The Development of Ski Areas in Romania. What Environmental, Political, and Economic Logic?

: In the last years, Romania has made major efforts to develop the skiing areas and some important projects have been implemented in the Carpathian Mountains. This research highlights the low efﬁciency of ski slopes and ski areas concerning the functionality during the winter season, even though a number of investments have been made. Some examples of bad practices regarding the development of skiing infrastructure in link with the potential impact on the environment are presented. The status of ski slopes, slope conditions, and snow depth were collected daily, during the 2016–2017 and 2017–2018 winter seasons, from a Romanian website specialized in snow cover information. A statistical analysis based on the collected data has been done. The 225 ski slopes studied have been opened, on average, less than 62 days and more than 20% of them have not even been opened. Only 17.8% of the slopes complied with the “100-day rule” during the ﬁrst season and 21.3% of them during the second one, which does not ensure proﬁtability. In conclusion, too many ski slopes have been created without considering the actual snow conditions. The investors wasted capital that is unproﬁtable and needlessly, affecting the environmental sustainability.


Introduction
Snow, the white gold, and all the sports that are associated with it, have allowed to develop a real tourism industry, first in Western Europe and North America, today in Central and Eastern Europe and in China. If, at the beginning, everything was sacrificed to develop and create ski resorts, nature and landscape, local populations, for economic efficiency, times have changed and sustainable development becomes the ultimate goal. Or, should we say, "should be the ultimate goal".
Times have changed in another way, too: Global warming with weather disturbances, retreating or disappearing glaciers, and snow that only falls at high altitudes. Everywhere in Europe, low-altitude ski resorts, less than 1200 m, sometimes up to 500 m above sea level, go bankrupt and disappear or are in great difficulty if there are not massive investments to ensure the diversification of the activities offered to tourists.
In this context, the position of public and private decision-makers is not simple, separated by the desire to develop a potential resource-and job-creating activity-and the new environmental constraints. These constraints are no longer only of a conceptual nature, but are included in the programs of the major international bodies.
In 2014, an agreement between the United Nations and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) underlined that the two bodies "share the same values of contributing to a better and peaceful world through sport" [1], in substance, meaning that the IOC integrate the UN 17 Sustainable Development Goals [2].
investments. Nevertheless, the small localities that could not support themselves from agriculture applied for European projects, in order to make them more attractive to tourists.
In 2016, Romania had 183 certified ski slopes, with a total length of 161 km [11]. Taking into account the non-certified slopes as well, Romania counted 266 ski slopes (256.7 km) grouped in 92 ski areas, of which 112 slopes are easy and very easy (42.1%-89.5 km), 114 slopes have a medium level (42.9%-116.6 km), and 40 slopes are difficult (15%-50.6 km) [12]. In 2019, the number of certified slopes increased to 195, with a total length of 169 km [13].

Ski Slopes and Environment in Romania
Signatory of the Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians adopted in Kiev on 22 May 2003, together with six other countries (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovak Republic, Serbia, and Ukraine), Romania engaged to improve the quality of life, to strengthen the local economies and communities, and to conserve the natural values and cultural heritage [14], three elements very close to the "three pillars" of sustainability as defined by the Brundtland report [15].
Regarding sustainable tourism, we focused on the article 9(1) and (2) of this convention, which mentions that "The Parties shall take measures to promote sustainable tourism in the Carpathians, providing benefits to the local people, based on the exceptional nature, landscapes and cultural heritage of the Carpathians...". To detail this general provision, we took into consideration The Protocol on Sustainable Tourism to the convention that have been adopted and signed by the parts during the third ordinary meeting, which was held in Bratislava on 25-27 May 2011 [16]. The article 1(3) of this protocol regulates specific substantive obligations.
Alberton et al. [17] underlined that this convention, coordinator of supranational policies, gives three precise and important recommendations in the field of tourism:

