Advancing Sustainable Transportation Education: A Comprehensive Analysis of Electric Vehicle Prototype Design and Fabrication

: The global shift towards electric vehicles (EVs) has necessitated a paradigm shift in engineering education, emphasizing hands-on experiences and innovative learning approaches. This review article presents a comprehensive analysis of the design and fabrication process of an educational EV prototype, highlighting its significance in preparing future engineers for the rapidly evolving EV industry. The article delves into the historical development and recent trends in EVs, providing context for the growing importance of practical skills in this field. A detailed examination of the key components and systems in modern EVs, such as battery packs, electric motors, transmission systems, and chassis design, lays the foundation for understanding the complexities involved in EV prototype development. The methodology section explores the research approach, conceptual design, simulations, material selection, and construction techniques employed in the creation of an educational EV prototype. The evaluation and testing phase assesses the prototype’s performance, safety, and reliability, offering valuable insights into the lessons learned and areas for improvement. The impact of such projects on engineering education is discussed, emphasizing the importance of hands-on learning experiences and interdisciplinary collaboration in preparing students for future careers in the EV industry. The article concludes by addressing common challenges faced during EV prototype projects and providing recommendations for future educational initiatives in this field.


Introduction
The global automotive industry is undergoing a transformative shift towards electric vehicles (EVs) as a sustainable and environmentally friendly mode of transportation [1].This transition is driven by the pressing need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve air quality, and mitigate the impacts of climate change [2,3].The adoption of EVs has gained momentum in recent years, with governments, automotive manufacturers, and consumers increasingly recognizing the benefits of electrified transportation [4].As the demand for EVs continues to grow, there is an increasing need for skilled engineers who possess practical knowledge and hands-on experience in EV design and fabrication [5].To bridge this gap, educational institutions are incorporating EV prototype projects into their engineering curricula to provide students with real-world experience and prepare them for careers in the EV industry [6,7].
The design and fabrication of educational EV prototypes offer students a unique opportunity to apply theoretical concepts to practical situations, fostering a deeper understanding of EV technologies [8].These projects encourage interdisciplinary collaboration, problem-solving skills, and critical thinking, which are essential for success in the rapidly evolving field of EV engineering [9].By engaging in hands-on learning experiences, students gain valuable insights into the intricacies of EV design, from conceptualization to the final product [10].Moreover, educational EV prototype projects serve as a platform for students to develop important soft skills, such as teamwork, communication, and project management, which are highly sought after in the industry [11].
However, the process of designing and fabricating educational EV prototypes is complex and multifaceted, requiring a comprehensive understanding of various components, systems, and methodologies [12].From battery management systems and electric motors to transmission systems and chassis design, students must navigate a wide range of technical challenges [13].The graph in Figure 1 illustrates the projected adoption of electric vehicles in major automotive markets from 2020 to 2040, providing a comprehensive view of the EV market's past growth and future potential.The y-axis represents the percentage of new vehicle sales that are electric, while the x-axis shows the years from 2020 to 2040.Each line on the graph represents a different major automotive market, including China, Europe, and the United States.The graph shows a dramatic increase in EV market share across all regions, particularly after 2025.China is projected to lead in EV adoption, reaching nearly 50% of new car sales by 2040.Europe follows closely behind, while the U.S. shows a slower but still significant growth trajectory.It is important to note that while this graph shows rapid growth in EV market share, EVs currently make up a small fraction of the global vehicle fleet compared to over 1.5 billion internal combustion engine vehicles.However, the steep upward trends for all regions indicate a significant shift in the automotive market over the next decade.A notable inflection point occurs around 2025-2026, where the rate of EV adoption accelerates in all markets.This could be attributed to factors such as improved battery technology, expanded charging infrastructure, and more stringent emissions regulations coming into effect.This projected growth in EV market share represents a major transition in the automotive industry, though it is important to remember that even by 2040, a significant portion of new vehicle sales in most markets will still be non-electric.The graph underscores the rapid pace of change expected in the coming years, while also highlighting the long-term nature of the transition to electric vehicles.Furthermore, safety, reliability, and performance considerations are crucial aspects that must be addressed throughout the design and fabrication process [14,15].As such, a thorough examination of the best practices, challenges, and opportunities associated with educational EV prototype projects is necessary to guide educators and researchers in this field.While several studies have explored the benefits of hands-on learning in engineering education [16][17][18], there is a lack of comprehensive reviews that must focus specifically on the design and fabrication of educational EV prototypes.Some researchers have emphasized the importance of integrating EV projects into engineering curricula [19], while others have highlighted the challenges and opportunities associated with such initiatives [20].However, a holistic examination of the methodologies, impacts, and future directions of educational EV prototype projects is necessary to provide a roadmap for educators and researchers seeking to implement these projects effectively.
