The Effect of Coding Teaching on Students’ Self-Efﬁcacy Perceptions of Technology and Design Courses †

: The aim of this research was to examine the effect of coding teaching on students’ self-efﬁcacy perceptions of technology and design courses. A consecutive-explanatory design in a combined research model was used in this study. The qualitative dimension of the research was carried out through a random experimental design with pre/post-tests with controlled groups, and the qualitative dimension was conducted through interview techniques. The participants were seventh grade students from ¸Sehit Hüseyin Ruso Secondary school in Lefko¸sa, North Cyprus, in the 2016–2017 academic year. The quantitative data were collected through the “Technology and Design Course Self-efﬁcacy Perception Scale”, developed by the researcher, and the qualitative data were collected through interview forms oriented around “Coding Teaching and Revised Technology and Design Course Teaching Program”. The quantitative data were analyzed through related and unrelated sampling t -test, Cohen’s d effect size coefﬁciency, and two-way variance analyses, and the qualitative data were analyzed through content analysis. A signiﬁcant difference was observed between the students, taking coding teaching, and self-efﬁcacy perceptions of Technology and Design courses compared to the control groups. Besides, it was noted that students taking coding teaching courses exhibited a positive attitude towards the course, and they practiced their metacognitive thinking and social skills at top levels. Based on the students’ views, it is obvious that coding teaching has a positive effect on their self-efﬁcacy perceptions of the subject.


Introduction
Rapid developments in Information and Technology deeply affect countries' education systems and teaching programs accordingly. Recent developments in the field of technology have urged educational institutions as open systems, to make changes. In order to maintain sustainability and functionality, educational institutions should be sufficient in raising the human resources that are needed for occupational life [1]. In this regard, urgent revision of educational programs or new curricula that are essential in raising human resources is needed [2,3]. Today, the integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) into learning experiences, particularly necessitates different contents and materials in teaching. In this regard, particularly in order to teach the subjects that entail innovative and creative thinking, like technology and design, and to raise the interest of has not been presented in the literature. Therefore, the subject in question still remains an issue to be researched.
This research investigated the effect of coding teaching on students' self-efficacy perceptions of technology and design courses. Although coding and technology teaching are worldwide current issues, no any satisfactory studies in the development of projects and programs in these fields have been done in North Cyprus. Therefore, it is hoped that this will be a sample study showing that both technology-designing and software courses can interact. In this regard, it is anticipated that this study will also contribute to possible alterations in programs in coding and technology teaching. In addition, it is also hoped that this study will encourage teachers to adopt new techniques, and to receive training in coding teaching.

Aim of the Research
This research aimed to specify the level of the effect of coding teaching in technology and design courses on students' self-efficacy perceptions of the course. In this respect, answers were sought for the following questions.
In Technology and Design Courses 1.
Is there a significant difference between the pre-and post-test self-efficacy scores by the experimental and control groups? 2.
Is there a significant difference between the post-and permanency-test self-efficacy scores by the experimental and control groups? 3.
How do students, upon receiving coding teaching, feel about the effectiveness of technology and design courses?

1.
This research was conducted among seventh grade students atŞehit Hüseyin Ruso Secondary school, North Cyprus, in the 2016-2017 academic year.

2.
This study was limited to "technology and design, architectural design, mechanical design, renewable energy technologies, technologies facilitating life for the handicapped, advertisement and free-designing". 3.
Personal computers and electronic boards were used in teaching activities in experimental research.