•
To take into consideration the climate change for future tourism strategies and investments; • To diversify the tourism in order to not be dependent on snow cover; • To avoid using energy-intensive snow cannons.
Are these recommendations followed by effects? It is not so clear. Investments in ski resorts must take into account the climate changes. This variable is underlined by all the authors having studied either the meteorology or the development conditions of ski resorts, not only in Europe but in the world as a whole. Scott, Steiger, Rutty, and Johnson [18] cited by Goldblatt [19] highlighted, among others, that 11 of 19 previous Winter Olympic cities will be reliable hosts of winter sports in the 2050s and only six in the 2080s. In the traditional ski countries, France, Austria, and Switzerland mostly, ski resorts are closing, or other leisure activities are proposed (snowshoeing, hiking, mountain biking, etc.), and investments are focused on structures such as swimming pools, spas, etc. These resorts are transformed to achieve a functioning called "of the four seasons". This conversion began during the 1990s, after a three to four-year period of very low snow cover in the late 1980s.
Ski slopes built at low altitudes need artificial snow to be operable as long as possible. The production of this snow involves a high consumption of energy and water, affects the fauna, flora, and soil, and pollutes due to substances introduced into the water [20].
Due to the increasing temperatures during the winter season, the quality of the snow cover is poor, and its existence is uncertain. Even artificial snow cover poses problems. To produce artificial snow, the temperature should fall under 1 • C without the addition of chemicals. As a consequence, only the ski slopes situated at higher altitude or north facing will be operable [16]. Beninston [21] in his study regarding the snow variability in the Swiss Alps argued that "large-scale forcing, and not local or regional factors, plays a dominant role in controlling the timing and amount of snow". The research conducted by Bojariu and Dinu [22] concluded another way stating that, in Romanian mountain regions, this is exactly the opposite: Predominant in snow-pack variability are the local and regional factors. A study carried out by Micu [23] regarding snow pack in the Romanian Carpathians showed that in terms of temperature "the 1990s marked indeed the beginning of a more evident warming process at most of the Romanian Carpathian sites, without being closely related to less frequent snowfalls . . . ". The same study revealed that "warmer extreme winter temperatures tended to rise especially at medium and low altitudes" and the snowpack duration is shorter at altitudes lower than 1600-1700 m. The author of this study predicted wetter and less snowy weather in the Romanian Carpathian Mountains for the next years.
As a result of a study concerning the impact of reducing the snow cover on the skiing conditions, the Romanian National Meteorological Administration noted in its 2016 report that "The number of days with good snow conditions for skiing during a season is decreasing in the Carpathians, in the context of climate change" [24].
Teodor [12] pointed out that, in order for a ski area to be functional, several relief and environmental factors must be considered, among which we mention: Natural factors-ideal slopes, northern, north-western, and north-eastern exposure of the relief, high altitude, level difference, as large as possible (correlated with the length of the slope and its degree of difficulty), accessibility to the ski area; climatic factors-temperature, snow depth, wind; anthropic factors-transport infrastructure (ski areas accessible to tourists), tourist infrastructure (ski lifts, accommodation, food, etc.); economic factors (ski equipment, ski pass, etc.).
Witmer, Filliger, Kunz, and Kung [25], cited by Abegg, Agrawala, Crick, and Montfalcon [26] and Marty [27], referring to the functionality of a ski slope, considered that "a snow depth of 30 cm is considered sufficient, 50 cm good, and 70 cm excellent". In addition, Witmer et al. [25], cited by Yang and Wan [28], stated that only ski areas that are operable at least 100 days per season would be financially viable (so called "100-day rule").
The development of any ski resort causes a series of damages, primarily on vegetation, soil, and landscape [29,30]. Deforestation, stripping of vegetation, or, sometimes, improper execution of a ski slope can lead to important damages, with adverse consequences for the environment. Concerning the landscape, we cannot forget the view of the pylons and cables, most often useless during summer but always clearly visible, the use of construction site machinery that compacts or tears up fragile soils, and the noise they make, as well as helicopters used to move loads, scaring wildlife.
Structural errors or failure to comply with environmental conditions can lead to real disasters. Cocos slope (1335 m long), an investment of 4.4 million euro of the municipality, built near the city of Bistrita, at a starting altitude of only 676 m, an arrival altitude of 457 m, and equipped with a chairlift and four snow cannons, is the most eloquent example. Although the construction was finished since February 2017, the slope was opened to the public after a year because of unfavorable weather conditions. A few months after the opening of the ski slope, the municipality announced that funding is needed for repairs "because of a landslide upstream of the designated accumulation lake for snow production" [31]. How efficient can be this investment paid from public money for the inhabitants of this city and not only? The slope was functional only 10 days in 2018 (January-three days, February-two days, and March-five days), and 14 days in 2019. Concerning the economic impact, a study by Bica, Schuster, and Stefanescu [32] showed that during the 2017-2018 winter season the maintenance costs were nine times higher than the revenues.
The lack of financial resources led to get stall of some ski projects or not be completed on time. An example is the Rarau ski slope with a length of 2850 m, a gondola lift, and nine snow cannons, inaugurated in 2019 after 10 years from the beginning of the works and in which 15 million euro were invested with a contribution of 90% of public funds [33].
The ski slope from Horea village was part of a project included in national program "Ski in Romania". It started in 2010 and involved the construction of an 850 m ski slope, equipped with snow cannons and ski lift. For the technical project and deforestation (30 ha of forest) more than 300,000 euro were spent, but the project was abandoned in 2012 because of the lack of money. Another 2 million euro would be needed to complete it [34]. However, when will this project be resumed, and if not, how many years are necessary for reforestation?
Copou ski slope near Iasi (the 4th largest city in Romania) was opened in 2014, with a length of only 420 m (departure altitude at 370 m and arrival altitude at 320 m). This slope is equipped with a ski lift and nightlight, its functionality depending on the climatic conditions favorable for skiing a very short period of time. However, even when it is functional, the slope has a series of problems such as technical breakdowns of the ski lift, which is old and unprofitable (the investment was not amortized until today) or the insufficiency of ski equipment for rent (only 20 equipment available) [35]. However, there is a solution for those who want to ski: In Iasi, the first indoor ski simulator in Romania has been opened, equipment used by snowboarders, too.
This list of examples could go on.

