Business Model Adaptation in Spanish Sports Clubs According to the Perceived Context: Impact on the Social Cause Performance

The COVID-19 pandemic has generated an uncertain and changing context that has greatly affected the development and sustainability of all sports organizations. In this hostile context, adaptation of the business model (BMA) can be a strategic alternative for sports clubs. A change in value proposition, change in target market, and change in value delivery are some of the aspects considered in this study in relation to the social performance variable. It is well-known that sports clubs have a marked social function, therefore analyzing their social cause performance is of great importance in modern society. However, there are still few studies that have analyzed BMA in relation to this type of variable in sports clubs. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to find out what perceptions of the environment can influence the BMA, and to investigate what influence the BMA has on the social performance of this type of entity. To this end, 145 Spanish sports clubs were analyzed during a period of limitations and restrictions arising from COVID-19. The results show that there are differences in BMA according to the perceived impact of the crisis and the perception of risk. In addition, BMA predicts the social performance of sports clubs, and this study provides new information for academics and professionals. Practical implications and management proposals were developed based on the results, and conclusions drawn.


Introduction
For more than a year, the crisis triggered by COVID-19 has forced a large number of countries to enter into total or partial lockdown [1]. This, in addition to affecting the lives of many people, has suddenly changed the way in which many types of organizations with face-to-face activities operate. During the period of total lockdown, the government in Spain ordered the closure of bars, museums, theaters, and sports centers. This measure was accepted by these entities; however, the situation has forced them to propose strategies and initiatives that could reduce the impact of these limitations.
In the sports sector, the situation has also been-and continues to be-complicated, because there are still restrictive measures in terms of a limited capacity at sporting events, and reduced numbers of sportsmen and women in sports facilities, among others. This has occurred despite the fact that sport has important benefits for people's health [2], plays an important social role [3], and has a significant economic impact [4]. Therefore, sports activity is gradually recovering, but has not yet reached the levels seen prior to the irruption by the virus in society.
In this hostile and changing context that COVID-19 has generated, sports organizations have been faced with the challenge of how to provide an effective response to all the changes that were difficult to predict. These responses may involve strategies or initiatives that have not previously been proposed and developed by organizations. As can be seen in the academic literature, the entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviors of sports clubs have increased significantly since the outbreak of the virus [5]. This type of organization has increased its innovation and risk-taking to a large extent compared to the data prior to COVID-19. This may be a consequence of the extreme situation to which sports clubs have been exposed.
In a context of crisis, the business model adaptation (hereinafter BMA) has been particularly relevant for responding to the unpredictable changes that have been taking place. Since the beginning of the year 2020, the global health situation experienced with the COVID-19 pandemic has caused situations never faced before by sports organizations [6]. This has forced them to adapt themselves on many occasions, in order to meet the needs and expectations of their partners and users. In this sense, BMA can be an opportunity for companies and organizations to survive and be sustainable in such a hostile context.
It is therefore important to study the BMA, in order to provide managers with tools that allow them to better understand the influence of the context on the organization, knowing what responses are most appropriate for the organization to better respond to these demands, at both the economic and sporting levels, or, as in the case of this research, at the social level. This is also fundamental for sports organizations, but there is not much information in the literature that analyzes these aspects in terms of the peculiarities of the associative sports context, which logically differs from other types of organizations. In sports clubs, the social function prevails over economic or financial objectives [7]. Therefore, analyzing the social performance is a vital aspect. In addition to the peculiarities of the associative sports context, as discussed above, analyzing BMA and its relationship with the perception of the environment in the current situation of crisis caused by COVID-19 requires special attention. The situation generated by COVID-19 has important consequences in the sports sector [5,6,8]; however, these may be perceived differently by managers, and, consequently, their response may also be different. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to analyze the antecedents of the environment for BMA and consequences of BMA for the social cause performance in the sports sector during the COVID-19 crisis.
As mentioned above, the aim of the present study was to fill this research gap. First, it analyzed whether the individual characteristics of sports clubs (perceived risk, perceived opportunities, and perceived impact of the COVID-19 pandemic) cause them to display different values for the BMA variables. Therefore, the research question was as follows: "Does the perception or identification of the environment (perceived risk, perceived opportunities, and perceived impact of COVID-19 on the organization) influence BMA?" Another objective was to analyze whether these BMA variables are able to significantly explain the social cause performance of sport clubs. Therefore, the second research question was as follows: "What influence does BMA have on the social cause performance of the analyzed sport clubs?" Following this introduction, the theoretical framework on which the variables that are part of the study are based is provided. Subsequently, the method used in the research is presented, considering the participants, the instrument used, the procedure, and the data analysis. After this, the obtained results and conclusions drawn are considered. Finally, the practical implications and management proposals, the limitations of the study, and future lines of research are presented.