Materials and Methods
The research was based on an ordered-explanatory design, one of the mixed methods that were classified by Creswell [57], in which both qualitative and quantitative methods were used at the same time. The quantitative dimension of the study was conducted in a semi-experimental pre-and post-test with the control groups. At the beginning of the research, the experimental and control groups were given pre-tests, and at the end they were given post-tests. Six weeks after the completion of the study, a permanency test was conducted. As for the qualitative dimension of the study, the experimental group of students were given interviews. A content analysis was done for the data collected through semi-structured interview forms. The Scratch program, which can be accessed free of charge, and is used in Turkish and in many other disciplines, was preferred in the coding process. Before proceeding with the study, a contact was established with the Ministry of National Education, and official permission was obtained to carry out this research.
The revised technology and design teaching program with the experimental group and the traditional Technology and Design program with the control group was followed. Both groups were taught by the researcher. The research lasted for eight weeks. During the experimental study, an Sustainability 2018, 10, 3822 5 of 29 electronic board and an equipped classroom was used. All the external disturbing factors were minimized as much as possible. The experiment design is shown in Table 1.  (Table A1). In a study, Büyüköztürk [58] stated that a 10% sampling size would be sufficient to raise the level of representation and minimize errors. In this needs analysis, the targeted sampling rate for students was 20%. The participants in this research were 3116 seventh grade students. This number was specified in the light of the current information obtained from the Office of Secondary Education.

2.
The targeted outcomes of the program were determined according to the items in the needs analysis. The outcomes were classified on the basis of cognitive levels (Table A2).

3.
With the help of university experts, Technology and Design course plans consisting of coding, were made and administered to the experimental group to reach the aims (Table A3).

4.
Student-centered lesson plans were written and put into practice and the students were kept active, mostly doing group-work activities. The lessons were prepared in an ASSURE teaching design, in which paper, pencils, electronic boards, and laptops were used as teaching tools. Examples of students' projects can be seen in Supplementary Materials.

Experimental Study Process (Program Application and Procedure Steps)
Week 1: Administering a self-efficacy pre-test to experimental and control groups in a Technology and Design course. Discussing with the students the differences and connections between technology and design concepts. Providing various examples from different fields of science. Emphasizing the importance of innovation, design, designing principles, designing processes and line elements.
Week 2: Writing algorithms using pen and pencil. Explaining the order of the process of the algorithms that they wrote. Emphasizing the importance of ordering the process. Assigning students, who could see that one piece of code could affect the whole program, to write application samples of movement, control and the menus through the Scratch program.
Week 3: Practicing changing two-dimensional figures into three-dimensional ones. Presenting three-dimensional figures and various architectural designs on the computer using the Scratch program. Relating the activities to Geometry.
Week 4: Turning characters by certain degrees and moving them forwards and backwards so that they could be seen at different angles. Assigning students to come up with movable mechanical designing ideas. Relating these activities to Mathemetics and other subjects. Assigning students to do evaluations among themselves. Week 5. Students choose stages to fit the characters and draw the figures through different angles. Students come up with ideas about recycling and energy. Students relate these activities to mathematics and other subjects. Students evaluate their own and peer's ideas about algorithms and projects.
Week 6: Forming new characters and designing elements through the Scratch program to suggest solutions to any problems around. Preparing animations using these characters. Producing and presenting ideas to help facilitate life for the handicapped, children, or elderly people. Relating these activities to Geometry, Arts, and Science subjects.
Week 7: Designing characters according to the changes in the images of objects from a distance. Placing these characters on the stage in different locations. Moving characters by special effects. Preparing advertisements for a product of their own choice. Relating these activities to Geometry, Mathematics, Arts and Science subjects. Evaluating their own projects.
Week 8: Independently design products of their own and needs. Animating their products on the Scratch program. Evaluating their products among themselves.
The control group was not interfered with in any way, and the traditional teaching program was followed. All the participants were given pre-post and permanency self-efficacy tests.

