The White Meat Industry in Dubai through a One Health Lens

: White meat is one of the most commonly consumed animal-source foods in the Emirate of Dubai and is one of 21 main foods listed in the National Food Security Strategy of UAE and the Emirate of Dubai. Although fresh white meat is produced locally, the quantities are very limited, so, to meet market needs, chilled and frozen white meat is imported. The aim of this chapter is to examine the existing white meat supply networks and market in Dubai and understand the ﬂow of fresh chickens from the local market and the shipment dynamics for imported frozen chickens under the One Health concept. Data from documents, publications and surveys of the Dubai Government, representatives of the Food Safety Department and Veterinary Service Section (via focus group discussions) and direct interviews with local small farmers, food importers, food manufacturers and retailers and animal feed manufacturers and retailers were used to describe the value chain for white meat in the Emirate of Dubai. The data were collected through detailed questionnaires in the interview with the focus groups and interviews of groups of stakeholders selected by the Food Safety Department in Dubai Municipality. Data from government strategies and reports were collected and analysed to understand the government’s position and the size of the white meat sector. The data provided by representatives of local small farmers, food importers, food manufacturers and retailers and animal feed manufacturers and retailers were used to understand the value chain of white meat from the private sector perspective. After studying the value chain and the results of this research, areas were identiﬁed in the value chain of the white meat sector at the level of the Emirate of Dubai that can be improved, for example, the need for better marketing of local products. Some areas are already strong such as the inclusion of white meat products in the Dubai strategy for Food Security approved at the level of the Emirate of Dubai. The results of this chapter highlight critical opportunities for changes in policies and best practices that if implemented by the Dubai Government would ensure that the white meat industry is able to meet local market demands. Recommendations to the Dubai Government are presented in support of enhancing Dubai’s economic sustainability and efﬁcient contributions to food and nutrition security.


Introduction
Chickens are one of the important sources of protein for humans, and this has increased the convergence of chickens and humans due to increased density of chickens in one location or farm.The increase in convergence between people and domestic animals in the same environment created a new dynamic in which the health of each domain is inextricably interconnected, hence ensuring safe, accessible, affordable and nutritious food has become increasingly difficult [1].Central to meeting this challenge is the development of a One Health strategy leading to a new level of thinking and acting.The key pillars of the One Health (OH) strategy encompass geographic, ecological, food-agricultural and human activities [2,3].The poultry sector faces many challenges, including public health risks such as the emergence of zoonotic diseases with pandemic potential [4], food-borne diseases (Salmonella, Campylobacter), and inappropriate antimicrobial use [5].Therefore, it is important that white meat production meets the requirements of a One Health approach.This research study connects the key elements of One Health strategy to the state of white meat production, environmental impact and consumption in Dubai [6].
White meat production has, on average, lower impact on the environment than red meat production [7], although it is noted that some red meat industries, such as wool sheep managed under regenerative practices, can be carbon-neutral [8].By substituting carbon-light chicken for carbon-heavy beef, an individual's dietary carbon footprint, that is the amount of carbon dioxide emissions caused by energy and land use in the food production process, will be decreased by half.This will help reduce carbon emissions and the impacts of climate change [9].
Chicken meat is the predominant white meat consumed in Dubai and, to meet market needs, chilled and frozen whole chickens are imported to supplement limited local production.Chicken meat is of great importance to national and household food security [10] and the Dubai Government is increasingly showing interest in providing support to the domestic chicken industry to meet local market needs and to achieve sustainable food security) [11].In this paper, white meat is defined as the flesh of the domestic chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) and includes processed products.The objective of this study was to examine the existing white meat supply networks and industry in the Emirate of Dubai, explore the challenges faced, strengths, threats and opportunities and make recommendations to improve local chicken production and support sustainable food and nutrition security in Dubai under the One Health concept.

Materials and Methods
The University of Sydney, Human Research Ethics Committee (2018/033), approved the study design, protocols and research tools for this program (Supplementary Materials).

Overview
A review of the white meat value chain in Dubai was conducted, and then data were gathered from the government using focus groups to provide a detailed image of each link in the chain.Direct interview conversations were also conducted with local small farmers, representatives of food importers, food manufacturers and retailers and animal feed manufacturers and retailers to understand the value chain from the private sector perspective, including volume and type of imported white meat source (frozen and chilled).The data were gathered using both qualitative and quantitative methods.

Primary Data Collection
Quantitative data were provided to the researcher mainly from the Dubai Government staff focus group.Data including statistical reports such as quantities of imported and locally produced white meat for 3 years were reviewed to obtain a better understanding of the white meat sector in Dubai.Qualitative data were taken via direct interview conversation, which included questionnaires, video, graphic and text documents, from the representatives of food importers, food manufacturers and retailers, animal feed manufacturers and retailers and local poultry farmers (commercial broiler producers and small farmers).The qualitative and quantitative data were used to study the value chain and associated risks under the One Health concept.Qualitative data were collected from the small farmers by direct interview during the application of a tailored questionnaire (Annex A).This paper also covers inputs including poultry feed, vaccines and other medications as well as the market for live chickens and consumption of frozen, fresh and chilled chicken meat in the Emirate of Dubai.

Sources of Data
Documents from the Dubai Government Food Safety Department, publications and focus group conversations with Dubai government representatives, representatives of food importers, food manufacturers and retailers, animal feed manufacturers and retailers and local small farmers were all used.Data included sources of white meat, the volume and type of white meat (frozen and chilled) imported into the Emirate of Dubai, government controls on importation and the risks that may affect importation.The consumption of frozen, fresh and chilled chicken in Dubai was also examined in the focus group discussions.The participants in the focus group discussion with small farmers were selected by the Food Safety Department because they are not currently licensed but would like to be.

Questionnaire Conversation Interview
Using participatory methods, the Key Informant Question Lists (Supplementary Materials) were used to acquire both quantitative and qualitative data from staff and representatives of the Food Safety Department, Veterinary Service Section and food importers, animal feed retailing companies, feed manufacturers, retailers and small farmers.