Restrictions in the Sports Sector
COVID-19 has forced most countries to propose measures and restrictions that have altered the way in which sports organizations operate [1]. Physical distancing between people and social isolation have been the most widespread measures in the fight against the spread of this virus [8]. This has resulted in the cancellation of sports leagues and sporting events, and the practice of sports itself has suffered severe restrictions. On 14 March 2020, a state of alarm was declared in Spain to deal with the health emergency caused by the COVID-19 virus. During the months of March and April, Spain was in a period of total restrictions in the field of sports. Sports leagues, federated and professional competitions, and training or physical activity outside the home were cancelled. In May, professional athletes were allowed to begin to train and practice physical activity outdoors. However, social distancing and hygienic and safety measures had to be prioritized at all times. This had a huge impact on sports clubs, because they had to close their doors and reinvent themselves in terms of communication with their members, users, and athletes, as well as in terms of their sports offering and value proposition. The sports sector has been impacted by COVID-19 like never before [6], so BMA has provided an opportunity to face this crisis.

Business Model Adaptation in Times of Crisis
Crises that impact society can have serious consequences for organizations. These consequences can be negative when the organization is not able to manage the effects adequately [9]. However, a crisis can be approached as an opportunity for restructuration and adaptation that can lead to subsequent growth. When facing these situations, organizations have been forced to identify changes in the context, adapt to them, and reinvent themselves, in order to be able to offer an effective response. Organizational literature has largely studied the responses, strategies, and initiatives that have been developed in situations of crisis [10,11]. In this context, BMA can be considered an effective response mechanism in turbulent environments [12].
One of the main objectives of any sports organization is to satisfy the needs of its members, users, or customers. Therefore, in order to achieve this objective after the emergence of COVID-19 in society, organizations have been forced to adapt their ways of operating and, consequently, their business models [13]. Business model adaptation can be a radical and effective response to the challenges faced by an organization [14]. The business model can be defined as "the logic of the firm, how it operates and creates value for its stakeholders" (p. 196 in [14]). In dynamic and changing environments such as the sports sector, it is necessary to adapt the business model according to the needs of users and partners, competition, technological changes, and social restrictions that limit communication channels. In this context, due to its dynamism and complexity, the competitive advantages obtained are temporary [15,16]. Therefore, adaptations of the business model can be continuous and varied, depending on the organization and its situation.
However, despite the extensive development of literature related to adaptation and innovation in business models, there is no agreement on a definition of the elements included in BMA. Most of the organizational literature that addresses the construct considers: (i) the adaptation of the value proposition created by the entity; (ii) the change in the target market to which the offer is oriented; (iii) changes in value delivery; and (iv) changes in value capture mechanisms [17][18][19]. The value proposition can be understood as the way in which the sports club offers services and products to its members and users [20]. In line with the literature, adapting the business model is not usually an easy task, and can generate uncertainty in the organization [16]. However, when facing turbulent environments, such as those generated by COVID-19 in the sports sector, this may become a necessity if the objective is to continue with the sports offer and maintain the levels of sustainability and survival of the organization.
BMA may depend to a large extent on the perceptions and interpretations of changes in the environment exhibited by the decision-makers [18]. The literature approaches this from a negative interpretation (perceived risk or threat) or a positive perspective (perceived opportunity). Prospect theory states that managers are more motivated to carry out risky initiatives when they perceive a threat than under favorable conditions [21]. It is one of the most studied theories on how people assess threats in turbulent environments [22]. The body of knowledge on the impact of risk perception or opportunity on BMA in the sports context is still scarce. However, it is important to have such knowledge in a hostile situation, such as that generated by the coronavirus in the sports sector. Nevertheless, based on the previous literature in other fields and in other crises, the following hypothesis can be stated: Hypothesis (H1). When the perceived risk (or threat) is higher, there is a greater predisposition to BMA.
The COVID-19 crisis has had an impact on the sports sector as never seen before [6]. However, the impact may be different, depending on the sports organization, and this impact, in turn, may be perceived or interpreted unequally, depending on the individuals in the management team. This may link to the above, because individuals operating in hostile environments take risks because they feel they have little to lose [23]. The crisis resulting from the coronavirus differs greatly from other previous economic crises, because it has had limitations that have restricted the sports offered, forcing them to be cancelled or largely adapted.
It has previously been demonstrated that the entrepreneurial orientation in sports clubs has been altered to a great extent following the irruption of the virus in society. In sports clubs, there has been a significant increase in risk-taking and innovation since the appearance of COVID-19 [5]. However, the change in the business model in this type of entity is unknown. Based on the organizational literature, we can state the following hypothesis: Hypothesis (H2). When the perception of COVID-19 s impact is higher, there is a greater predisposition towards BMA.
In the COVID-19 crisis, the threats are extensive and have greatly affected the way in which any sports club operates. However, opportunities can also arise in a crisis situation that would not arise in a normal scenario [24]. Opportunities can be defined as favorable situations with a high probability of gain and over which one has control, i.e., when the environment presents threats, the predisposition to change is reduced [25,26]. Under the aforementioned theory, managers are more likely to adapt their business model to the situation when an opportunity is perceived. The opportunities generated during a crisis should be explored and exploited by the managers of organizations; however, this is not always the case. Organizations tend to adapt their business model to a greater extent when faced with threatening conditions than when faced with an opportunity [18]. Therefore, considering the current pandemic situation and the previous literature, we propose H3: Hypothesis (H3). When perceived opportunities are higher, there is less predisposition towards BMA.