The Participants
The participants were picked through a simple random sampling method, a method in which every unit composing the participants has an equal chance to be in the sampling group [58]. The participants were the seventh grade students fromŞehit Hüseyin Ruso Secondary school, North Cyprus, in the 2016-2017 academic year. The age average was 13, and 70% of the students had computers and Internet in their houses. The students came from families with average (above minimum wage) and low level (minimum wage) income. The research was carried out in a state school. All the participants were volunteers. Before forming the study group, the seventh grade students' age ranges and their academic success scores were obtained from the school administration. Among these, the students with the highest and lowest scores were exempted, and the experimental and control groups whose age ranges and academic success rates were close, and were selected by lot. Each group was composed of 30 students, with an age range of 13. In order to specify the balance between the experimental group (17 male, 13 female) and the control group (16 female, 14 male), an independent sampling t-test analysis was given to the participants. The result of the test did not show a statistically significant difference in their self-efficacy perceptions. This result revealed that the pre-test results of both groups were well balanced. According to the pre-test results of the self-efficacy scale, the arithmetic mean of the experimental group was x = 81.6, the control group x = 80.6, and p = 0.841, p > 0.05, which did not show a statistically significant difference.

Data Collection Tools
A "self-efficacy perception scale", developed by the researcher for the seventh grade students, was used in collecting quantitative data (Table A4). This scale was developed through gratified sampling method. Out of 3116 specified students, only 515 participants were reached. The scale was delivered in a five-point Likert type. The structural validity of the scale, approved by nine subject and three language experts, was tested through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, and its applicability was confirmed. With respect to Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), the calculation was as Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Test (KMO) = 0.935; X 2 = 6401.599; p < 0.01. The explained total variance was 50.65%. With respect to Confirmatory Factor Analysis (DFA), the calculation was as Chi Square Test (CMIN/DF) = 1. factor (three items), Basic Application factor (six items), Further Application factor (five items), Formal Analysis factor (five items), Further Analysis factor (six items) Synthesis factor (seven items), and Assessment factor (six items). The scale was composed of 38 items, and its validity and reliability calculation was confirmed through SPSS 23 and AMOS 22 package programs.
Semi-structured interview forms consisting of "Qualitative Research Questions in Teaching of Technology and Design Course Program Revised with Coding Teaching" were administered to collect qualitative data. The interview forms included five open-ended questions and their sub-dimensions. Six experts were consulted about the qualitative questions. The interviews were conducted in May, 2017 at the end of an experimental process. For the reliability of the content analysis the qualitative data was coded, categorized, and themed by two expert analysts.
Statistical Analysis: The qualitative data obtained from the pre-, post-, and permanency tests indicated a reasonable distribution. Tabachnick and Fidell [60] state that the skewness and kurtosis values of the variances between −1.5 and +1.5 are sufficient for a reasonable distribution. The same distribution was observed in this research. In the light of these findings, parametric tests and analyses were done. In the analysis of the quantitative data a t-test, Cohen's effect size coefficiency, for mixed measurements two-way variance analyses SPSS package program was applied. The significance value, p < 0.05 was noted. The coding, categorizing, and theming processes were fulfilled through the NVIVO 10 package program.

Results
In this part, the quantitative data from the research were analyzed, presented in tables, and interpreted. The quantitative data were subjected to content analysis, and the findings were presented in diagrams, tables, and from direct quotations.
The first research question was to examine any differences between the pre-and post-test scores of the experimental group students in terms of self-efficacy in the Technology and Design course. The t-test results are as in Table 2. The related samplings t-test analysis for the experimental group indicated a significant difference in favor of the post-test evaluations after practicising the coding revised technology and design course program, and the pre-test evaluations (t (29) = 7.188, p < 0.05) before practicising the program.
As for the result of the control group related samplings t-test analysis, a significant difference between the post-test evaluations after practising the traditional Technology and Design teaching program was observed in favor of the pre-test evaluations (t (29) = −2.961, p < 0.05) done at the beginning of the program.
According to the results of the experimental and control groups, self-efficacy was unrelated to the sampling post-test analysis (t (58) = 5.628, p < 0.05) a significant difference was observed in favor of the experimental group. The experimental group had a higher arithmetic average compared to the control group. The Cohen's d value was calculated as (d = 1.45). The 0.8 < 1.45 effect size can be assumed as a strong effect. The results of the self-efficacy post-test revealed a stronger effect of the revised technology and design course programs on self-efficacy perceptions compared to traditional programs. The second question was to examine any significant differences between the scores by both control and experimental groups in post-and permanency self-efficacy tests in Technology and Design courses. The results are shown in Table 3 below. Table 3. The related samplings t-test analysis between post-and permanency self-efficacy tests given to the control and experimental groups.