Key Informant Interviews
The Food Safety Department oversees all food imported to Dubai, including white meat.Representatives from the biggest food retail companies in Dubai attended the interview, accompanied by an expert from the Dubai Municipality Food Safety Department.The Dubai Municipality Veterinary Services Section attended the interview with the local producers.For all interviews and focus group discussions, two researchers were in attendance to ensure adequate capture of the information discussed.
Table 1 shows the details of the participants from Dubai Government departments, food importers, food manufacturers and retailers, animal feed manufacturers and retailers and local small farmers.After all the participants signed the Participant Consent Forms, the meetings commenced and were video-recorded.

Framework Analysis of the Data
An in-depth framework analysis [12] of the data collected from all the interviews, focus group discussions and governmental bodies was conducted.The questions were structured to make it easier to collect data and all interviews were video-recorded.
Relevant data from the interviews and focus group discussions were used to construct the value chains for local production of white meat, imported white meat and feed.Risks associated with each step were also determined.Data on volumes of locally produced and imported white meat and inputs were also collated.Themes and codes were identified from the interviews to make the analysis more constructive.The outcome of the analysis was the development of recommendations which could improve local production of white meat and food security in Dubai and UAE.

SWOT Analysis
After the collection of the data, a SWOT analysis of the Dubai white meat industry was undertaken.A SWOT analysis is a well-accepted tool for documenting internal strengths (S) and weaknesses (W) of businesses or services, as well as external opportunities (O) and threats (T).This information was used to help identify key issues needing attention and possible strategies to address them.

Topics and Themes Emerging from Interviews and Focus Group Discussions
The food companies and manufacturers were mainly concerned with food industry regulation and the challenges that they are facing during importation.The shelf life of fresh products is very short; one of the companies said, "The UAE standard for mandatory shelf life should be revised to be able to keep the food on the shelves for longer time and to reduce the food waste, especially for the white meat".All the food supply companies agreed that the port infrastructure of Dubai is very strong and it is easy for the food companies to import food from the source via air, sea or land.The food companies commented on frozen poultry products; another company said, "frozen white meat is mainly supplied to restaurants and catering companies and most restaurants look for the lowest price product, and frozen white meat imports exceed local production due to the cost of local production".
During the interview with the Veterinary Service Section, the shelf-life regulation was emphasised and participants said it should be more flexible, especially the shelf life of white meat, in order to give the food companies the chance to keep their products on the shelf for longer.They also mentioned that an awareness program on good farm management is required for the local producers to promote sustainable production of white meat and to avoid any disease outbreaks that may occur.Additionally, they discussed the subsidies and said these would help the small farmer to sell their product in the market and could be more sustainable.Small farmers also said: "Some big companies control the market, and this makes it difficult for small companies to enter the market".The participants in the interview were also looking to support the food security of Dubai.The Veterinary Services Section discussed the importance of water availability for the poultry farms and the shortage of rain in Dubai.Most raw materials of animal feed are imported.In addition, they spoke about the importance of taking samples to make sure white meat is safe for consumption (Table 2).The focus group discussed the importance of having an awareness program for school students to explain the importance of the nutritional value of the food that they consume, including white meat.The focus group also stressed the importance of the strategies which should be followed by the government to achieve food security for Dubai.Lack of data is one of the main challenges discussed during the focus group meeting, including the amount of local production of white meat.
All the groups agreed that a better marketing plan for the local products was needed to ensure they are available in shops.This will help to increase the local products and to enable a plan in case of crisis.
Table 3 presents the topics discussed with the food companies, while Table 2 lists those discussed during the focus group discussion with the Dubai Municipality Food Safety Department.Table 4 presents the topics discussed with the Veterinary Service Section and small farmers.According to the Veterinary Service Section, the topics below in Table 4 will play an important role in increasing the production of white meat in Dubai.Recommended strategies that can be followed by the government 3 The key themes emerging from the focus group discussion and the interviews relate to the supply chain, food import regulations and recommended food and nutrition strategies for Dubai and the UAE.
The interview with the Dubai Carbon Centre of Excellence was about the emissions which could be affecting the environment and the calculation that is followed by the Dubai Government for shipments (air, land and sea) and also for local production.

Value Chain Analysis of White Meat
Meat from commercially bred broiler chickens is one of the most important animalsource foods in the Emirate of Dubai.Local production of fresh chicken meat is low, so the emirate is heavily reliant on imports of frozen and chilled chicken, which account for roughly 85% of total consumption of chicken meat.Figure 1 shows the general value chain for the white meat sector in the Emirate of Dubai.Recommended strategies that can be followed by the government 3 The key themes emerging from the focus group discussion and the interviews relate to the supply chain, food import regulations and recommended food and nutrition strategies for Dubai and the UAE.
The interview with the Dubai Carbon Centre of Excellence was about the emissions which could be affecting the environment and the calculation that is followed by the Dubai Government for shipments (air, land and sea) and also for local production.

Value Chain Analysis of White Meat
Meat from commercially bred broiler chickens is one of the most important animalsource foods in the Emirate of Dubai.Local production of fresh chicken meat is low, so the emirate is heavily reliant on imports of frozen and chilled chicken, which account for roughly 85% of total consumption of chicken meat.Figure 1 shows the general value chain for the white meat sector in the Emirate of Dubai.
The participants in the interviews identified five main components which form part of white meat production in Dubai, namely production, aggregation, processing, distribution and consumption.Figure 1 presents the general value chain for the white meat sector in the Emirate of Dubai.It is on this basis that a value chain was proposed as a way of identifying multiple pathways for improving the white meat sector.In order to understand the role of each The participants in the interviews identified five main components which form part of white meat production in Dubai, namely production, aggregation, processing, distribution and consumption.Figure 1 presents the general value chain for the white meat sector in the Emirate of Dubai.
It is on this basis that a value chain was proposed as a way of identifying multiple pathways for improving the white meat sector.In order to understand the role of each actor in the value chain, a detailed analysis was conducted from the farm to the fork, encompassing the value chain for local production (mainly fresh white meat and very limited production of frozen white meat) and imported white meat (frozen and chilled).
Three local sources of white meat in Dubai markets were identified, namely the commercial broiler farm in Dubai, local small farmers and small farmers and commercial farms.However, it was noted that Dubai had only licensed two commercial chicken farms, including a layer farm and a broiler farm [13].This is contrasted to the 22 farms located in different regions in UAE that boosted commercial poultry production capacity [13].This accounted for 56% of total local chicken meat production in UAE.Based on the statistics presented by Veterinary Service Section [14], it was noted that there were approximately 4000 local farmers, including small farmers.However, only 17 small farmers were licensed to animal production while two of these produced broilers locally.This reveals that the volume of white meat production from the small farmers in Dubai is negligible.