The Purpose of the Study
Vanat [36], in his yearly international report on snow and mountain tourism referring to winter season 2017-2018, stated that in Romania, "snow conditions can be very good through the end of March or even April". This assertion is general and would require some refinements depending on the exposure, the runway, the altitude, and the region concerned.
Many important projects have been implemented in the Carpathian Mountains during the last years in order to develop the skiing infrastructure. Some of them considered the modernization of the existing ski resorts while others developed new ones. Two questions arise: What consequences do they have on the environment, mostly on the landscape, and which of them may appear as a real success or a failure, at the economic, sociologic, and environmental level? Taking into consideration the characteristics of Romanian mountain area and skiing infrastructure, this research aims to highlight the low efficiency of ski slopes and ski areas concerning the functionality during the winter season, despite the fact that a number of investments has been made, either from public money, sponsorships, or European funds. At the same time, this research would like to present some examples of bad practices regarding the development of skiing infrastructure in link with the potential impact on the environment.
Investments aimed at the development of ski slopes do not take into account climate change and the slopes can be functional only a few days per season or not at all.

2.
Investors, private and public, fail to comply with international commitments regarding the use of snow cannons and other artificial means to maintain ski activity.

Materials and Methods
The research was carried out during the 2017-2018 winter season, from 29 November 2017 to 15 April 2018, with a total of 138 days. For certain analyses, we used also the data collected during the previous season (2016-2017), which were divided into two periods: From 19 November to 17 April, and from 21 April to 27 April, with three days break because of the lack of snow. This season lasted 157 days (see Table 1): For this research we took into account 225 ski slopes from 69 ski areas of Romanian Carpathians Mountains, representing more than 80% of the total number of existing ski slopes in the country. The ski runs technically closed have not been included in the study.
The research design has been structured into two stages.
The first stage was focused on the ski slopes characteristics, starting altitude, and arrival altitude, collected from "Romania turistica" website, specialized in snow cover information [37]. Furthermore, the presence or absence of snow cannons has been taken into consideration. In the second stage the status of the ski slopes, slope conditions and snow depth were collected daily, during the 157 days of the 2016-2017 winter season and 138 days of the 2017-2018, from the same website, for each functional ski slope included in the study. Each day was archived in a Word document, as text or snipped images, and then recorded in an SPSS file.
The variable status of the ski slopes was presented on the website with three categories: Open, open-impracticable, and closed. The open-impracticable slopes had some damaged areas because the quality of the snow was affected by warming weather. Consequently, for some statistics calculations, these ski slopes have been considered together with the closed ones. The average for each category of this variable has been calculated, by month, as well as the maximum and minimum percentage values.
The variable slope conditions reported on the website has three categories-closed, impracticable, and wind-relating to non-operable ski slopes, and another six for open ski slopes: Open, difficult conditions, acceptable conditions, good conditions, very good conditions, and excellent conditions placed on a scale progressively from bad to excellent. This scale is designed for the purpose of assessing the ease to ski on the slope, and the data are reported for the ski industry. The assessment is made by evaluators, based on several objective elements such as the snowfall from the past 24 h, its consistency, the slope grooming, etc., and could be a little bit different from a resort to another. This kind of scale is used in other countries, too, with more or less categories.
Closed, impracticable, and wind were considered together for some statistics calculations. The average, maximum, and minimum values, by month, have been calculated for each category.
The snow depth has been registered from the website only for the open ski slopes. Additionally, we calculated the average, the maximum, and the minimum of days that the snow depth had the highest value during the season.