Groups
Tests A statistically significant difference between the self-efficacy post and permanency test (t (29) = 0.216, p > 0.05) given to the experimental group was not noted. In such a case, it can be assumed that the permanency test evaluation levels are close to the post-test levels. In the result of the analysis, a statistically significant difference was not observed between self-efficacy post-and permanence tests (t (29) = −0.699, p > 0.05). Thus, the permanence level of the control group taught through traditional education programs remained close to post-test evaluations.
The unrelated samplings t-test analysis (t (58) = 4.885; p < 0.05) administered to the self-efficacy permanence test scores of the experimental and control groups showed a significant difference in favor of the experimental group.
In order to compare the evaluation results of the related and unrelated samplings, a two-way variance analysis was done for the mixed measurements. At the end of the analysis, the calculations were as Box's p (0.306) > 0.05; Wilk's Lambda's p < 0.01; Mauchly's p (0.009) < 0.05; Sphericity Assumed p (0.00) < 0.01. According to these values, the students' self-efficacy perceptions of Technology and Design courses (F (2-116) = 8.859, p < 0.01) differ significantly in favor of the experimental group.
The diagram shows the results of pre-, post-, and permanency tests given to the experimental (group 1) and control (group2) groups. As it can be seen in Figure 1, the difference (measurement 2) between the post-tests of both groups was equal at the beginning of the study, but it significantly raised in favor of the experimental group at the end of the experimental process. The difference (measurement 2) in the permanency tests for both groups is quite high in favor of the experimental group. The difference in post and permanency tests in favor of the experimental group indicates a significant effect of technology and design teaching program on students' self-efficacy perceptions of the course.
The third question examined the students' views about the effectiveness of Technology and Design courses.
The quantitative findings are grouped under four themes; cognitive output, affective output, external output, and skills. Every theme has its sub-themes. The result of the content analysis in qualitative data is as follows.
As it can be seen in the Figure 2, four main themes and their sub-themes have formed a model. The distribution of the frequencies in the formation of this model is as in Table 4.
(group 1) and control (group2) groups. As it can be seen in Figure 1, the difference (measurement 2) between the post-tests of both groups was equal at the beginning of the study, but it significantly raised in favor of the experimental group at the end of the experimental process. The difference (measurement 2) in the permanency tests for both groups is quite high in favor of the experimental group. The difference in post and permanency tests in favor of the experimental group indicates a significant effect of technology and design teaching program on students' self-efficacy perceptions of the course.  The third question examined the students' views about the effectiveness of Technology and Design courses.
The quantitative findings are grouped under four themes; cognitive output, affective output, external output, and skills. Every theme has its sub-themes. The result of the content analysis in qualitative data is as follows.
As it can be seen in the Figure 2, four main themes and their sub-themes have formed a model. The distribution of the frequencies in the formation of this model is as in Table 4.   Every single sub-theme of the qualitative model was supported by direct quotations. The participants were identified in numbers from 1 to 30 (P1, P2... P30). As can be seen in Table 4, the theme of "Cognitive outputs" received the highest frequency distribution (37.68%). The "skills theme" is in the second place with a 23.16% frequency distribution. In the third place is the "Affective output" with 21.98% frequency distribution and the "External Output" is in the fourth place with 17.17% frequency distribution.
The Cognitive output theme consists of five sub-themes. In terms of frequency load, they are, "application", "reasoning", "evaluation", "analysis", and "permanency". In the Application theme, a big majority of the students stated that in class activities, they did coding, wrote projects, did technical drawing, animations, produced three-dimensional images, and gave concrete examples of their imaginations and explanations related to their projects etc., using the Scratch program. In these activities the students participated in doing and learning and this raised their self-efficacy perceptions. From this information it is assumed that coding has a significant effect on other themes as well. The students' views indicate that the more coding activities are done, the more active they become in their metacognitive skills. P26 explained, "We play games by giving codes, create our own games, prepare advertisements and animate cartoons. We did a lot of things".
"Coding in Technology and Design courses made it different from other subjects, because we do not do any applications with other subject teachers" said P17.
"I now know that we can do many things by trying, but not in one try" added P6.
Reasoning is the theme in which students question the problems around them, and come up with solutions, produce a new innovative product of their own, an idea or a project, and develop their decision-making skills. As the participants stated, the reasoning theme interacted with other themes. While expressing views about reasoning, they raised ideas about the "application" theme as well. "We can think and fix something broken or out of order. We can think of quicker solutions to problems after receiving coding courses" remarked P11.
"It is fun to learn by coding. For example, I can reason differently in Maths lessons when I try to solve a problem" admitted P21. The Evaluation theme mostly includes self-evaluation, peer assessment, and views about specifying the suitability of goods to certain criteria. It has been observed that students improved social communication through group work.
"I can do self-evaluation. I can evaluate a study of my own. I can find out my strengths and weaknesses" said P2.
"...I have a different way of criticizing myself and others" explained P26.
P17 stressed saying, "I can criticize a project in terms of its aims".
The Analysis theme mostly deals with geometric shapes and the analysis of their measurements, and views about the solution of a problem.
"We now know how to explain procedures step by step..." stated P9, "I can tell the width-height-depth of objects." explained P15.
In the Permanency theme, the students compared their learning experiences in technology and design courses with other subjects with regards to remembering. They stated that this course was fun, but not merely memorizing, and added that one could express himself freely. They also admitted that it facilitated remembering because it was based on application.
"Coding applied technology and design courses are different from other subjects with regard to remembering, because we become more aware of everything around us and we start thinking about new changes" explained P24.
P15 admitted saying, "I could remember the topics in technology and design courses better than the topics in Maths and Turkish".
The Skills theme contains three sub-themes. They are, in terms of their frequency loads, "social skills", "practicing spatial skills", and "psychomotor skills". Social skills have quite a high effect on the development of students' self-efficacy in technology and design courses.
In the Social skills theme, the students made common decisions and expressed their ideas freely, which developed their communication skills. In this theme, they mostly expressed views about "group work", "self-expression", "communication", and "democratic decision-making".
"We shared ideas and produced common projects. I can meet at a common idea with my class-mates" explained P7.
P13 said, "We shared tasks as we did group work. We had responsibilities. We finalized and presented our task".
"Each of us did our part of the project in group work" added P14.
"This was the subject I could express myself without any worries. I had never experienced this before. Now, I can express my thoughts. In the past I was rather unsociable, but not anymore" admitted P10.
"Since I've started using coding in technology and design courses, I can express myself better. I was a bit shy, but I feel more comfortable now" P16.
"We get on well as friends and help each other" P1.
"Communication is not only necessary for the group, but for the whole class. I feel more confident when I talk to my friends and this adds to my life" explained P27.
Remarks by the participants about practising spatial and psychomotor skills.
"I wouldn't be able to draw three-dimensional pictures if I hadn't taken this course" P20.
"Drawing helps us develop our manual skills" P1.
The Affective output theme has three sub-dimensions. In terms of their frequency loads, they are; "attitude", "motivation", and "imaginary world".
In the Attitude theme, the students expressed that they developed a positive attitude towards Technology and Design courses. Although this was one of the most well-coded themes, it closely interacted particularly with the Cognitive theme. The students' revealed that particularly student-centered applied teaching strategies helped them develop positive attitudes. It has also been observed that the level of self-efficacy perceptions of the experimental group was high compared to the control group, and this was because the experimental group perceived coding as necessary issue and they were willing to use it. P1 expressed views saying, "The new system, coding, made me enjoy the course more. It's really interesting". "I'd feel missing a lot of things without this course" admitted P12.
"I love to be doing something on my own. Coding is fun" P18.
"Everybody should learn coding. Technology and Design courses would be boring without it" P10.
The Motivation theme deals with students' views about their interest in the course, or the level of their willingness. This theme closely interacts with the attitude theme. Motivation is one of the determinants of self-efficacy.
P18 stated, "We presented our project through animation and I loved this. It was our first experience". "I enjoy learning by coding" admitted P21.
"Coding added a lot to technology and design courses. A boring activity turns into fun and is easier by coding" explained P30.
In the Imaginary world theme, students used their imaginations in new designs. They admitted that developing, expressing, and fulfilling their imaginations affect their self-efficacy perceptions. "This should be a must course. Without it, I wouldn't be able to fulfill my imaginations, but I can do it now by coding" said P30.
The External output theme includes four sub-themes.İn terms of their frequency load, they are; "transfer", occupational inclination", "research skill", and "economizing".
The Transfer theme is related to one of the main aims of teaching programs, in which students use their learned outcomes in other fields effectively. In this context, the transfer theme explains student views about transferring experiences in technology and design courses fluently into teaching-learning processes, as well as other subjects.
"... I can use coding in Maths, Geometry, or Drawing lessons. I can apply it as word-game in English classes ..." explained P7.
"...for example, we can apply these codings on robots and make them move..." said P13.
"Coding can be used in other subjects as well, for example in friction force (Physics). We could clean rough surfaces and do animations by coding." added P18.
" . . . I prepared games for my brother. He can learn letters and colors" said P27.
The participants expressed views about occupational inclination, research skills, and economizing saying; "...it is for our good to receive coding teaching if we decide to study computer engineering" P13.
"I can surf the internet faster after taking this course." P18.