Relationship Between BMA and Performance
The sports sector was not prepared for a crisis such as that resulting from COVID-19 [27]. The social restrictions proposed by governments have had-and continue to haveeconomic, sporting, and social repercussions for sporting organizations [27]. Therefore, to mitigate these effects, it has been necessary to adapt to the expectations of users and members, in order to meet their needs. Generally, sports organizations have focused their efforts on initiatives that maintain their economic sustainability, but what about the social perspective?
The social commitment of sports organizations can be different [28], depending on their nature or mission. Therefore, responses to turbulent environments consider the social aspect to different extents. These sports organizations can be considered hybrid entities with social purposes while seeking economic viability [29].
In this sense, one of the main goals of sports clubs is the creation of social value [4], especially non-profit organizations [30]. Sports entities, through the actions they carry out, fulfill a predominantly social function [31] and have an impact on the communities in which they operate. This impact of sports entities can be translated into the improvement of certain social causes, such as the reduction in social exclusion levels, favoring the inclusion of the most vulnerable groups in society [32], and facilitating access to sports for the population. For these reasons, it is necessary to understand this social involvement, not only to be able to provide useful information to the managers of this sector, but also to be able to contribute to the improvement of the society in which the entity operates.
Innovations and entrepreneurial actions by sports clubs have had an impact on their social performance [7]. However, this has not been addressed in times of crisis, and could help to better elucidate the reality and effects of responses. To mitigate the effects of the crisis, non-profit sports clubs have adopted aspects of organizational development and management, and strategic planning developed in the profit sector [33]. In this context, business model adaptation may have a final impact on the social performance of the organization that has to be determined. Although there are no previous studies analyzing the impact of BMA on the social performance of sports clubs, according to the academic literature, we can propose the following hypothesis: Hypothesis (H4). BMA has a positive effect on the social cause performance of sports clubs.

