Mountain Arable Land Abandonment (1968–2018) in the Romanian Carpathians: Environmental Conﬂicts and Sustainability Issues

: The agricultural mountain landscape in the Romanian Carpathians follows the same change trend in other European mountains, from variety and individuality to simpliﬁcation and uniformization. Our paper proposes two complementary case studies from the Southern Carpathians—Poiana M ă rului and Fundata, representative areas for the entire Carpathian ecoregion. The research focuses on a remote sensing approach with Corona KH-4B (1968) and Planet Scope (2018) images at 2.0–3.0 m resolution used for mapping arable plots pattern and size change. Landscape transformation modelling is focused on four-hectare sampled grid for both case study areas, followed by a landscape metric analysis. Fundata area is the most transformed, where arable plots disappeared under the service-based economy pressure. Poiana M ă rului shows an earlier stage of landscape transformation, where the arable land abandonment process is incipient. The spatial and statistical analysis and ﬁeld survey conﬁrmed that tourism changed the traditional agricultural landscape, generating potential environmental conﬂicts and indicating the sustainability degree. Statistical indicators—accommodation


Introduction
Traditional agriculture plays a leading role for biodiversity conservation [1] and food security [2,3] and helps the preservation of the local identity of the regions [4]. Traditional agriculture abandonment is an important process that occurs worldwide, primarily affecting less productive, remote, and mountainous areas [5,6]. The literature offers various definitions for agricultural land abandonment process; however, the most common definition refers to a patch that was previously used for crops, pasture, orchards, vineyards, etc. but that no longer preserves that function and has not been converted into another land cover class [7]. The intensification of traditional sustainable agriculture abandonment [8] increases the pressure upon biodiversity and ecosystems, generating environmental conflicts [9,10].
Statistical data shows that more than 11% of the European Union territory (about 20 million hectares) are under high potential risk of abandonment by 2030, with the most affected areas located in Southern and Eastern Romania, Southwestern France, Southern and central Spain, Portugal, Cyprus, Poland, Latvia, and Estonia [11]. The agricultural land use change in European mountain regions involves local and external actors [12], with common interests up to a limit from which environmental conflicts occur and new scenarios are to be considered [13]. Different regional studies explained the specific problems: the conflict between traditional mountain farming and the mass tourism as in Austrian Alps [14], Our approach is based on multisource remote sensing image analysis for two reference periods combined with a spatial analysis of selected landscape metrics indices. In this context, we integrated a 2.0-3.0 m spatial resolution CORONA KH-4B DECLASS-1 (1968) satellite panchromatic dataset and Planet Scope satellite multispectral imagery from 2018, together with in-situ measurements obtained with the help of a geodetic GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) surveying (Table 1).
Reference images cover a temporal frame of 50 years, acquired at the beginning of the month of May, corresponding to the start of the agricultural season, when the spectral signature of arable plots is easily identified after the ploughing of soil.

National
Statistics Institute A combined remote sensing and statistical approach is focused on mapping and evaluating the change of the arable land pattern. Our approach is based on multisource remote sensing image analysis for two reference periods combined with a spatial analysis of selected landscape metrics indices. In this context, we integrated a 2.0-3.0 m spatial resolution CORONA KH-4B DECLASS-1 (1968) satellite panchromatic dataset and Planet Scope satellite multispectral imagery from 2018, together with in-situ measurements obtained with the help of a geodetic GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) surveying (Table 1). Reference images cover a temporal frame of 50 years, acquired at the beginning of the month of May, corresponding to the start of the agricultural season, when the spectral signature of arable plots is easily identified after the ploughing of soil.
A combined remote sensing and statistical approach is focused on mapping and evaluating the change of the arable land pattern.
The first image (1968) is a panchromatic, single-channel record from a declassified data archive from USGS, having a limited data amount, as the grayscale image at 8 bits depth is a restriction for semi-automatic supervised classification of arable land plots (patches). An interpretation process plots are produced for each test area. These were processed in order to calculate the rate of occurrence of the arable land in square meters per hectare. A difference map of arable land for each study area is done together with the computation of the landscape metrics indices.
In-situ measurements were collected within two field campaigns (September 2018 and August 2019) using GNSS device, consisting of point datasets corresponding to active (cultivated) and abandoned plots to be restored on maps. These were used for land cover classification and for the validation of results.
Ancillary statistics focused on population, agriculture, and tourism were integrated in order to correlate the results of the current analysis.

