Farm Production Diversification and Dietary Diversity among Subsistence Farming Households: Panel Data Evidence from South Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- To what extent does farm production diversification lead to dietary diversity among subsistence households in South Africa?
- What role is played by food purchases in dietary diversity? How does this relate to one’s own production diversification in improving dietary diversification?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Variables
2.3. Empirical Model
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Empirical Results
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Wave | Year | Total Number of Households | Number of Farming Households | Proportion of Farming Households (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Wave 1 | 2008 | 7296 | 1280 | 17.54 |
Wave 2 | 2010–2011 | 9125 | 491 | 5.38 |
Wave 3 | 2012 | 10,218 | 843 | 8.25 |
Wave 4 | 2014–2015 | 11,888 | 1502 | 12.63 |
Wave 5 | 2017 | 13,719 | 1369 | 9.98 |
Pooled Total | 52,246 | 5485 | Average: 10.50 |
Variable Name | Variable Description |
---|---|
Dependent Variables | |
HDDS | Household dietary diversity score (count of food groups) |
Veg (1 = yes) | Consumed vegetables (1 = yes) |
Fruit (1 = yes) | Consumed fruits (1 = yes) |
Independent variables | |
FPDI | Farm production diversity index (count of food groups) |
Age | Age of household head (years) |
Sex (1 = male) | Sex of household head (1 = male, 0 = female) |
Household size | Number of members in the household |
Education (years) | Years of schooling of household head (years) |
Employed (1 = yes) | Employment status of household head |
Income_ca | Total household income/capita (rands) |
Food_exp_ca | Total food expenditure/capita (rands) |
Urban (1 = urban) | Geographical location (1 = urban, 0 = farm or traditional settlement) |
Variables | Pooled | Wave 1 (2008) | Wave 2 (2010–2011) | Wave 3 (2012) | Wave 4 (2014–2015) | Wave 5 (2017) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (Std. Dev) | Mean (Std. Dev) | Mean (Std. Dev) | Mean (Std. Dev) | Mean (Std. Dev) | Mean (Std. Dev) | |
Dependent variables | ||||||
HDDS | 8.89 (2.75) | 8.97 (2.26) | 9.37 (2.50) | 9.27 (3.13) | 7.80 (3.53) | 8.31 (3.44) |
Veg (1 = yes) | 0.70 (0.46) | 0.68 (0.47) | 0.68 (0.47) | 0.77 (0.42) | 0.70 (0.46) | 0.78 (0.42) |
Fruit (1 = yes) | 0.38 (0.49) | 0.32 (0.47) | 0.46 (0.50) | 0.49 (0.50) | 0.37 (0.48) | 0.45 (0.50) |
Explanatory variables | ||||||
FPDI | 2.46 (1.29) | 2.28 (1.23) | 2.62 (1.60) | 2.79 (1.53) | 2.51 (1.34) | 2.73 (1.50) |
Age (years) | 54.60 (15.14) | 56.54 (14.90) | 55.10 (14.76) | 49.41 (15.28) | 53.91 (15.35) | 54.60 (15.35) |
Sex (1 = male) | 0.43 (0.50) | 0.48 (0.50) | 0.42 (0.49) | 0.37 (48) | 0.38 (0.49) | 0.36 (0.48) |
Household size | 5.12 (3.03) | 5.17 (3.06) | 5.35 (3.19) | 5.16 (2.87) | 4.40 (2.76) | 5.11 (2.87) |
Education (years) | 5.25 (4.57) | 4.39 (4.46) | 5.22 (4.51) | 6.13 (4.64) | 6.50 (4.36) | 6.75 (4.47) |
Employed (1 = yes) | 0.50 (0.50) | 0.54 (0.50) | 0.36 (0.48) | 0.52 (0.50) | 0.52 (0.50) | 0.51 (0.50) |
Income_ca (ZAR) | 1202.76 (2625.70) | 825.84 (1623.29) | 1101.35 (2294.86) | 1107.01 (1685.59) | 2122.52 (4457.43) | 2187.77 (4098.79) |
Food_exp_ca (ZAR) | 242.72 (276.91) | 204.87 (197.60) | 261.15 (317.28) | 251.81 (293.65) | 288.88 (383.19) | 320.67 (338.16) |
Urban (1 = urban) | 0.20 (0.40) | 0.14 (0.35) | 0.26 (0.44) | 0.21 (0.41) | 0.31 (0.46) | 0.20 (0.40) |
1 | 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Coef. | Std. Err. | Coef. | Std. Err. |
FPDI | 0.089 ** | 0.042 | 0.111 ** | 0.044 |
Food_exp_ca (ZAR) | 0.003 *** | 0.0006 | ||
Age | 0.021 *** | 0.005 | ||
Sex (1 = male) | −0.039 | 0.119 | ||
Household size | 0.152 *** | 0.025 | ||
Education (years) | 0.093 *** | 0.019 | ||
Employed (1 = yes) | 0.529 *** | 0.124 | ||
Income_ca (000 ZAR) | −0.144 ** | 0.062 | ||
Income/ca squared (000 ZAR) | 2.46 × 10−6 *** | 1.09 × 10−6 | ||
Urban (1 = urban) | 1.133 *** | 0.167 | ||
Wave | ||||
2 | 0.160 | 0.146 | ||
3 | 0.079 | 0.213 | ||
4 | −1.501 *** | 0.262 | ||
5 | −1.262 *** | 0.231 | ||
_constant | 8.613 *** | 0.122 | 5.281 *** | 0.391 |
sigma_u | 0.478 | 0.714 | ||
sigma_e | 2.657 | 2.421 | ||
rho | 0.0313 | 0.080 | ||
n | 2263 | 1972 | ||
Wald χ2 | Wald χ2(1) = 4.53 ** | Wald χ2(14) = 302.06 *** | ||
Overall R2 | 0.002 | 0.18 | ||
Hausman tests: χ2(10) = 12.32, p = 0.2642 Breusch and Pagan Lagrangian multiplier test for random effects: | χ2bar (01) = 8.83, p = 0.0015 |
Variables | Fruit Consumption | Vegetable Consumption | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coef. | Std. Err. | Coef. | Std. Err. | |
FPDI | 0.025 | 0.037 | 0.004 | 0.038 |
Food_exp_ca (ZAR) | 0.003 *** | 0.001 | 0.003 *** | 0.001 |
Age | 0.007 | 0.005 | 0.014 *** | 0.004 |
Sex (1 = male) | 0.050 | 0.108 | 0.038 | 0.108 |
Household size | 0.094 *** | 0.025 | 0.084 *** | 0.023 |
Education (years) | 0.069 *** | 0.017 | 0.050 *** | 0.016 |
Employed (1 = yes) | 0.347 *** | 0.117 | 0.204 * | 0.111 |
Income_ca (‘000 ZAR) | 0.003 | 0.061 | −0.228 ** | 0.099 |
Income_ca squared (‘000 ZAR) | −8.30 × 10−8 | 1.12 × 10−6 | 0.000 | 6.94 × 10−6 |
Urban (1 = urban) | 0.966 *** | 0.168 | 0.780 *** | 0.172 |
Wave | ||||
2 | 0.493 *** | 0.153 | −0.072 | 0.139 |
3 | 0.699 *** | 0.179 | 0.448 ** | 0.187 |
4 | 0.100 | 0.193 | 0.086 | 0.192 |
5 | 0.254 | 0.177 | 0.277 | 0.194 |
_constant | −3.199 *** | 0.434 | −1.313 *** | 0.331 |
/lnsig2u | −3.064 | 9.556 | −3.820 | 16.052 |
sigma_u | 0.216 | 1.033 | 0.148 | 1.188 |
rho | 0.014 | 0.132 | 0.007 | 0.106 |
n | 1972 | 1966 | ||
Wald χ2 | Wald χ2(14) = 84.25 *** | Wald χ2(14) = 69.71 *** |
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Sinyolo, S.; Murendo, C.; Nyamwanza, A.M.; Sinyolo, S.A.; Ndinda, C.; Nwosu, C.O. Farm Production Diversification and Dietary Diversity among Subsistence Farming Households: Panel Data Evidence from South Africa. Sustainability 2021, 13, 10325. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810325
Sinyolo S, Murendo C, Nyamwanza AM, Sinyolo SA, Ndinda C, Nwosu CO. Farm Production Diversification and Dietary Diversity among Subsistence Farming Households: Panel Data Evidence from South Africa. Sustainability. 2021; 13(18):10325. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810325
Chicago/Turabian StyleSinyolo, Sikhulumile, Conrad Murendo, Admire Mutsa Nyamwanza, Sithembile Amanda Sinyolo, Catherine Ndinda, and Chijioke Osinachi Nwosu. 2021. "Farm Production Diversification and Dietary Diversity among Subsistence Farming Households: Panel Data Evidence from South Africa" Sustainability 13, no. 18: 10325. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810325