Local Production
Dubai has only two licensed commercial chicken farms; one is a layer farm and the other is a broiler farm, while in the UAE there are a total of 22 licensed farms, most of them broiler farms [11].The UAE has significant commercial poultry production capacities and capabilities from its 22 farms [13], and three large commercial producers account for 56% of total local chicken meat production in UAE.The major producers in the UAE market are listed in Table 5.The latest officially published data for the total production of white meat in Dubai were 18,162 tonnes in 2010 and 21,585 tonnes in 2011 [15].There are about 4000 local farmers in Dubai, including small farmers.Only 17 small farmers are licensed in Dubai, and of these, only two of these produce broilers [14].The volume of white meat production from the small farmers in Dubai or from the other emirates is not recorded.Locally produced chicken is mainly sold chilled or fresh; currently, there is no significant local processing capacity for frozen chicken.Local production of fresh chicken accounts for around 14% of all chicken meat purchased in Dubai [16], and is limited by the challenging climate in Dubai.
One of the measures that have contributed to the increased presence of locally produced fresh white meat products in the market is legislation regarding the expiration dates of fresh poultry.For fresh poultry, the shelf life has been established at three days [11], which limits the volume of fresh poultry products imported from neighbouring countries.

Small Farmers in the Emirate of Dubai
Generally, the small livestock farms are located in the countryside outside of Dubai City and are owned by local residents of the UAE.While a few small farmers are licensed to sell their products [14], most are not licensed because the government body responsible for licensing and the procedure for licensing these farms are not clear and it is costly to obtain a license.Small farmers have less experience in chicken management and also suffer losses from animal disease outbreaks from poorly managed biosecurity [14].
Most small farmers do not own trucks and are using rented trucks to transport their live chickens to other emirates for slaughter because there are no state-owned poultry slaughterhouses in the Emirate of Dubai.Private slaughterhouses for small-scale producers (usually on commercial farms) are accessible in Abu Dhabi where chickens around 29 days old are taken only from farms that are registered to sell to the local market either in Dubai or Abu Dhabi.This increases costs and there is a risk that live chickens may be harmed during transportation, especially during the extremely hot summer.There is also the risk of spreading disease from one emirate to another or that technical issues such as breakdowns may arise in the production line, affecting the quality of the product.
Small farmers usually depend on the slaughterhouse to pack their products on their behalf.After processing the chicken, meat comes back to the local market in Dubai [14].The costs of logistics and labour, infrastructure and chicken feed make the market expensive for local chicken meat, in comparison to the price of imported chickens.Figure 2 shows the value chain for white meat produced by small local farmers.
Sustainability 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 27 obtain a license.Small farmers have less experience in chicken management and also suffer losses from animal disease outbreaks from poorly managed biosecurity [14].Most small farmers do not own trucks and are using rented trucks to transport their live chickens to other emirates for slaughter because there are no state-owned poultry slaughterhouses in the Emirate of Dubai.Private slaughterhouses for small-scale producers (usually on commercial farms) are accessible in Abu Dhabi where chickens around 29 days old are taken only from farms that are registered to sell to the local market either in Dubai or Abu Dhabi.This increases costs and there is a risk that live chickens may be harmed during transportation, especially during the extremely hot summer.There is also the risk of spreading disease from one emirate to another or that technical issues such as breakdowns may arise in the production line, affecting the quality of the product.
Small farmers usually depend on the slaughterhouse to pack their products on their behalf.After processing the chicken, meat comes back to the local market in Dubai [14].The costs of logistics and labour, infrastructure and chicken feed make the market expensive for local chicken meat, in comparison to the price of imported chickens.Figure 2 shows the value chain for white meat produced by small local farmers.

Inputs
Small farmers purchase feed for their flocks from the local market or from the feed manufacturer.The Veterinary Services Section in Dubai Municipality gives small farmers vaccination and treatment at a nominal price and treats chickens of small farmers on request.Awareness programs and leaflets are also available for small farmers from time to time.This support helps in prevention of common chicken diseases such as infectious bronchitis and infections with Salmonella and E. coli 0157.

Inputs
Small farmers purchase feed for their flocks from the local market or from the feed manufacturer.The Veterinary Services Section in Dubai Municipality gives small farmers vaccination and treatment at a nominal price and treats chickens of small farmers on request.Awareness programs and leaflets are also available for small farmers from time to time.This support helps in prevention of common chicken diseases such as infectious bronchitis and infections with Salmonella and E. coli 0157.

Commercial Broiler Farm in DUBAI
Dubai's commercial farm for broilers has its own parent farm for day-old chicks but does not produce enough to meet its needs.Therefore, day-old chicks and fertile Cobb 500 eggs are imported mainly from Europe.The farm also has a hatchery where fertile eggs are incubated.
Eggs from an infected breeder flock could be a source of Salmonella contamination.The organism could be spread mechanically by insects, contaminated equipment, incoming and outgoing trucks, feed, workers or caretakers [17].
The birds are housed in air-conditioned units until they reach market weight at 29-32 days of age.The farm has its own slaughterhouse with a slaughtering capacity of 42,000 birds per day.Processing also occurs on the farm and the products include whole chickens, chicken portions and processed chicken products.All products are packaged in compliance with Dubai food labelling rules.
Products are transported to wholesalers and retailers in trucks registered with the Dubai Municipality's Food Safety Department.The trucks must fulfil food safety criteria to ensure that the food is not contaminated or spoilt during transit.Failure to keep the product refrigerated between −3 and 5 • C for the chilled products and at −18 • C or less for frozen products during transit will spoil the product and cause food poisoning, and this is a serious contravention.
Figure 3 shows the value chain for white meat produced by the commercial broiler farm in Dubai.

Inputs
The commercial farm has its own feed mill and imports raw materials to manufacture feed for its flocks.Sometimes feed is purchased from local markets.