Discussion
This research aimed to investigate the effect of coding in technology and design courses on the seventh grade students' self-efficacy perceptions. In this regard, a self-efficacy scale for the Technology and Design course will be included in the scope of the literature. The discussion of each research question is presented below.
The first question indicated a significant difference between the pre-and post-tests given to both the experimental and control groups. With respect to this indication, coding teaching in technology and design courses, and traditional technology and design courses have an effect on developing self-efficacy perceptions. However, when the post-tests scores of the groups are compared, it was observed that the experimental group had a higher score. This is because the coding teaching program worked better compared to traditional methods. As can be seen in Table 4, in the qualitative data, "application", "reasoning", "social skills", and "attitude" themes have the highest frequencies. The participants stated that they developed positive attitudes towards the course by doing and learning, which indicates a development in their self-efficacy perceptions. The participants' views support the results of the post tests in this research. Similarly, Tok [61], Eymur & Çetin, [62], Kaya [63], Çoban & Sanalan [64], anḑ Sensoy & Aydogdu [65] found out that in experimental studies, applied teaching activities based on true experiences rather than theory developed students' self-efficacy perceptions significantly.
The reflection of effect rate of the programs applied to experimental and control groups on their self-efficacy perceptions has also been revealed by the coefficiencies of effect-size. The Cohen's d effect-size coefficiency was found to be higher than of traditional programs. Thus, the qualitative and quantitative data showed a consistent unity.
In literature, the results of the studies done in the effects of Scratch and coding on self-efficacies match up with the results of this study. In a study, Ihmaid [53] Scratch raised students' self-efficacy in learning English words. In their study, Yükseltürk & Altıok [54] and Giannakos, and Hubwieser & Ruf [55] came to the same conclusion (Abo Oda, 2010 adapt. Ihmaid [53] [71], studied the effect of coding on problem solving and reasoning, and obtained positive findings.
The second research question did not indicate any significant differences between the permanency tests and the post-tests scores. That is to say, the self-efficacy perception scores in the post-tests remained at the same level with the self-efficacy perception scores in the permanency tests. However, when the post-test scores of the groups were compared, the experimental group had a higher level than the control group. In this case, at the end of the experiment, the experimental group exhibited a higher level of self-efficacy perception, which indicates that the experimental group had more loads with a significant effect of the permanency of self-efficacy perception. In their study, Yüksel & Gündogdu [72] stated that learning experiences through programs with coding, affected students' attitudes toward the subject, their academic success, and permanency of learning outcomes positively. In their research, Saraçoglu & Çelik [73], came to the conclusion that applied learning activities affected students' active participation, attitudes, and permanency positively. In their findings, Özyurt & Özyurt [74] stated that in visual programming subjects, students gained experiences related to the business world by writing codes, and their learning became permanent. Karaduman & Emrahoglu [75] observed in their study that computer-based learning experiences affected the permanency of students' learning outcomes positively. The findings of these studies related to permanency are in parallel with the findings in this research.
While several studies emphasize the positive effects of coding, some studies argue the opposite. Quielle & Bergin [76] in their experimental study, came up with findings revealing that although students enjoyed Scratch, it did not affect their self-efficacy perceptions and success in program applications. In another experimental study by Korkmaz [77], a significant success with Scratch on C++ computer programming language was determined, but a significant difference was not noted in students' self-efficacy perceptions of programming. In a study by Kalelioglu & Gülbahar [78] with the fifth grade students, it was found out that teaching programming through Scratch did not exhibit any significant differences in their problem solving skills, but, as they stated, the students enjoyed programming. In another study, it was noted that Code or coding teaching did not show any differences between the reflective skills of the experimental and control groups in problem solving. However, as Kalelioglu [79] emphasized, the qualitative data showed that students exhibited positive behaviors towards programming.