Participants
In the present study, 148 Spanish sports clubs were analyzed, of which 51.4% (n = 76) had a national-international level of competition, and 48.6% (n = 72) had a local-autonomic level of competition. If we consider the type of funding, 22.6% (n = 34) were mainly publicly funded, while the remaining 77.4% (n = 114) were mainly privately funded.
Based on the sociodemographic aspects of the management team, 87.2% (n = 129) were men, and 12.8% (n = 19) were women. On the other hand, 27.7% (n = 41) had nonuniversity education (professional training or secondary education), while 72.3% (n = 107) had university education (degree or bachelor's degree, master's degree, or doctorate). Considering the length of service in the sports club, 40.5% (n = 60) had a length in service of less than nine years, 35.8% (n = 53) had a length of service between 10 and 20 years, while the remaining 23.6% (n = 35) had a length of service of more than 21 years. Finally, according to the length of service in the sports sector (not necessarily in the sports club), 14.9% (n = 22) were equal to or less than nine years, 35.1% (n = 52) had experience between 10 and 20 years, while 50% (n = 74) had a length of service in the sports sector of more than 21 years.

Instrument
The individual characteristics relating to the interpretation of the environment (perceived risk or threat and perceived opportunities) were investigated following the proposal by Santos et al. [34]. The perceived risk or threat was assessed by asking individuals whether fear of failure would prevent them from starting a business or adapting the organization. Perceived opportunities were assessed by asking individuals whether they thought their environment offered good opportunities to start a business or adapt the organization. The perceived impact of COVID-19 on the organization was explored through the following self-developed question: "To what extent has your club been affected economically or financially by the COVID-19 crisis?" There has been no agreement in the academic literature on how to measure BMA [18], and there is no validated measurement scale. Nevertheless, following Saebi et al. [18], four aspects have been evaluated through seven different items: (i) changes in value propositions; (ii) changes in target markets; (iii) changes in value delivery; and (iv) changes in value capture mechanisms. In this study, the two items that make up the change in value proposition dimension were analyzed separately: on the one hand, "Introduction of new products or services" and on the other hand, "Reduction in the number of products or services". Finally, in order to obtain the information related to the social performance, we followed the proposal by Núñez-Pomar et al. [7], with a total of two statements. This scale showed adequate reliability values (α = 0.71), as in other contributions in the literature [3]. Finally, the survey obtained data on the characteristics of the participating clubs, collecting information on their ownership, level of competition, level of education of the manager, and gender of the manager. The response scale considered the fit with the statement, with 1 being "strongly disagree" and 7 being "strongly agree".

Procedure and Data Analysis
For data collection, the clubs were contacted by telephone, and the purpose of the study and confidential nature of the data, which were intended for academic purposes only, were explained. Through these calls, club managers answered the questions contained in the questionnaire. As a criterion for participating in the study, the managers who answered the survey were asked to have at least three years of experience in the entity, in order to be able to give a more adequate response on the reality of the club to the questions proposed.
In order to answer the research questions posed, different statistical analyses were carried out. First, the descriptive values of the characteristics of the clubs were analyzed in order to detail the peculiarities of the entities analyzed, such as their ownership, level of competition, level of studies, and gender of the managers. Subsequently, comparisons of means were carried out by means of t-tests for independent samples, including the variables of interest and analyzing the opinions of the clubs according to the different characteristics that make up the adaptation of the business model. Finally, in order to address the role played by BMA in predicting the social performance of clubs, a linear regression model was developed, with the intention of seeing whether this BMA variable is capable of significantly explaining the social performance, and if so, which of its components show a greater weight in this explanation.

BMA Considering the Perceived Risk or Threat
First, Table 1 compares the clubs' assessment of BMA according to the risk they perceived. In this regard, one can observe that the highest mean rating is found in the introduction of new products and services by clubs with high risk perception (M = 3.70; SD = ±2.46), while the lowest is found in the change in target market by clubs with low risk perception (M = 1.56; SD = ±1.97). As for the mean comparison, we found significant differences between clubs with high and low perceived risk, specifically for the variables of the introduction of new products or services (p < 0.01), with clubs with a high perceived risk (M = 3.70; SD = ±2. 46) obtaining significantly higher values with respect to clubs with a low perceived risk (M = 2.30; SD = ±2.35) and for change in value delivery (p < 0.05), with clubs with a high perceived risk (M = 2.95; SD = ±1.75) showing significantly higher values than clubs with a low perceived risk (M = 2.14; SD = ±1.50).