Results
Two spatial datasets of the arable land occurrence (square meters per hectare) were obtained for both study sites in 1968 and 2018.
Figures 3a (1968) and 3b (2018) show the arable land pattern for Poiana Mărului site. For 1968, high arable land densities over 2500 sq m/ha were typical for almost the entire scattered village area, counting 204 sample units, where traditional agriculture was still preserved, although the industrial development of the Brașov region also required a labor force from the rural communities [26]. For the second time (2018), advanced rural abandonment is evident, as the highest arable land density falls down to 1000-2000 sq m/ha in a highly dispersed pattern on less than 20 sample units (18).
The general change trend between the reference times showed a drastic reduction of arable land surfaces. Arable land loss for the investigated 162 sample units are of more than 2500 sq m/ha, with the highest values of about 5000 sq m/ha (Figure 3c). A characteristic sample for this site is presented The recent image from the Planet Scope archive (2018) is more consistent in information, as the multispectral channels cover the visible and the near infrared intervals at 3.0 m resolution. An object-based analysis (OBIA) is developed in order to generate the segmentation of the arable patches and their definition in terms of spectral signature differences in comparison with pastures, forests, and rock outcrops.
After performing the image calibration and orthorectification together with atmospheric and geometric corrections, two diachronic polygon themes (1968 and 2018) representing arable land plots are produced for each test area. These were processed in order to calculate the rate of occurrence of the arable land in square meters per hectare. A difference map of arable land for each study area is done together with the computation of the landscape metrics indices.
In-situ measurements were collected within two field campaigns (September 2018 and August 2019) using GNSS device, consisting of point datasets corresponding to active (cultivated) and abandoned plots to be restored on maps. These were used for land cover classification and for the validation of results.
Ancillary statistics focused on population, agriculture, and tourism were integrated in order to correlate the results of the current analysis.

Results
Two spatial datasets of the arable land occurrence (square meters per hectare) were obtained for both study sites in 1968 and 2018. Figure 3a (1968) and Figure 3b (2018) show the arable land pattern for Poiana Mărului site. For 1968, high arable land densities over 2500 sq m/ha were typical for almost the entire scattered village area, counting 204 sample units, where traditional agriculture was still preserved, although the industrial development of the Bras , ov region also required a labor force from the rural communities [26]. For the second time (2018), advanced rural abandonment is evident, as the highest arable land density falls down to 1000-2000 sq m/ha in a highly dispersed pattern on less than 20 sample units (18). in Figure 3d, where arable plot patterns for each of the reference times can be seen in the same map together with the magnitude of changes.  The general change trend between the reference times showed a drastic reduction of arable land surfaces. Arable land loss for the investigated 162 sample units are of more than 2500 sq m/ha, with the highest values of about 5000 sq m/ha (Figure 3c). A characteristic sample for this site is presented in Figure 3d, where arable plot patterns for each of the reference times can be seen in the same map together with the magnitude of changes.  For a quantitative overview of arable land change, a set of various landscape metrics [39] is calculated. Table 2 shows, by comparison, the most relevant landscape metrics indices, together with the difference between them, confirming a general trend of landscape simplification, with the arable land extinction.  For a quantitative overview of arable land change, a set of various landscape metrics [39] is calculated. Table 2 shows, by comparison, the most relevant landscape metrics indices, together with the difference between them, confirming a general trend of landscape simplification, with the arable land extinction.

Discussion
The comparative approach between Poiana Mărului and Fundata sites highlights two different stages of arable land abandonment process: an initial stage related to an emergence of rural tourism developments (Poiana Mărului) and an advanced stage strongly related to a total abandonment of arable patches around the remained scattered farms and tourist pensions and hotels (Fundata).
Intensive social transformations-demographic, economic, and political-leave their mark upon the traditional rural life [40,41]. Currently, depopulation and the traditional agriculture abandonment represent a global interest for researchers and policy makers at different levels [42].
Official statistics data referring to socio-economic indicators explain the arable land use change process. Total population (Figure 5a)

