0.30) (Table 3).

ANOVA Analysis of Variance between Emotional Regulation Variables and Parental Age
The results obtained from the analysis of variance (ANOVA) do not support the hypothesis that the level of the emotional regulation of parents varies depending on the age of the parents. In the case of the ANOVA analysis of variance, the groups that were tested were formed according to the age range in which the parents fall. There were four groups: 20-30 years old, 31-40 years old, 41-50 years old, and over 50 years old. Following the analysis of variance between the score obtained for the variable cognitive reassessment and the age range of the respondents, an insignificant effect of the age factor on the cognitive reassessment was obtained (the value F (1.04, p = 0.38)). Following the analysis of the ANOVA variance between the score obtained for the variable expressive suppression and the age range of the respondents, an insignificant effect of the age factor on the expressive suppression was obtained (the value F (0.94, p = 0.42)) ( Table 4).

Multiple Linear Regression between the optimism Variable and the Emotional Regulation Variable (Cognitive Reassessment and Expressive Suppression)
The data obtained support the hypothesis that the variability of the parents' level of optimism is predicted by the level of emotional regulation. The multiple linear regression between the optimism variable and the emotional regulation variable (cognitive reassessment and expressive suppression) was tested to observe how the level of optimism varies depending on the cognitive reassessment and expressive suppression. The regression coefficient R, which is a correlation coefficient, with a value of 0.23 (R = 0.23), indicates an association between these two variables. The coefficient R 2 = 0.05 represents the fact that 5% of the level of optimism is predicted by emotional regulation. Moreover, the values of the correlation coefficients for the variables cognitive reassessment (p = 0.04, p < 0.05) and expressive suppression (p = 0.004, p < 0.05) demonstrate that the two variables predict the level of optimism ( Table 5). The data analyzed following the regression analysis can be found in Figure 1.  The data obtained support the hypothesis that the variability of the parents' level of optimism is predicted by the authoritative parenting style. The multiple linear regression between the optimism variable and the parenting style variable was tested to observe how the level of optimism varies depending on parenting style. A regression coefficient R with a value of 0.39 (R = 0.39) indicates an association between variables. The coefficient R 2 = 0.15 represents the fact that 15% of the level of optimism is predicted by the authoritative parenting style. The value of the correlation coefficients for the variable authoritative parenting (p = 0.001, p < 0.05) demonstrate that this parenting style predicts the level of parental optimism (Table 6).

Confirmatory Factor Analysis between Emotional Regulation, the Level of Optimism, and Parental Style
The purpose of confirmatory factor analysis is to verify the factorial model that contributes to the adoption of the authoritative parenting style.
The hypothesis that the authoritative parenting style is determined by the factors: emotional regulation and parental optimism was confirmed by a factorial model consisting of five factors: factor 1-emotional regulation, factor 2-optimism, factor 3-authoritative parenting style, factor 4-authoritarian parenting style, and factor 5-permissive parenting style.
From the generated table, there are no negatively charged indicators with values less than 0.3, except for the P29 indicator, with a value of 0.23. Given that factor 5, which is part of this indicator, is made up of four indicators, it is not necessary to remove indicator P29. From the table "Factor Estimates" you can identify the correlations between factors, as follows: Emotional regulation (factor 1) correlates positively with the authoritative parenting style (factor 3) (0.30, p < 0.001). Thus, the higher the emotional regulation, the greater the preference for the authoritative parenting style.
Optimism (factor 2) correlates positively with the authoritative parenting style (factor 3) (0.36, p < 0.001). Thus, the higher the level of optimism, the higher the preference for the authoritative parenting style. Optimism (factor 2) correlates negatively with factor 4 (authoritarian parenting style) (−0.31, p < 0.001) and factor 5 (permissive parenting style) (−0.43, p < 0.001). An increased level of optimism is associated with a low preference for authoritarian parenting and permissive parenting (Table 7). Table 7. Confirmatory factor analysis between emotional regulation, optimism, authoritative parenting style, authoritarian parenting style, and permissive parenting style.