BMA Considering the Impact of COVID-19 on the Sports Club
In the second comparison, the study variables were analyzed by comparing the results according to the impact perceived by the clubs as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic (see Table 2). In the results, one can observe that the highest mean values appear in the variable of the introduction of new products and services by the clubs that have perceived a high impact of COVID-19 (M = 3.60; SD = ±2.39). On the other hand, one can observe that the lowest valuation appears again in the variable change in target market, for clubs with a high perceived impact of COVID-19 (M = 1.75; SD = ±2.10), although this is very close to the values offered by clubs with a low perceived impact (M = 1.76; SD = ±2.35). As for the mean comparison, the results indicate that there are significant differences between the clubs with a high and low perceived COVID-19 impact for the change in value delivery variable (p < 0.01).

BMA Considering Perceived Opportunities
Finally, we analyzed the BMA variables in terms of the clubs' perception of opportunities (see Table 3). The best evaluation can be observed in the introduction of new products and services (M = 3.69; SD = ±2.46), while the lowest value appears, in this case, for the change in target market by clubs with a low perception of opportunities (M = 1.47; SD = ±2.08). However, despite the differences in mean values, no significant differences were found (p > 0.05) in the variables analyzed according to the opportunities perceived by the club.

Effect of Business Model Adaptation on Social Performance
Once the comparisons had been analyzed to determine the existence of differences in the BMA according to the characteristics of each club, a linear regression analysis was then performed to determine the extent to which the BMA variables are capable of explaining the social performance of the club (see Table 4). First, we can say that the proposed model is significant in terms of the prediction of the social performance (F (6.06) = 15.46; p < 0.001), being able to explain 15% of the variance of this variable (R 2 = 0.18; R 2 adj = 0.15). As can be seen in the regression model, the variables that can significantly predict the social performance are the introduction of new products or services (β = 0.23; p < 0.05) and the change in value capture mechanisms (β = 0.25; p < 0.01).

Discussion
The business model adaptations have been studied in times of crisis by the academic literature [13], because it is important to know the differences when implementing these changes according to the perception or interpretation of the environment. Analyzing BMA has attracted the attention of academics and practitioners, because it may have an ultimate impact on the final performance of the organization [14,33,35]. In this sense, the present study has provided empirical answers on (i) business model adaptation in sports clubs according to different perceived conditions (threat, opportunity, and COVID-19's impact); and (ii) the effect of BMA on the social cause performance exhibited by the sports club. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to analyze BMA in sports clubs in times of crisis.
According to the results obtained, the tendency of a sports club to adapt its business model varies, depending on the perceived conditions. In our case, Hypothesis 1 can be supported, because business model adaptation was mostly developed in sports clubs perceiving an external threat, in line with the previous literature [17,36,37]. Change in value proposition and change in value delivery are higher in sports clubs that perceive a greater risk or threat in the environment. This fits with prospect theory, which states that, when faced with the perception and interpretation of external threats, the management team of organizations develops riskier strategies and actions [22].
In contrast, according to the results obtained, Hypothesis 2 has been refuted. The management of sports clubs do not adapt their business model to a greater or lesser extent in response to perceived opportunities, as proposed by the threat-rigidity theory. This theory argues that organizations restrict their actions or strategic changes when threats increase and the perception of opportunities decreases [25,26]. In the case of the results obtained, there are no significant differences in BMA according to the opportunities perceived by managers, as has also been shown in previous literature [17].
On the other hand, based on our results, there is a greater tendency to consider BMA when the perceived impact of COVID-19 is higher. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 could be supported. This has not been previously studied in the sports sector during the coronavirus crisis. However, it can be assumed that the organizations most affected by the crisis have been forced to adapt their strategies in terms of delivering value propositions to partners and users. The situation of hostility and dynamism has forced sports clubs to redesign products and services, and to rethink the mechanisms or channels through which these products or services are delivered to members or users, in line with Seetharaman [38]. Organizations that did not perceive a high impact could decide to maintain their status quo and continue with the development of existing strategies and actions.
Finally, BMA has a positive impact on the social cause performance of Spanish sports clubs. Therefore, according to the results obtained, Hypothesis 4 can be supported: BMA often has uncertain results [18]; hence, it is necessary to explore the consequences of these important changes. According to the results obtained, introducing new products or services is one of the aspects of BMA that has the greatest impact on the social performance. This is understandable because, due to the situation of restrictions in the way sports clubs operate, the value proposition has had to change to a large extent. Advances in information and communication technologies have facilitated new interactions with the agents surrounding the organization [39]. Through them, it has been possible to propose new services for members and users that have met, totally or partially, the needs and expectations of members, users, and sportsmen and women. Similarly, changes in value capture mechanisms are related to the variation in the prices of products or services [18]. It can be understood that reducing the price of services can help the most disadvantaged groups or those at risk of exclusion. This pandemic is having important economic consequences for part of the population [40]. Therefore, assessing the adaptation of the price to the situation can greatly increase the final social cause performance of the sports club.