Poultry Farm Waste in Dubai
The amount of waste generated from the one commercial broiler farm and two small farmers licensed for white meat production in Dubai is not significant.The amount of waste from the two small farmers is currently not measured or identified, while the commercial farm stated that they are zero waste.Farm, slaughterhouse and processing waste are sent to the hazardous landfill zone via private companies after receiving approval from Dubai Municipality, and are mixed with different types of waste.
Dubai Municipality's Food Safety Department.The trucks must fulfil food safety criteria to ensure that the food is not contaminated or spoilt during transit.Failure to keep the product refrigerated between −3 and 5 °C for the chilled products and at −18 °C or less for frozen products during transit will spoil the product and cause food poisoning, and this is a serious contravention.
Figure 3 shows the value chain for white meat produced by the commercial broiler farm in Dubai.

Market for Live Birds
There has been no live poultry market in the Emirate of Dubai since 2006 when the international outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza prompted the decision to prohibit live poultry markets (personal communication with Dubai Government officials).However, other emirates such as Ajman and Sharjah continue to have live bird markets [14], showing that there is a demand for live birds.Now that the avian influenza pandemic has subsided, Sainz (2018) [18] has recommended that the Dubai Government explore once again legalising the sale of live birds as a means of increasing white meat consumption and production.According to the information gathered during the interview with the small farmers, there is still a demand for live bird markets.

Imported White Meat
Due to low levels of local white meat production, the Emirate of Dubai is heavily reliant on imports.Data were collected from Dubai Municipality about the total imports of white meat.Table 6 shows the weight and percentage of chicken meat imported via the Dubai border in 2019.White meat imports totalled 207,677 tonnes (frozen and chilled) [11].Dressed frozen chicken carcasses and chicken parts are primarily imported from Brazil, accounting for about 47.83% of all chicken imports in 2019; 24.35% of frozen chicken imports were from the United States.Less chilled white meat is imported than frozen white meat.In 2019, 7643 tonnes of chilled white meat were imported: 9324.67 tonnes from Oman (96%), 83 tonnes from France and 35 tonnes from the United States of America.Smaller amounts were imported from Italy, United Kingdom, New Zealand and Ireland [11].
The amounts of white meat imported to Dubai by land, sea and air by country of origin are shown in Table 7. Note: * The product is imported to Dubai from the free zone which belongs to Dubai.** The product is re-exported from neighbouring country to Dubai [11] Source: data taken from; Food Trade Control Section, 2020 Table 8 shows the amounts of white meat imported via Dubai borders between 2017 and 2019 from seaports, airports and land ports.The value chain is broken down into five major phases (Figure 4).Each step is described below.The value chain is broken down into five major phases (Figure 4).Each step is described below.

Source Country
The UAE government has put in place safeguards to ensure that the birds are raised safely in the country of origin.Farms in the source nation are visited and audited by UAE official delegates and OIE information on the disease status in the source country is reviewed to ensure that safety precautions are in place.If there are any concerns about the food safety procedures or if any animal disease outbreaks are reported, exports from that particular exporting country will be halted.

Source Country
The UAE government has put in place safeguards to ensure that the birds are raised safely in the country of origin.Farms in the source nation are visited and audited by UAE official delegates and OIE information on the disease status in the source country is reviewed to ensure that safety precautions are in place.If there are any concerns about the food safety procedures or if any animal disease outbreaks are reported, exports from that particular exporting country will be halted.
Slaughterhouses must be authorised by the UAE Federal Government to guarantee the safety of the white meat produced in exporting nations before foreign importers are permitted to export meat to the UAE.In addition, an official delegation must visit and inspect the halal slaughtering process, as well as all other health standards imposed by the UAE government.If the slaughterhouse does not satisfy food safety standards, the slaughterhouse may lose approval to export to the UAE and this is likely to have an impact on supply [11].Disease outbreaks, if they occur in the same region as the slaughterhouse, are also likely to have an impact on supply.
Chicken meat must be packed in accordance with UAE food labelling and shelf-life requirements.Failure to comply with the standards for packing white meat may result in the items being denied entry into the UAE during the border inspection [11].
Chilled white meat is usually kept under refrigeration before export via air freight.Frozen white meat is frozen in its place of origin before being shipped to the UAE.White meat is transported by trucks with appropriate facilities to transport the frozen or chilled white meat to the airport or seaport in the country of origin.Unreliable refrigeration during transport of chilled or frozen white meat may lead to spoilage and result in items being denied entry into the UAE.

Ports of Entry
In total, 99% of all frozen white meat imported into the Emirate of Dubai is shipped by sea freight, while the remaining 1% of imported frozen white meat enters by road (from a neighbouring country) [11].Frozen white meat has a shelf life of up to 90 days and is usually shipped by sea, which takes roughly 45 days from Brazil.Chilled white meat is imported to the Dubai market mostly by road from other emirates, predominantly from the emirates of Abu Dhabi and Ras Al-Khaimah.
Entry points for imports are now concentrated on the ports of Jebel Ali, with fewer ships passing via the Abu Dhabi port.Because both ports lie in the Arabian Gulf, the UAE is exposed to one main maritime route through the Strait of Hormuz.A plethora of obstacles may slow or halt trade along these crucial routes and infrastructures.The port of Fujairah is the UAE's sole port on the Indian Ocean side of the Strait of Hormuz but is still unable to handle large shipments (Figure 5).
white meat to the airport or seaport in the country of origin.Unreliable refrigeration during transport of chilled or frozen white meat may lead to spoilage and result in items being denied entry into the UAE.

Ports of Entry
In total, 99% of all frozen white meat imported into the Emirate of Dubai is shipped by sea freight, while the remaining 1% of imported frozen white meat enters by road (from a neighbouring country) [11].Frozen white meat has a shelf life of up to 90 days and is usually shipped by sea, which takes roughly 45 days from Brazil.Chilled white meat is imported to the Dubai market mostly by road from other emirates, predominantly from the emirates of Abu Dhabi and Ras Al-Khaimah.
Entry points for imports are now concentrated on the ports of Jebel Ali, with fewer ships passing via the Abu Dhabi port.Because both ports lie in the Arabian Gulf, the UAE is exposed to one main maritime route through the Strait of Hormuz.A plethora of obstacles may slow or halt trade along these crucial routes and infrastructures.The port of Fujairah is the UAE's sole port on the Indian Ocean side of the Strait of Hormuz but is still unable to handle large shipments (Figure 5).Reliance on one major port and one major sea route poses a significant risk to food security, so it is critical to improve infrastructure and prepare a contingency plan in case any unplanned problems arise in this region.Reliance on one major port and one major sea route poses a significant risk to food security, so it is critical to improve infrastructure and prepare a contingency plan in case any unplanned problems arise in this region.