Discussion
The purpose of this study is to provide scientific information on how parental emotional regulation and optimism lead to the adoption of a particular parenting style. A second goal of the research aims to identify the relationship between the variables: emotional regulation, optimism, and parenting style. The data collected supported a number of hypotheses from which this study started, while demonstrating that the emotional regulation of parents does not vary depending on their age and the number of children. Table 8 presents a hypothesis testing summary. Along with the previously mentioned hypotheses, the research data highlighted a number of aspects related to the three variables. The authoritative parenting style is associated with the emotional regulation of parents. Therefore, parents who manage to control their emotions have more advanced skills in terms of raising and educating their child [44]. Authoritative parenting is associated with increased parental optimism, and the adoption of the authoritative parenting style determines the effectiveness of the adult from a parental perspective, and further, with their optimism regarding parental responsibilities [45,46]. The level of emotional regulation of parents does not vary depending on the age of the parents. Research has shown that the variability of the parents' level of optimism is predicted by the level of emotional regulation in proportion of 5%, and by authoritative parenting style, in proportion of 15%.
Also, following the statistical procedures, it was found that the authoritative parenting style is determined by the factors: emotional regulation and parental optimism.
The importance of emotional regulation is shown both in the field of parenting and its implications on an effective parent-child relationship [47], but also in obtaining well-being. This research makes empirical contributions demonstrating the interdependence between the three variables: emotional regulation, optimism, and parenting style. Studies to date have highlighted the following aspects: parental emotional regulation is a predictor of the child's emotional regulation [48], parental optimism influences the child's level of optimism [49], and parenting style becomes a predictor of child development [50].
The limit of the study is a low level of heterogeneity, with most respondents being female. This limitation made it impossible to make a hypothesis regarding the gender of the subjects in relation to the research variables. Despite the fact that the involvement of both parents in raising and educating the child is intended to be equal, this research demonstrates a stronger emphasis on the part of mothers.
A second limitation of the study is the number of responses according to the minimum number required to identify the power analysis.
As the study is ongoing, as part of further research, these two limitations will be resolved.

Conclusions
The importance of parenting style has been increasingly emphasized in the literature, and it is known that the practices specific to parenting style more or less contribute to the balanced development of the child. The level of emotional regulation and optimism for the parents facilitate the adoption of a balanced parenting style. Educating parents on emotional regulation and optimism can help to identify the most appropriate parenting practices that will also streamline the parent-child relationship.
The topic addressed in this research is a delicate one for many parents today, especially since the sources of information in this field are very varied. Through the information in this study, parents can benefit from scientific parenting, customized according to the child's needs. Based on these considerations, the aim of this study was to determine the relationship between emotional regulation, optimism, and parenting style, demonstrating that the authoritative parenting style is determined by a high level of emotional regulation and parental optimism.
This research involves a quantitative approach to parents' opinion on the specific behavior of emotional regulation and an optimistic attitude, respectively, to the parental practices used. The novelty of this research is confirmed by the fact that a high level of emotional regulation and parental optimism determines the preference for a balanced parenting style, namely authorities.
The results of this research are based on the responses collected from 178 responses, and a number of major findings can be summarized: the authoritative parenting style is associated with the emotional regulation of parents, and with raised parental optimism. The level of emotional regulation of the parents does not vary according to the age of the parents. Research has shown that the variability of parents' level of optimism is predicted by a level of emotional regulation at 5%, and the authoritarian parenting style at 15%.
The findings of this research highlight the importance of parental emotions and optimism for effective parenting. Based on these results, a series of work strategies can be developed to support parents in the parenting process, offering them various possibilities for action depending on the needs of the child, the stage of development, and the context in which they are. The aim is to emphasize the importance of parental education for the balanced development of the child, and to achieve effectiveness in parenting as much as possible, tailoring interventions to the needs of both parents and children, but according to data from research, as the foundation of a scientific approach.
Author Contributions: Both authors contributed equally to the work. Conceptualization, A.S , . and G.P.; methodology, A.S , . and G.P.; validation, A.S , . and G.P.; supervision, G.P.; writing-original draft preparation A.S , . and G.P.; writing-review and editing, A.S , . and G.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement:
The study was conducted in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration, and approved by the Ethics Commission of the University of Bucharest.

Informed Consent Statement:
The research participants were informed about the publication of the answers provided by them, obtaining informed consent. Participants were assured of the confidentiality of the data provided by encoding them. Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.