In the third research question, the qualitative data from the students' views were grouped under four main themes; "cognitive output", "affective output", "external output", and "skills". These themes are similar to, as Bandura [43] stated, the sources of self-efficacy such as "experiencing a similar behavior directly", "experiences adapted from others", "verbal persuasion", "physiological and emotional cases". In our research, as can be observed in Table 4, the participants mostly expressed views about the "application" theme. An intensive and active coding application course created a significant difference in favor of the experimental group post-test self-efficacy perception scores, compared to the control group (Table 3). The "Application" theme matched well with "experiencing behavior", one of self-efficacy sources defined by Bandura [43]. In a study byŞeker & Erdogan [51], it was found out that the post-test evaluations in geometry, taught through GeoGebra software, were significantly different from the pre-test evaluations, and this indicated that the experimental group actively participated in both the computer use and learning processes. Ötürk [80] and Önen & Muşlu Kaygısız [81] stated in their studies that self-efficacy could be developed positively through theoretical and applied teaching. Similarly, Bahçeçi & Kuru [82] and Ilhan Beyaztaş [83] pointed out that practicising background knowledge increased self-efficacy positively. Kılıç, Keleş & Uzun [84] found out that practice with laboratory materials significantly increased the participants' self-efficacy beliefs. The connection between application and self-efficacy specified in this research matches up with the other studies in literature. The "Reasoning" theme is one of the themes with the most views. In teaching activities through coding applications it has been observed that students spent a long time thinking of coming up with new ideas, approaching problems with different points of view, and making decisions to design a product. The students came up with ample views about the "Evaluation and Analysis" theme.
The "Skills" theme has three sub-dimensions; social, spatial, and psychomotor skills. The "Skills" theme has the most frequency load among other sub-themes. This is because students mostly did group work. "Democratic decision-making", "self-expression", "communication", and "group work" are the most frequent views under this theme. In the light of this theme, it can be assumed that students' self-efficacy is affected by observing others' success or failure. When the experimental and control groups are compared, the scores by the experimental group are significantly different from the scores by the control group (Table 2). Making democratic decisions, expressing themselves, participating in group work, and establishing effective communication in class are indications of the effect of social skills on students' self-efficacy perceptions. Lewis [85] emphasized similar findings in a study saying that using Scratch affected collaboration and group work positively. Schunk [50] quotes to Zimmerman & Ringle's study) and states that when the participants observe a model for some time confidently, their self-efficacy increases when doing the same work. Parallel to this finding, it was noted in our research that students' positive evaluations of each other and contributions in writing projects increased their self-efficacy perceptions of the subject. Schunk and Zimmerman [86] emphasized that learning by observation by peer-modelling has a direct effect on skills and continuity. This finding matches with the results of permanency-tests in this research. In their study, Çilingir & Artut [87] found out that experimental group students' visual math self-efficacies developed after group work. The findings in the positive effect of group work on self-efficacy show similarities with the findings in the studies mentioned above. In a similar study by Shin, Park & Bae [88] in the "social skills" theme, it was found out that use of Scratch coding increased the level of developing friendship among highly gifted students. In their studies, Theodorou & Kordaki [89]; Taylor, Harlow & Forret [33] stated that Scratch coding and collaborative learning approaches had positive effects on students' social skills. Motivating each other through verbal persuasion, making common decisions, and guiding each other towards certain targets, while writing projects is another way in self-efficacy issue. This finding matches well with Bandura's [43] views about self-efficacy.