Two parameters regarding the length of the ski season for a ski area have been considered: 1.
The number of days that at least one ski slope was open in a ski area; 2.
The number of days that a ski area has been operated at maximum capacity (all ski slopes of this ski area were open).
We created the first dataset, containing the following variables (see Table 2): On the basis of the collected data, we performed a univariate and bivariate statistical analysis using SPSS Statistics 22.0 software. Analyzing the data concerning starting altitude, we observe that 19.11% of slopes are situated at less than 1000 m, 35.55% at less than 1200 m, and 66.22% at less than 1500 m. The arrival altitude is less than 1000 m for 35.56% of ski slopes, while almost 80% are less than 1500 m. The ski slopes situated entirely at least 1500 m high represent 20.44% of the total, in fact, a small percentage, considering the impact of climate change on their functionality (see Table 3). If we refer only to the 175 functional ski slopes during the 2017-2018 winter season, the departure is situated at less than 1000 m for 16% of slopes, less than 1200 m for 30.86%, and less than 1500 m for 63.43% of them. The percentages of the arrival altitude are similar to those calculated for the entire sample: 32% of slopes less than 1000 m, 55.43% of them less than 1200 m, and 77.72% of ski slopes less than 1500 m (see Table 4).

. Snow Cannons
About a half of the ski slopes were equipped with snow cannons (48.89%). If we count only the functional slopes, snow cannons were present on 56.67% of them. More important is to know at what altitude are situated the slopes who benefit from this facility. Therefore, we analyzed this variable crossing with starting and arrival altitudes. The values of these variables have been grouped by class intervals.
At a first analysis of the data, the ski slopes with departure at least 2000 m altitude were not equipped with snow cannons. The highest proportion was registered for the slopes situated at less than 1000 m (67.44% of them, calculated for all the ski slopes and 85.71% of them, if we take into consideration only the functional slopes during the 2017-2018 winter season) (see Table 5). In order to extend the functionality period of the slopes, investments were made in snow cannons even on the slopes located at least 1500 m altitude (48.08% of them being equipped).
Concerning the cross-classification table between the snow cannons and arrival altitude we observe that there are ski slopes equipped with snow cannons in all the four class intervals. As the arrival altitude increases, the percentage of snow cannons presence decreases. The highest proportion of slopes with snow cannons was registered at an arrival altitude less than 1000 m (61.25% of them, calculated for all the ski slopes and 73.21% of them, calculated for the functional slopes during the 2017-2018 winter season) (see Table 6). The Romanian ski slopes were equipped with snow-making facilities not only at low altitudes, due to climate change affecting the snow cover duration and, implicitly, the length of the ski season.  Table 7, see Table 8).
The season 2016-2017 began in November with a small percentage of open slopes, which is normal for this period. As shown in Figure 1, in December, we observed increases and plateaus, reaching a maximum of 47.11% open slopes in the last day. Only on 5 January was the percentage of open slopes (50.67%) higher than those of closed and openimpracticable, with a maximum between 29 January and 2 February (67.11%). 9 March was the day when the percentage of functional slopes decreased below 50%. The curve continued to decline until 17 April. The lack of snow led to the closure of the ski slopes for three days (18,19,20 April). Starting with 21 April, less than 10% of the slopes were reopened for another seven days and the ski season closed on 27 April (see Figure 1).    However, at what altitudes are these ski slopes situated that comply with the 100days rule?
Considering only the 48 ski slopes opened at least 100 days, we observe that 62.5% of them have a starting altitude at least 1500 m and none of them below 1000 m. At the same time, 16% of functional ski slopes have the departure at less than 1000 m but were open less than 100 days per season (see Table 9). The contingency table between the number of days that ski slopes were open and arrival altitude shows us that about 40% of ski slopes that comply with "100-day rule" have the arrival altitude at least 1500 m. Additionally, 60.42% of the functional ski slopes were open less than 100 days per season and have an arrival altitude less than 1500 m (see Table 10).  Table 11 shows us that 35.42% of ski slopes, which comply with "100-day rule" are equipped with snow cannons.