Imported Chicken Meat in Dubai
After release from border inspection, white meat products are taken by trucks that are approved to transport food (chilled or frozen, according to the food type) to a wholesaler's warehouse or food company store before the product goes to the market.Wholesalers typically supply large volumes of product to retail establishments, as many maintain warehouses where white meat can be stored frozen for extended periods.Changes in logistical expenses such as purchasing prices and energy prices are a risk and may have an impact on the supply or price of white meat on the market.The storage cost is high because of the electricity, and the retailers usually have small freezer area due to the limited availability of space.
The Food Safety Department takes samples from white meat shipments before releasing the shipment to the market in order to conduct many tests to confirm the safety of the products.The main concern is to ensure the absence of Salmonella spp.and E. coli 0157.

Storage Capacity for Chilled and Frozen White Meat
Most companies selling white meat (either imported or locally produced) try to reduce energy costs by keeping the meat for only a short time.The local commercial producer of white meat in Dubai has storage capacity of 55 tonnes for chilled white meat and keeps it for only 13 to 14 h until the packing process starts.Following packing, the product is immediately sent to the market.
The main importing and wholesaling companies have storage capacity between 4000 tonnes and 14,000 tonnes for frozen white meat.

Feed Industry
Feed is the most expensive part of white meat production, accounting for 60-70% of the overall production cost [19].Due to its harsh climate and scarcity of water, the Emirate of Dubai is unable to grow the essential ingredients of poultry feed, so it relies on imports of complete poultry feed or poultry feed ingredients that are used to manufacture feeds locally.Complete poultry feed is typically imported from Brazil, the United States and other nations (Table 9), and is often very expensive, which drives up the cost of producing white meat.Some local businesses manufacture poultry feeds from imported ingredients (Table 9), but overall prices remain high [20].There are five local manufacturers of chicken feed in UAE: one in Dubai, another in Abu Dhabi and others in Sharjah, Ras Al Khaimah and Fujairah.Most manufacturing companies import raw materials and adjust the ratio of the feed ingredients based on the age and breed of the poultry and market demand.The three main types of poultry feeds that are available in the UAE and Dubai are concentrates, roughages and blended feeds.
From the interviews with feed manufacturers and retailers, the researcher constructed the flow of animal feed to the local market in Dubai (Figure 6).Most ingredients of animal feed come from abroad (see Table 9).From the interviews with feed manufacturers and retailers, the researcher constructed the flow of animal feed to the local market in Dubai (Figure 6).Most ingredients of animal feed come from abroad (see Table 9).Figure 7 provides an illustration of a retailer's shop that sells animal feed in the vicinity of the UAE cattle market.The feed is usually brought from different sources or suppliers, and this shop sells all types of feed for farm animals and poultry.

Consumption of White Meat in Dubai
Chilled poultry is mostly marketed to the retail market.Chilled chicken from local manufacturers in the Emirate of Dubai is the best choice for local residents, and the temperature for the chilled white meat in UAE is 4 C (Food Trade Control Section, 2020).Although the market for chilled poultry is thought to be expanding faster than frozen poultry, both have their market share [21].

Consumption of White Meat in Dubai
Chilled poultry is mostly marketed to the retail market.Chilled chicken from local manufacturers in the Emirate of Dubai is the best choice for local residents, and the temperature for the chilled white meat in UAE is 4 C (Food Trade Control Section, 2020).Although the market for chilled poultry is thought to be expanding faster than frozen poultry, both have their market share [21].

Consumption of White Meat
One of the important reasons for market growth in UAE, including Dubai, is the wide range of products on the market.The increase in numbers of restaurants and the different nationalities that live in Dubai also contribute to market growth [2].Data from Dubai Municipality show that the total volume of imported white meat is increasing annually.Table 10 shows that the volume of white meat imported increased by about 32% in 2019 compared to 2017, and that poultry consumption per capita also increased.Between 2018 and 2019, the volume of red meat imported decreased by 18% (Table 6) and red meat consumption decreased.This can be interpreted as being due to the awareness of the Dubai population of the health benefits attributed to the consumption of white meat, and the price of white meat compared to red meat.
Figure 9 shows the consumption of meat per capita in UAE in 2019.It is evident that there is an increase in white meat consumption on the part of UAE residents.It can be assumed that consumption is similar in Dubai.The reasons behind high consumption of white meat in UAE are linked to price and the availability in the market and perceived health benefits [23].
Sustainability 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 27 assumed that consumption is similar in Dubai.The reasons behind high consumption of white meat in UAE are linked to price and the availability in the market and perceived health benefits [23].

Carbon Footprint along the Supply Chain
In 2010, global livestock supply chains emitted an estimated total of 8.1 gigatonnes carbon dioxide CO2-eq to global greenhouse gas emissions, of which 0.79 gigatonnes were estimated to be due to the production of chicken meat and eggs.On a commodity basis, chicken meat has a relatively low emission intensity of 35 kg CO2-eq per kg of protein (GLEAM) [24].
When CO2 imports are included, the level of decarbonisation achieved by many de-

Carbon Footprint along the Supply Chain
In 2010, global livestock supply chains emitted an estimated total of 8.1 gigatonnes carbon dioxide CO 2 -eq to global greenhouse gas emissions, of which 0.79 gigatonnes were estimated to be due to the production of chicken meat and eggs.On a commodity basis, chicken meat has a relatively low emission intensity of 35 kg CO 2 -eq per kg of protein (GLEAM) [24].
When CO 2 imports are included, the level of decarbonisation achieved by many developed countries is far lower than it looks.Since 2007, net CO 2 imports in developed nations have fallen by about 29%, owing to an increase in the import of developed country commodities into developing nations [25].