Students' views about transferring their outcomes in coding applications are grouped in the "Transfer" theme, the main theme of "External output". The students' views reveal that experiences are transferred into English, Maths, Geometry, and Drawing. The significant differences in the scores by the experimental group, as observed in Tables 2 and 3, match up with the students' views in the main theme of External output. The "Transfer" theme is in parallel with results from different studies in the literature. In a study by Bong [45] on English, Korean, Maths, and learning in school, a correlation was specified among these disciplines, related to self-efficacy beliefs. In their study in the scope of self-efficacy, Flannery, Kazakoff, Silverman, Bers, Bonta & Resnick [67] argue that coding by Scratch will be a guide to interdisciplinary benefits, from Literature to Mathematics. In another study by Sanjanaashree, Anand & Soman [90], it was found that Scratch used in different disciplines had a positive effect on language learning. Gülten & Soytürk [46] pointed out that the development in self-efficacy in geometry raised success in other subjects also. As it can be observed, self-efficacy that is developed in a certain field, can be transferred to other fields. "Attitude", "Motivation", and "Imaginary world" sub-themes are grouped under the main theme of "Affective output". The "Attitude" theme is one of the four with the most frequencies. It can be assumed that an intensive use of metacognitive skills and positive social interaction is a positive effect on their interest to the subject. These findings match up with the results in the studies by Yükseltürk, Altıok & Üçgül [9]; Dasgupta, Hale, Hernandez, Hill [91]; Wang, Huang & Hwang [71]; Choi, Jung & Beak [27]. Lee argued in a study [92] that Scratch helped students create more meaningful activities when they imagine and do their homework. The content analysis in "Motivation" theme indicated that coding made students more willing and interested in the subject. This finding matches up with the results of the studies in the literature by Calao [98]; Diseth [47].

Conclusions and Suggestions
The results of the post-and permanency tests given to the experimental group in terms of their self-efficacy perceptions of coding teaching showed a significant difference compared to the control group. This qualitative data obtained from the participants' views support this result. It was also determined that the effect-size of the program applied to the experimental group was higher than the program for the control group. In this regard, it can be assumed that running Technology and Design courses with coding applications are more effective than traditional programs in developing students' self-efficacy perceptions.
This study offers a teaching program based on a needs analysis, which will be a reference for the development of the prevailing traditional Technology and Design course teaching in North Cyprus. Technology and Design courses should be restructured with other subjects to respond to the requirements of the domestic market and 21st century skills. The necessity of coding in technology and design courses is crucial to the sustainability of the subject. A program responding to the interest and expectations of the Z group should be designed. Technology and Design courses should interact with Information and Communication courses. Technology and Design course applications and coding teaching should start during primary education. It is advised that this research is referred to in designing programs for Technology and Design courses, and Information and Communication technologies. In order to confirm the effect of coding on self-efficacy, research should be done at advanced levels. Different programs can be designed using different coding programs to support this study done through Scratch, and the results reported