Conclusions
The results of the study allow several conclusions to be drawn. Firstly, a high-risk perception implies that business model adaptation is different in sports clubs. The introduction of new products and services and the change in value delivery have been shown to be the most developed aspects compared to sports clubs that perceive a low risk in the context. Similarly, differences have been found in the change in value delivery between clubs with a high and low perceived impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Clubs that perceive a higher impact of COVID-19 on their organisation show a greater predisposition towards BMA, specifically towards changes in value delivery. On the other hand, following this line, it has been confirmed that sports clubs do not develop an adaptation of their business model differently, depending on the opportunities they perceive. Finally, it has been confirmed that the social cause performance of the sports club can be significantly predicted from the BMA variables, mainly through the introduction of new products or services and the change in the value capture mechanism. This indicates that adapting services with a focus on social aspects, as well as adapting the price to the current crisis situation, can significantly increase the social cause performance and the final social image of the sports club.

Implications, Limitations, and Future Lines of Research
The results shown and the conclusions drawn from them provide different implications at a theoretical and practical level. Firstly, at the theoretical level, with this study we contribute information to the literature on the study of BMA in the sports context, in order to better elucidate the relationship between the organizational environment and its actions for the improvement of performance, in this case, the social performance. In addition, it includes the perception of the management in terms of the context and how this influences BMA. To previous studies analyzing the perception of opportunities and threats or risks, the perception of the impact of COVID-19 on the sports club itself is added. This may provide a theoretical contribution to academics and researchers, because there are differences in BMA, depending on the perceived impact of COVID-19 on the organization. This may be an interesting contribution; it is a topic that, despite being widely studied in the literature, does not show many examples in the context of sports clubs.
On the other hand, at a practical level, the information provided in the study allows us to better understand how the relationships between the context, the adaptation of the business model, and the social performance of sports clubs are produced. This allows managers to be able to use new tools and implement new strategies to be able to respond more effectively to the demands that are occurring in the context, in order to achieve the organization's purposes in terms of the performance. A crisis or hostile period can have negative consequences if effective management is not developed [41]. It is therefore important to first identify the perceived opportunities or threats in a way that is consistent with reality. Then, it is important to determine whether changes in the environment are forcing the organization to adapt its business model. Similarly, it is important to know the needs or expectations of one's target audience in order to be able to adapt one's offer and value proposition. To do this, one must know whether these have changed and require adaptation, or whether one's current business model can meet these needs and expectations. Finally, according to our results, the introduction of new products or services and changes in value capture mechanisms, in particular, changes in the price of these products or services, have a positive effect on the performance in relation to social causes. Therefore, managers of sports clubs should study the introduction of new services that adapt to the context and needs to a greater extent, and adjust the price to the situation by first conducting a market assessment.
As for the limitations of the study and future lines of research, logically, analyzing Spanish clubs reflects the reality of the clubs in terms of cultural factors, making it difficult to generalize to other types of contexts. Furthermore, the sporting levels and source of funding of the clubs interviewed were not considered in the comparison, because the results were obtained globally. In this sense, future studies in which different contexts are analyzed, studying sports clubs from different countries, and where other variables are also analyzed, such as those commenting on the sports level or the type of funding, would make it possible to assess whether these characteristics of the organizations, together with cultural aspects, could be an element that exhibits different results.