The Snow Depth and the Ski Slope Conditions
The data collected for the variable ski slope conditions, presented on the website as an ordinal scale, were associated with snow depth. We calculated the maximum and minimum values for each category of the scale, highlighting several intervals. These values are presented in Table 12, in the following ascending order: Analyzing the data from Table 12, we notice that the ski slopes were open if the natural snow depth was minimum 15 cm, with the snow cannons adding crop snow if necessary.
The highest snow depth value recorded for each functional ski slope during the season was maintained on average 22.6 days per season. As depicted in Table 13, 55.43% of functional ski slopes have maintained the highest value of snow depth less than 20 days per season, while only 21.71% of them exceeded 40 days. The maximum was 81 days, while three ski slopes registered only two days. In general, the highest snow depth lasted at least 40 days on a slope characterized by a departure altitude greater or equal than 1500 m. It is the case of 65.78% of the ski slopes (25 slopes of 38). However, the highest percentage (32.57%) was registered for the slopes situated between 1200 m and 1499 m (see Table 14). If we refer to the number of days with highest snow depth and arrival altitude, 39.47% of the ski slopes with highest snow cover maintained at least 40 days are situated between 1500-1999 m. The highest percentage calculated for functional ski slopes was 32% and concerned the slopes with arrival altitude less than 1000 m (see Table 15). The variable ski slope conditions presented on the website was divided into nine categories, listed at point 3. Concerning the functional ski slopes, from December to April (2017-2018) the highest percentage corresponded to "acceptable conditions" category, with a pick in February (44.29% of ski slopes were open in "acceptable conditions"), while in November, during the two days at the beginning of the season, "very good conditions" represented the highest percentage (4.67%) (see Figure 2). The percentages of each category, by month, are shown in Appendix A (see Table 1).

Efficiency of the Ski Areas
As is shown in Table 16 Table 17). Climate change largely affected the ski areas in Romania, with more than a half of them operating at full capacity less than 100 days a year and one-quarter never reached their maximum capacity during the 2017-2018 season, which is not enough to ensure the profitability of the investments.
The elements of presented analysis confirm the first hypothesis. The investments made from the beginning of the ski development policy in Romania are neither questioned nor reoriented under the influence of climate change observable everywhere. The policy put in place actually concerns only the practice of skiing without reorientation in view of the mediocre use of certain infrastructures that are used only a few days a year or not at all. Some ski slopes have been created recently, in the last few years, and have never been used because are located at too low altitude, whereas snow cover problems due to this variable were already well known.
The underuse of existing equipment stems from the lack of natural snow cover that investors are trying to offset by the multiplication of snow cannons in order to create artificial snow (or "snow making") contrary to the international agreement, the Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians, presented above. Romania did not comply with none of the three recommendations adopted in this agreement; therefore, the second hypothesis is confirmed.
The capital spent by investors, mostly public money, was unprofitable and the environmental sustainability has been affected. The construction of ski slopes and, even more, ski resorts, has an obvious and significant impact on the environment. Direct impact is because of the cutting of trees in large numbers, the installation of pylons for the lifts-which implies noise and visual nuisances-the creation of artificial water reservoirs for snow cannons, the laying of pipes for these cannons-which requires the use of heavy equipment that compact the fragile soil, etc. Indirect impacts are the creation of roads to bring tourists, the arrival of water, electricity, and the disposal of garbage and wastewater that should be reprocessed hence the creation of treatment plants or waste reprocessing. However, we can fear that this part does not enter into the short-term considerations today in Romania when we know that it took more than 30 years for the French ski resorts to manage to get rid of their waste properly. At the same time, the low level of activity demonstrated cannot lead to a significant economic activity, creating a significant number of jobs. Under these conditions, the sacrifice of the variable "environment" in favor of the variable "economy and employment" is not acceptable.