Discussion
The comparative approach between Poiana Mărului and Fundata sites highlights two different stages of arable land abandonment process: an initial stage related to an emergence of rural tourism developments (Poiana Mărului) and an advanced stage strongly related to a total abandonment of arable patches around the remained scattered farms and tourist pensions and hotels (Fundata).
Intensive social transformations-demographic, economic, and political-leave their mark upon the traditional rural life [40,41]. Currently, depopulation and the traditional agriculture abandonment represent a global interest for researchers and policy makers at different levels [42].
Official statistics data referring to socio-economic indicators explain the arable land use change process. Total population (Figure 5a) illustrates a negative trend for both study sites. Poiana Mărului village had a smooth demographic decrease in comparison with the Fundata site, where demographic decrease is abrupt as an influence of higher accessibility along the transcarpathian road from Brașov to Pitești (DN 73/E 574).
The percentage of employees in agricultural activities decreased by three times for both study areas (Figure 5b). An effect of demographic decrease and agricultural working force diminution is the extinction of arable land surface, together with the potato production, the main crop for the both sites. Statistics for potato crops show a decrease by 40-45%, beyond the conservative tradition preservation of the rural community (Figure 5c   The percentage of employees in agricultural activities decreased by three times for both study areas (Figure 5b). An effect of demographic decrease and agricultural working force diminution is the extinction of arable land surface, together with the potato production, the main crop for the both sites. Statistics for potato crops show a decrease by 40-45%, beyond the conservative tradition preservation of the rural community (Figure 5c  Tourism accelerated development is illustrated by the increase of tourist arrivals between 2007 and 2017 by 50 times at Fundata and 20 times at Poiana Mărului, together with a local demographic decrease. These problems had a destabilizing effect upon the relationships within the local to regional spatial systemic structure population/inhabitants, traditional economy/activities, and the natural ecosystem (Figure 7). Tourist investments originate from outside the region, and these investors have no relationship with the areas and a less complete perception to the reality of these environments. In this context, the decrease to extinction of sustainable agricultural activities like in the case of Fundata is the source of disequilibrium generating environmental conflicts [43,44]. An increasing number of visitors and tourism activities bring traffic, noise pollution, and open new issues for the sustainability of the local communities [45] -water supply and consumption, energy supply, communications-related investments, and the need to search for waste management solutions, even in remote areas from the main roads. Deforestation, biodiversity loss, water pollution, soil erosion, and noise are real problems that have a rapid and a profound negative effect upon the sustainable equilibrium ( Figure 8).  Tourism accelerated development is illustrated by the increase of tourist arrivals between 2007 and 2017 by 50 times at Fundata and 20 times at Poiana Mărului, together with a local demographic decrease. These problems had a destabilizing effect upon the relationships within the local to regional spatial systemic structure population/inhabitants, traditional economy/activities, and the natural ecosystem ( Figure 7). Tourist investments originate from outside the region, and these investors have no relationship with the areas and a less complete perception to the reality of these environments. In this context, the decrease to extinction of sustainable agricultural activities like in the case of Fundata is the source of disequilibrium generating environmental conflicts [43,44]. An increasing number of visitors and tourism activities bring traffic, noise pollution, and open new issues for the sustainability of the local communities [45]-water supply and consumption, energy supply, communications-related investments, and the need to search for waste management solutions, even in remote areas from the main roads. Deforestation, biodiversity loss, water pollution, soil erosion, and noise are real problems that have a rapid and a profound negative effect upon the sustainable equilibrium ( Figure 8).  Tourism accelerated development is illustrated by the increase of tourist arrivals between 2007 and 2017 by 50 times at Fundata and 20 times at Poiana Mărului, together with a local demographic decrease. These problems had a destabilizing effect upon the relationships within the local to regional spatial systemic structure population/inhabitants, traditional economy/activities, and the natural ecosystem (Figure 7). Tourist investments originate from outside the region, and these investors have no relationship with the areas and a less complete perception to the reality of these environments. In this context, the decrease to extinction of sustainable agricultural activities like in the case of Fundata is the source of disequilibrium generating environmental conflicts [43,44]. An increasing number of visitors and tourism activities bring traffic, noise pollution, and open new issues for the sustainability of the local communities [45]-water supply and consumption, energy supply, communications-related investments, and the need to search for waste management solutions, even in remote areas from the main roads. Deforestation, biodiversity loss, water pollution, soil erosion, and noise are real problems that have a rapid and a profound negative effect upon the sustainable equilibrium ( Figure 8).

Conclusions
Arable land abandonment in mountain areas is a worldwide problem affecting mountainous regions the world over. Our case studies, Poiana Mărului and Fundata, are characteristic examples of arable land abandonment in the Romanian Carpathians, in the context of a socio-economical system change after the EU integration of Romania in 2007.
Poiana Mărului and Fundata show different stages of arable land abandonment. Fundata reveals a profound change in the traditional economy in the context of a better developed infrastructure. Demographic processes like depopulation and population ageing, together with tourism developments, represent contributing factors to the decrease of the landscape diversity and to the increase of the mountain environment's dependency on the nearby urban economic system. These socio-economical changes have direct effects on the functionality of the basic spatial system, where sustainable and traditional mountain agriculture is abandoned in favor of a service-based economy, including tourism-related activities. The traditional experience of land use is replaced step-by-step by the increasing volumes of investments, developed in a short time without a profound understanding of the environmental factors at local and regional scales. Environmental issues emerge from the abandonment of the traditional agricultural economy together with the development of new tourism facilities, hotels, access roads, and other infrastructures, creating new pressure factors upon the landscape.

Conclusions
Arable land abandonment in mountain areas is a worldwide problem affecting mountainous regions the world over. Our case studies, Poiana Mărului and Fundata, are characteristic examples of arable land abandonment in the Romanian Carpathians, in the context of a socio-economical system change after the EU integration of Romania in 2007.
Poiana Mărului and Fundata show different stages of arable land abandonment. Fundata reveals a profound change in the traditional economy in the context of a better developed infrastructure. Demographic processes like depopulation and population ageing, together with tourism developments, represent contributing factors to the decrease of the landscape diversity and to the increase of the mountain environment's dependency on the nearby urban economic system. These socio-economical changes have direct effects on the functionality of the basic spatial system, where sustainable and traditional mountain agriculture is abandoned in favor of a service-based economy, including tourism-related activities. The traditional experience of land use is replaced step-by-step by the increasing volumes of investments, developed in a short time without a profound understanding of the environmental factors at local and regional scales. Environmental issues emerge from the abandonment of the traditional agricultural economy together with the development of new tourism facilities, hotels, access roads, and other infrastructures, creating new pressure factors upon the landscape.