White Meat Importation and Carbon Footprint
FAO states that livestock production contributes up to 14.5% of all the anthropogenic carbon emissions so far, which is estimated as 7.1 gigatonnes of CO 2 annually.For an estimate of emissions, it is calculated that for every 1 kg of beef (beef herd), we produce about 99.48 kg of greenhouse gas CO 2 emissions.These statistics only refer to the meat production in its segment.If we employ the end-to-end procedure including farming, meat transportation and dairy products under consideration, then this mega category surpasses the carbon footprint extent of the Global Transport industry and comes very close to the Power industry (IPCC 2014).Overall, this livestock category comprises around 38% of habitable land, globally resulting in 26% of GHG emissions.Out of this 26%, the supply chain holds an 18% share in GHG emissions.
For this section of the study, a consultation was conducted with Dubai Carbon Centre of Excellence, an organisation that facilitates tracking of greenhouse gas emissions from the major source sectors in the entire Emirate of Dubai.For the purpose of this chapter, the researcher used the amounts of white meat (frozen or chilled) imported to Dubai via sea, air and land in 2019 as an example to estimate the quantity of emissions.In the process of meat importation, transportation is the main cause of emissions; it is about 45% of sector emissions [24].In this study, the distance from exporting country was calculated and the Transportation Emission Factor was also estimated because multiple factors could affect the number of emissions produced.The Transportation Emission Factor is a factor allowing GHG fluxes (i.e., the change or variation in GHG emission in accordance with time and space, as we are estimating transportation of goods) to be estimated from a unit of available activity data (e.g., tonnes of fuel consumed per tonnes of product produced).The approach involves the multiplication of the activity management data (Weight of the Meat and Distance travelled for exportation along with other factors associated-all these details are recorded by Dubai Carbon) by an emission factor that is relevant to the activity.The related emission factor is a parameter that describes the amount of greenhouse gas flux per unit under consideration activity.For example, this parameter is used to calculate the methane gas emissions from enteric fermentation (food digestion procedure in animals resulting in the production of methane as a byproduct, which is a GHG).This approach depends not only on the accuracy of the activity data but also on how calculations are made.
The calculation used in this chapter is based on the GHG Protocol Agricultural Guidance, and this calculation is used by the Dubai Carbon Centre for Excellence.The calculation for counting the GHG2A/GHG2B is as follows: In this equation, KG is the quantity of the product transported, EF2A is the Emission Factor and IM is the distance covered.We must consider that the Emission Factor varies by mode of transportation as it will be different for each maritime, air and land shipping.(GHG Protocol Agricultural Guidance, 2014).
Table 11 below shows the estimated emissions produced if white meat is sent via sea shipments.Thirty-nine countries have been selected to show the number of emissions that could be produced during the transportation of white meat to Dubai.The distance of the country of exportation and the amount of meat exported play an important role in determining the number of emissions.For example, the emissions from shipments of meat from Brazil are higher compared to shipments from Australia; though the distance from Australia is more, the amount of meat imported from Australia is far less than Brazil.So, both factors impact the GHG emission.Shipment of meat from Brazil is responsible for the largest emissions and Bahrain the lowest.These amounts in the table show the high effect of emissions on the environment [24] (Gerber, 2013).According to Crist, (2009) [25], CO 2 emissions from maritime transportation are huge, and have upsurged up to 45% higher than the previous estimation, which was 843 Mt of CO 2 in 2007.It is noticeable from the table below that emissions from shipments from Brazil are higher than Australia, though the distance from Australia to Dubai is greater.That is because the amount of meat imported from Brazil is far greater than that from Australia.So, all the factors including Weight, Distance and Emission Factor impact the GHG emission.[23].** GHG2A: GHG Emission due to transportation which is shown in tonnes CO 2 e. *** Food is imported from abroad to the free zone in the seaport (Jebel Ali), and then it is processed in Jebel Ali.Records show the country of origin is UAE and the port of entry is the seaport.The source country was not found.
Table 12 below shows the estimated emissions of GHG if transportation of white meat is performed via airplanes or air shipping.The distance between the exporting countries and Dubai along with the emission factor have been estimated.Despite the overall GHG emission volume, the emissions factor for air freight forwarding is higher than the maritime shipping; also, the distance and the amount of meat exported affect the amount of emissions produced.Table 13 below shows the estimated GHG emissions produced if white meat is transported via trucks.The emission factor for trucks is lower for the airplanes but is higher than for ships.Dubai imports white meats from bordering countries.White meat imports from Oman are responsible for the highest emissions.Most farms in Oman are close to the UAE borders, and they target the Dubai market, mainly for fresh white meat [11].

Local Production of White Meat
The meat from cows, pigs and other animals including livestock feed is responsible for 57% of the emissions from all food production and 14.5% of the global GHG emissions.The exact amounts of emissions from animal feed factories in Dubai were unable to be retrieved.However, the estimation of GHG produced from white meat is shown in Table 14 below.Regarding waste from animal farms, the only data available are on manure.There is no information available on the food waste from dairy farming or milk production.

The Dubai Government's Role in Promoting the Poultry Industry in Dubai
The Emirate of Dubai depends almost entirely on imported food, with limited production at local level.The federal and local governments have selected white meat as an important food item, and it is included in the Food Security Strategy.Although this food item has essential nutrients to meet the requirements for each person and should be available at all times in the market, the strategy has still not been fully implemented.

UAE Regulation for Food Labelling and Shelf Life
Labelling is an important requirement for all imported meat and poultry products and UAE regulations require that labels must adhere to high standards.The labels must carry the basic information in Arabic, namely the date of production and expiry date, the

Sea Shipping
Air Shipping Road Transport

Local Production of White Meat
The meat from cows, pigs and other animals including livestock feed is responsible for 57% of the emissions from all food production and 14.5% of the global GHG emissions.The exact amounts of emissions from animal feed factories in Dubai were unable to be retrieved.However, the estimation of GHG produced from white meat is shown in Table 14 below.Regarding waste from animal farms, the only data available are on manure.There is no information available on the food waste from dairy farming or milk production.

The Dubai Government's Role in Promoting the Poultry Industry in Dubai
The Emirate of Dubai depends almost entirely on imported food, with limited production at local level.The federal and local governments have selected white meat as an important food item, and it is included in the Food Security Strategy.Although this food item has essential nutrients to meet the requirements for each person and should be available at all times in the market, the strategy has still not been fully implemented.

UAE Regulation for Food Labelling and Shelf Life
Labelling is an important requirement for all imported meat and poultry products and UAE regulations require that labels must adhere to high standards.The labels must carry the basic information in Arabic, namely the date of production and expiry date, the product and brand name, the country of origin, net weight of the product and the name and address of the producer [11].
The current UAE regulation for the shelf life of fresh white meat is 3 days, for chilled products it is 14 days, while for frozen white meat it is 90 days.The updated federal authority for the UAE standards announced this regulation in 2017 (UAE.S 150-1:2017), to support small farmers and limit importation of white meat from neighbouring nations.

Veterinary Services
The Veterinary Service Section in Dubai Municipality takes samples from commercial farms for microbial and antimicrobial residue testing, but no samples are taken from small farms.Table 15 shows the results of antimicrobial residue tests on samples taken from the commercial broiler farm in Dubai from 2019 to 2021.All the samples were negative, and no antibiotic residues were found in the local commercial poultry farm in Dubai.The Food Safety Department in Dubai Municipality also takes samples from imported white meat at the border and the market, but the samples cover microbial tests only.product and brand name, the country of origin, net weight of the product and the name and address of the producer [11].
The current UAE regulation for the shelf life of fresh white meat is 3 days, for chilled products it is 14 days, while for frozen white meat it is 90 days.The updated federal authority for the UAE standards announced this regulation in 2017 (UAE.S 150-1:2017), to support small farmers and limit importation of white meat from neighbouring nations.

Veterinary Services
The Veterinary Service Section in Dubai Municipality takes samples from commercial farms for microbial and antimicrobial residue testing, but no samples are taken from small farms.Table 15 shows the results of antimicrobial residue tests on samples taken from the commercial broiler farm in Dubai from 2019 to 2021.All the samples were negative, and no antibiotic residues were found in the local commercial poultry farm in Dubai.The Food Safety Department in Dubai Municipality also takes samples from imported white meat at the border and the market, but the samples cover microbial tests only.Figure 11A,B  The Veterinary Service Section in Dubai Municipality also provides treatment vaccination programs for small farmers' poultry at the level of Emirates of Dubai.program does not cover the commercial farm.Table 16 shows the total number of chic receiving treatment and disease prevention programs in Dubai from 2016 to 2019.Ta into consideration the total number of poultry in Dubai, there are 130,000 chickens a able in the local farmers, including the small farmers [11].

Identification of Key Challenges Facing White Meat Production
After conducting in-depth analysis of the key informant interviews and focus gr discussions, the key challenges are identified and listed according to priority as follo  The Veterinary Service Section in Dubai Municipality also provides treatment and vaccination programs for small farmers' poultry at the level of Emirates of Dubai.This program does not cover the commercial farm.Table 16 shows the total number of chickens receiving treatment and disease prevention programs in Dubai from 2016 to 2019.Taking into consideration the total number of poultry in Dubai, there are 130,000 chickens available in the local farmers, including the small farmers [11].* Animal disease preventive programs include vaccinations against contagious and infectious animal diseases, control of external and internal parasites and animal disease diagnostic testing services as part of animal disease surveillance programs [14].

Identification of Key Challenges Facing White Meat Production
After conducting in-depth analysis of the key informant interviews and focus group discussions, the key challenges are identified and listed according to priority as follows:

•
High cost of feeds and chick supplies; Rationale: This will reduce transportation costs, encourage producers to increase production to enhance the market share of local production and provide increased oversight by the Dubai Government.
• Recommendation: Promote measures such as recycling and composting farm wastes and reusing the water from poultry farms and slaughterhouses.
Rationale: This will mitigate the environmental consequences of increased white meat production.
• Recommendation: Improve the capacity of the veterinary system in the UAE in realtime diagnostic sampling and epidemiological mapping of locations of diseases when they occur.Rationale: Rapid diagnosis and control of animal diseases, especially diseases that could pose a big risk for the country or affect local production in small farms, is essential for food security.
• Recommendation: Provide facilities for small farmers such as tax exemption and loan facilities to encourage local production of chickens.
Rationale: This will encourage small farmers to invest in their farms and increase the return on sale of their products.
• Recommendation: Implement regulations to support the increased availability and presence of local white meat on shelves of retailers.
Rationale: This will help increase the market share of local white meat and enhance the ability of small farmers to remain competitive in the market.
• Recommendation: Reduce costs of poultry feed through government subsidies for all poultry producers.Rationale: Feed is very expensive and reduced feed costs will increase returns for local farmers.
• Recommendation: Facilitate licensing of small farmers.
Rationale: This will allow small farmers to access markets and enhance the market share of local products.
• Recommendation: Support research and development to identify staple crops (such as barley and wheat) that are resistant to saline water, making them suitable for local feed production.Rationale: Feed and feed ingredients are currently imported.Local feed production will minimise feed costs and ensure availability of feed in times of crisis, emergency or disaster.
• Recommendation: Encourage the government to prepare an emergency plan for essential food supplies for the citizens in times of crisis, emergency or disaster.
Rationale: An emergency plan is needed to ensure that food supplies are not interrupted or reduced during any sort of crisis.Lessons from COVID-19 and the problems experienced during this crisis should be addressed.
• Recommendation: Support big data technologies to trace and measure the entire chicken meat chain (farm to fork) in Dubai and UAE to ensure that all production phases meet the requirements of food security and safety.Rationale: Reliable data on production of white meat in each emirate, the amount consumed by Dubai residents and the contribution of white meat to the nutritional requirements of residents are essential for planning.
• Recommendation: Ensure samples of white meat from small producers are regularly collected and tested for food safety purposes.
Rationale: Samples should be collected and tested to ensure that small producers comply with food safety requirements.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Overview of the broiler value chain in Dubai.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Overview of the broiler value chain in Dubai.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. The value chain for local chicken production by small farmers in Dubai.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. The value chain for local chicken production by small farmers in Dubai.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3.The value chain for local broiler production by the commercial broiler farm in Dubai.Figure 3. The value chain for local broiler production by the commercial broiler farm in Dubai.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3.The value chain for local broiler production by the commercial broiler farm in Dubai.Figure 3. The value chain for local broiler production by the commercial broiler farm in Dubai.

9 .
Imported Frozen and Chilled White Meat

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Value chain for chilled and frozen white meat imported into Dubai.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Value chain for chilled and frozen white meat imported into Dubai.

Figure 5 .
Figure 5.The location of Jebel Ali and other key ports in relation to the Strait of Hormuz.

Figure 5 .
Figure 5.The location of Jebel Ali and other key ports in relation to the Strait of Hormuz.

Sustainability 2022 ,
13,  x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27 age and breed of the poultry and market demand.The three main types of poultry feeds that are available in the UAE and Dubai are concentrates, roughages and blended feeds.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Distribution of poultry feed manufactured in Dubai.

Figure 7
Figure7provides an illustration of a retailer's shop that sells animal feed in the vicinity of the UAE cattle market.The feed is usually brought from different sources or suppliers, and this shop sells all types of feed for farm animals and poultry.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Distribution of poultry feed manufactured in Dubai.

Figure 7
Figure7provides an illustration of a retailer's shop that sells animal feed in the vicinity of the UAE cattle market.The feed is usually brought from different sources or suppliers, and this shop sells all types of feed for farm animals and poultry.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Distribution of poultry feed manufactured in Dubai.

Figure 7 .
Figure 7.An animal feed retailer's shop in UAE.

Figure 8
Figure 8  is an example of animal feed produced locally in UAE (after importing the raw materials from abroad).This product is for broiler chickens.

Figure 7 .
Figure 7.An animal feed retailer's shop in UAE.

Figure 8 27 Figure 8 .
Figure 8 is an example of animal feed produced locally in UAE (after importing the raw materials from abroad).This product is for broiler chickens.Sustainability 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 27

Figure 8 .
Figure 8.An example of feed for broiler chickens in an animal feed retailer's shop nearby the UAE Cattle Market.

Figure 9 .
Figure 9. Consumption of meat in UAE per capita in 2017.Source: data taken from FAOSTAT, 2020.

Figure 10
Figure10below indicates the difference in estimated emissions for white meat importation by sea, air and road.The amount of imported white meat and associated estimates of emissions are higher for sea shipments than air shipments, and the lowest estimated emissions are produced by shipment via trucks.

Figure 10 .
Figure 10.The amount of GHG2A emissions showed as a PIE chart.

Figure 10 .
Figure 10.The amount of GHG2A emissions showed as a PIE chart.
Figure 11A,B show the results for the samples for imported meat and meat products in 2019, 2020 and 2021.The results show an absence of contamination of white meat in each of the three years.Sustainability 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 27

Figure 11 .
Figure 11.(A) Total contaminated samples with antibiotics for different types of food products for the year 2019.(B) Total contaminated samples with antibiotics for different types of food products for the year 2020.

Table 1 .
Number of interviews and participants from each target group taking part in the study.
* The two retailers are also food suppliers.** Four separate interviews were conducted.

Table 2 .
Topics identified during the focus group discussion with the Dubai Municipality Food Safety Department.

Table 4 .
Topics identified during the interview of Veterinary Service Section and small farmers with the Dubai Municipality Food Safety Department.

Table 4 .
Topics identified during the interview of Veterinary Service Section and small farmers with the Dubai Municipality Food Safety Department.

Table 6 .
[11]weight and percentage of chicken meat imported into the Emirate of Dubai from exporting countries[11].Source: data taken from; Food Trade Control Section, 2020.

Table 7 .
[11]amount of white meat imported to Dubai via sea, land and air by country of origin in 2019[11].

Table 9 .
Type and source of poultry feed concentrate ingredients available in Dubai.

Table 10 .
[11]nt of red meat and white meat imported via Dubai borders in tonnes and poultry consumption per capita[11].Data Source: Food Trade Control Section, 2020.

Table 11 .
Estimation of GHG produced to ship white meat from the country of origin of meat exported to Dubai via sea in 2019.

Table 11 .
Cont.Transportation Emission Factor is calculated in kilogram, as 0.X kg of CO 2 e produced per tonne of meat (kg ton −1 km −1 )

Table 12 .
Estimation of GHG produced to ship white meat from the country of origin to Dubai via air in 2019.

Table 13 .
[23]mation of GHG produced to ship white meat from the country of origin to Dubai via truck in 2019.Transportation Emission Factor is calculated in kilogram, as 0.X kg of CO 2 e produced per tonne of meat transported to one kilometre (kg ton −1 km −1 )[23].** GHG2A: Transportation GHG Emission, in tonnes CO 2 e. *** KM: Food is exported from country of origin to Oman, then it is re-exported from Oman to Dubai via road as the meat farms of Oman are near to the borders of Dubai and they mostly target the Dubai market.

Table 14 .
Estimation of GHG produced from white meat factory based in Dubai.

Table 14 .
Estimation of GHG produced from white meat factory based in Dubai.

Table 15 .
Veterinary Service Section laboratory results for the commercial broiler farm in Dubai.

Table 15 .
Veterinary Service Section laboratory results for the commercial broiler farm in Dubai.

Table 16 .
Number of curative and preventive veterinary health care services provided by D Municipality Veterinary Services Section for chickens in the Emirate of Dubai for the period 2016 to 2019.
[14]imal disease preventive programs include vaccinations against contagious and infectious mal diseases, control of external and internal parasites and animal disease diagnostic testing s vices as part of animal disease surveillance programs[14].
Absence of proper industry structure with respect to poultry farming genetics, parent and grandparent stock; • Absence of a slaughterhouse for small farmers in the Emirate of Dubai; • According to Dubai Veterinary Section, small farms could be a source of dis outbreaks;

Table 16 .
Number of curative and preventive veterinary health care services provided by Dubai Municipality Veterinary Services Section for chickens in the Emirate of Dubai for the period from 2016 to 2019.

•
Cost disadvantage of local production compared to imported frozen white meat: high volumes of imported frozen meat are produced with cheap feed and cheap labour; • Scarcity of water which makes local production difficult; • Few small farmers are licensed; • Dominance of imported products; • Absence of proper industry structure with respect to poultry farming genetics, i.e., parent and grandparent stock; • Absence of a slaughterhouse for small farmers in the Emirate of Dubai; • According to Dubai Veterinary Section, small farms could be a source of disease outbreaks;