Limitations of the Study and Future Research
This research has some limitations concerning the source of data collection. The records concerning the slope conditions and snow depth were collected from a website specialized in snow cover information [37]. These indicators are intended for the ski tourism industry and are provided by qualified persons used to designate the conditions of skiing, the assessment methodology, and the description of these conditions being not specified.
In Romania, there are no official, ministerial, or national nivo-meteorological data targeting each ski slope. The National Meteorological Administration in Romania provides nivological information only from four meteorological stations in the monitored mountain area. If the same study would have been carried out in France and other Western European countries, more reliable data could be used, as there are official bodies, which are method-ologically structured. However, it took time to structure the observatories and disseminate their results.
This research concerned only the development of Romanian ski slopes and ski areas. A comparison between several countries will bring new knowledge and a more complex statistical analysis. Furthermore, other ski area characteristics (e.g., number of ski lifts, transport capacity) and climate factors could be considered for future research to highlight new connections between the variables.

Conclusions
Although Romania is not yet a very important destination to practice winter sports, in the last 10 years, the country has been making major efforts to develop the ski infrastructure in order to attract more visitors, even for a few hours a day.
Since the 2000s, and after a series of studies and projects, it has been decided to modernize and extend the winter sports facilities, mostly for skiing. A first law was adopted in 2003, followed by a series of nearly ten amendments and regulations until today. This incomplete law made the process of modernization and construction of the new ski slopes long and expensive, and the spending of public money and European funds was, in some cases, reckless.
The investments have depended on the resort's classification, national interest, or local interest, the first attracting the most capital. Ascension to power of different political parties, with different visions and objectives, has led to the obstruction of some projects concerning the development of skiing in this country. In addition, a significant number of ski projects were carried out improperly, with ski slopes at too-low altitudes, poorly oriented, and developed with large sums of money spent in vain. The 225 ski slopes studied were open, on average, less than 62 days during the winter season and more than 20% of them were not even open at all. Only 17.8% of the slopes complied with the "100-day rule" during the first season included in the study and 21.3% of them during the second one, which does not ensure profitability. It can be deduced that too many slopes have been created without taking into account the climate change and actual snow conditions. More than a half of ski slopes included in the study were not equipped with snow cannons.
These are negative but also significant examples of a management method, of the use of public money. Although these were initiatives that were officially intended to promote sustainable development, by changing the lives of local communities, by creating economic activity and jobs, the approval and implementation of some of them were the subject of legal investigations.
We may wonder why investments that do not respect any logic of profitability, the environment, or international commitments are made. For those who agree to read between the lines it appears that Romania, like other countries of the former Eastern bloc, is experiencing difficulties in fully becoming a State subject to the rule of law with decision-makers, politicians, and other, concerned with respecting the commitments signed by the State and the use of public funds, national and European.
These results are not due to chance. A series of studies on global warming have been conducted in Romania and in other parts of the world. All of these show that temperature is rising. Even if the study was conducted only for two seasons, we cannot expect an improvement of the existing situation in the future. Solutions exist, but these must be correctly implemented.
Even if the financial and legislative efforts are extended over a long period of time, Romania is trying to develop in this field, increasing its ski area from year to year.
Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to their use in future research, which include more variables and comparisons.

Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest.