Coral Reef Socio-Ecological Systems Analysis & Restoration

: Restoration strategies for coral reefs are usually focused on the recovery of bio-physical characteristics. They seldom include an evaluation of the recovery of the socio-ecological and ecosystem services features of coral reef systems. This paper proposes a conceptual framework to address both the socio-ecological system features of coral reefs with the implementation of restoration activity for degraded coral reefs. Such a framework can lead to better societal outcomes from restoration activities while restoring bio-physical, social and ecosystem service features of such systems. We ﬁrst developed a Socio Ecological System Analysis Framework, which combines the Ostrom Framework for analyzing socio-ecological systems and the Kittinger et al. human dimensions framework of coral reefs socio-ecological systems. We then constructed a Restoration of Coral Reef Framework, based on the most used and recent available coral reef restoration literature. These two frameworks were combined to present a Socio-Ecological Systems & Restoration Coral Reef Framework. These three frameworks can be used as a guide for managers, researchers and decision makers to analyze the needs of coral reef restoration in a way that addresses both socio-economic and ecological objectives to analyze, design, implement and monitor reef restoration programs.


Introduction
Tropical coral reefs supply a wide number of ecosystem services to coastal societies. Global estimates suggest that coral reefs ecosystem services are worth billions of dollars annually [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. The most relevant ecosystem services delivered by coral reefs are provision of renewable resources (fisheries, materials for medicines, algae, live fish), shoreline protection, regulation of erosive processes, buildup of land, promoting growth of mangrove and seagrass beds, generation of coral sand, breakwater to reduce wave height, nursery and habitat, biodiversity and genetic library, nitrogen fixation and CO 2 /Ca control, resilience maintenance, aesthetic values, sustaining the livelihood of communities, support of diving, snorkeling, tourism, leisure opportunities, cultural and spiritual values [8][9][10][11][12].
Despite their importance, more than 40% of the world's tropical coral reef ecosystems have been progressively damaged over the last four decades [13,14]. The mortality experienced by coral ecosystems has been extensive, for instance, many bleaching events have altered coral reefs around the world [15][16][17][18]. Corals have been affected by global changes as the sea surface temperature rise [19][20][21] and ocean acidification [22]. In addition, corals have been affected by anthropogenic pressures • SES's Framework: identifies the main subsystems, interactions and outcomes of a coral reef SES's. • Restoration Framework: establishes the main steps to restore the ecological features of a Coral Reef. • Combined Framework: combines the two previous frameworks for a holistic approach to address social and ecological objectives to analyze, design, implement and monitor reef restoration programs.

SES's Framework
The coral reef SES's Framework (Figure 1) was constructed using elements from the Ostrom (2009) framework for analyzing SES's and the Kittinger et al. (2012) human dimensions framework. The coral reef SES's framework was design using the Ostrom basic structure. The Ostrom subsystem 'Resource Unit' was identified as 'Ecosystem Services.' The Ostrom subsystem 'Governance system' is substituted to the 'Social System Traits' based on Kittinger et al. (2012) recommendations. The 'Human Modifying Actions' interaction was recommended by Kittinger et al. 2012, including both negative and positive actions.

Restoration Framework
The coral reef Restoration Framework ( Figure 2) used the structure of an adaptive management cycle [44]. Each stage of the adaptive management cycle was constructed selecting the successful findings and key recommendations ideas identified from the most cited and common used research papers and guidelines published on coral reef restoration in the last ten years. The publications selected are shown in Table 1. Caribbean Acropora restoration guide: best practices for propagation and population enhancement.

Combined Framework
The Combined Framework ( Figure 3) couples the elements from the SES's Framework and the Restoration Framework. It therefore includes the basic social and ecological aspects for developing coral reef SES's analysis and restoration. The structure follows the adaptive management cycle approach [44]. Actions to restore the subsystems are suggested for each stage.

SES's Framework
The SES's Framework is a guide to understand a coral reef SES (

Restoration Framework
There are existing guidelines for the restoration of coral reefs, e.g. [56], on which we drawn to build our Restoration Framework. The Restoration Framework ( Figure 2) is a guide to restore the ecological features of coral reef. The first phase of the framework is 'Assess' the initial ecological analysis of the coral reef. The second stage is 'Design,' to delimit a realistic size, select the species that are going to be restored, identify the best period of time and the adequate site on which to establish the nurseries and the outplantings. The 'Prepare' stage focuses on the activities that should be conducted before starting to implement the program. This includes the mitigation of coral reef pressures and capacity building workshops for all groups of users. The next stage is to 'Implement' the coral gardening. It consists of two steps: Nursery (set-up and collect the fragments) and Outplanting (select and attach the growth fragments). The fifth phase is 'Monitor' that includes the monitoring and the maintenance of the Outplanting. The last stage is 'Evaluate and adapt,' which is focused on evaluating whether the project goals have been reached and how to improve a next phase in the future.

Restoration Framework
There are existing guidelines for the restoration of coral reefs, e.g. [56], on which we drawn to build our Restoration Framework. The Restoration Framework ( Figure 2) is a guide to restore the ecological features of coral reef. The first phase of the framework is 'Assess' the initial ecological analysis of the coral reef. The second stage is 'Design,' to delimit a realistic size, select the species that are going to be restored, identify the best period of time and the adequate site on which to establish the nurseries and the outplantings. The 'Prepare' stage focuses on the activities that should be conducted before starting to implement the program. This includes the mitigation of coral reef pressures and capacity building workshops for all groups of users. The next stage is to 'Implement' the coral gardening. It consists of two steps: Nursery (set-up and collect the fragments) and Outplanting (select and attach the growth fragments). The fifth phase is 'Monitor' that includes the monitoring and the maintenance of the Outplanting. The last stage is 'Evaluate and adapt,' which is focused on evaluating whether the project goals have been reached and how to improve a next phase in the future.  Table 1).  Table 1).

Combined Framework
The combined framework ( Figure 3) is a guide to analyze and restore a coral reef SES. The important role of all the group of users and their key participation at all six projects stages is emphasized.

•
Assess stage: consists of the assessment of the SES including ecological components, for example, larvae and social components, for example, users.

Combined Framework
The combined framework ( Figure 3) is a guide to analyze and restore a coral reef SES. The important role of all the group of users and their key participation at all six projects stages is emphasized.

•
Assess stage: consists of the assessment of the SES including ecological components, for example, larvae and social components, for example, users.

Discussion
Restoration strategies and management instruments need to be integrated with socio-ecological system assessments in order to provide key information for establishing future interventions and

Discussion
Restoration strategies and management instruments need to be integrated with socio-ecological system assessments in order to provide key information for establishing future interventions and strategies for practitioners, monitoring and evaluation programs [39][40][41][42]. Understanding SES is a difficult process, because ecological and social sciences have analyzed the SES's subsystems independently, so that combining them is not an easy task. General frameworks have been made for characterization of SES's [43,[57][58][59][60][61]. Ostrom's [43] general framework is well known as a framework for analyzing SESs and she invited others to revise and further develop her SESs framework to enhance the sustainability of SES's. Developing more specific system approaches is necessary to achieve a better and more detail understanding of the Socio-Ecological Systems. Although the bio-physical characteristics of coral reefs are well studied, with a focus on conservation, research on social aspects of coral reef SES's systems is not as well developed. Therefore, enhanced efforts are needed to develop conceptual frameworks that could link different fields of research in order to comprehend, manage and restore coral reef SES's [39,43,58,61]. This paper has presented the SES's Framework as an attempt to analyze integrated coral reef SES's, in response to the challenges associated with using social-ecological science for marine conservation [62].
The main conservation, management and restoration objectives of the SES Framework developed is represented by the subsystem 'Ecosystem Services.' This new 'Ecosystem Services' approach on coral reef SES's analysis is the main difference of this framework compared with others that have been published (e.g., [39,43]). The 'Ecosystem Services' subsystem approach does not end with the delivery of human benefits, it simultaneously tackles healthy and productive ecosystems [63]. The subsystem 'Social System Traits' includes governance and other traits like demography, economy, technology and ethics. These traits can drastically modulate 'Users' activities, behavior and consumption and therefore has effects on 'Coral Reefs' and the 'Ecosystem Services' subsystems [39]. The SES Framework structure is simple, similar that the proposed by Ostrom [43], for ease of understanding which is useful and practical for decision makers and community members. In the Kittinger et al. framework [39], the 'Human Modifying Actions' interaction, can be understood as only negative effects. The 'Human Modifying Actions' includes both negative human effects as overharvesting, pollution, coral damage and so forth, as well as antagonist, positive actions such as resource stewardship, cultivation, restoration and management. The SES Framework presented is a simple and practical option for managers, researchers, community members and decision-makers to understand a coral reef SES in a holistic manner.
Although there is a lot of research published on coral reef restoration, this knowledge is not available in a way that can easily be used by managers, community members and decision-makers. The Restoration Framework was developed to overcome this. However, coral reef restoration has tended to be designed and evaluated from an ecology perspective. The majority of literature used to build the Restoration Framework was focused on restoring the bio-physical function of coral reefs and not the social, political and economic dimensions. The Combined Framework thus ensures that restoration can be designed in a way that meets both social and ecological criteria by combining the SES Framework and the Restoration Framework. The Combined Framework couples social and ecological criteria to analyze a coral reef SES's in order to develop successful restoration programs from both socio-economic and ecological perspectives. Additionally, this framework synthesizes not only a great quantity of literature related to coral reef restoration (Table 1) but also includes other key conservation and management approaches, such as the community-based management approach [63], the adaptive management cycle approach [44] and the millennium ecosystem assessment approach [57].
Users of the community-based management approach can witness their ability to protect and expand the resources which they depend on. Positive results of reef restoration are an empowering, educational tool to promote public awareness and participation in coral reef conservation, providing the foundation for community-based management and serving as a unification point between sometimes antagonistic user groups. In addition, the project continuity beyond the initial funding cycle will depend on the involvement of local stakeholders outside the scientific and management community, the adoption of propagation and restoration projects by dive shop operators, resort owners, fishermen and local communities were identified as key component to the long-term success of restoration programs [51].
The three frameworks (Combined Framework, SES Framework, Restoration Framework) developed in this research can be used as a guide for managers, researchers, community members and decision-makers for analyzing coral reefs SES's and for designing, implementing and monitoring successful and holistic restoration programs.
It is necessary to test the three frameworks in case studies and further field research using these frameworks will identify key features and possible improvements. These frameworks are guidelines and should be adapted to the specific case study characteristics. Changes, recommendations and modifications will contribute to improving the frameworks.