This review article aims to bridge this gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of the design and fabrication process of educational EV prototypes, emphasizing its significance in preparing future engineers for the EV industry.The article will explore the historical development and recent trends in EVs, examine the key components and systems in modern EVs, and delve into the methodology employed in the creation of educational EV prototypes.Furthermore, the impact of such projects on engineering education will be discussed, highlighting the importance of hands-on learning experiences and interdis-ciplinary collaboration.The article will also address common challenges faced during EV prototype projects, such as resource limitations, technical complexities, and time constraints, and provide recommendations for overcoming these obstacles.Finally, future directions for educational EV prototype initiatives will be explored, considering the rapid advancements in EV technologies and the evolving needs of the industry.Figure 2   This review article aims to bridge this gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of the design and fabrication process of educational EV prototypes, emphasizing its significance in preparing future engineers for the EV industry.The article will explore the historical development and recent trends in EVs, examine the key components and systems in modern EVs, and delve into the methodology employed in the creation of educational EV prototypes.Furthermore, the impact of such projects on engineering education will be discussed, highlighting the importance of hands-on learning experiences and interdisciplinary collaboration.The article will also address common challenges faced during EV prototype projects, such as resource limitations, technical complexities, and time constraints, and provide recommendations for overcoming these obstacles.Finally, future directions for educational EV prototype initiatives will be explored, considering the rapid advancements in EV technologies and the evolving needs of the industry.Figure 2 visually represents the significant environmental benefits of EVs.It illustrates how EVs contribute to reduced CO2 emissions, decreased air pollution, and lower overall energy consumption compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles.The figure also highlights the potential for EVs to integrate with renewable energy sources, further enhancing their positive environmental impact.This review article aims to bridge this gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of the design and fabrication process of educational EV prototypes, emphasizing its significance in preparing future engineers for the EV industry.The article will explore the historical development and recent trends in EVs, examine the key components and systems in modern EVs, and delve into the methodology employed in the creation of educational EV prototypes.Furthermore, the impact of such projects on engineering education will be discussed, highlighting the importance of hands-on learning experiences and interdisciplinary collaboration.The article will also address common challenges faced during EV prototype projects, such as resource limitations, technical complexities, and time constraints, and provide recommendations for overcoming these obstacles.Finally, future directions for educational EV prototype initiatives will be explored, considering the rapid advancements in EV technologies and the evolving needs of the industry.Figure 2 visually represents the significant environmental benefits of EVs.It illustrates how EVs contribute to reduced CO2 emissions, decreased air pollution, and lower overall energy consumption compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles.The figure also highlights the potential for EVs to integrate with renewable energy sources, further enhancing their positive environmental impact.The principal conclusions of this review article show the vital role of educational EV prototype projects in equipping future engineers with the necessary skills and knowledge The principal conclusions of this review article show the vital role of educational EV prototype projects in equipping future engineers with the necessary skills and knowledge to excel in the rapidly growing EV industry.By providing a comprehensive overview of the design and fabrication process, examining the impacts on engineering education, and offering insights into best practices and future directions, this article serves as a valuable resource for educators, researchers, and students interested in advancing EV engineering education and promoting sustainable transportation solutions.As the world continues to embrace EVs, the importance of hands-on learning experiences and the development of practical skills in engineering education cannot be overstated.This review article contributes to the ongoing discourse on the future of EV engineering education and highlights the need for continued research and innovation in this field.This paper makes several key innovative contributions to the field of educational electric vehicle (EV) prototype development:

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Comprehensive Framework: We present a holistic approach to designing and fabricating educational EV prototypes, integrating theoretical knowledge with hands-on practical experience.This framework bridges the gap between classroom learning and real-world application in EV engineering.

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Interdisciplinary Integration: Our methodology uniquely combines elements from mechanical, electrical, and software engineering, providing a multi-faceted approach to EV prototype development that is often lacking in more specialized studies.

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Safety-Centric Design: We introduce novel safety features specifically tailored for educational prototypes, addressing a critical gap in the existing literature which often focuses on commercial EV development.

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Pedagogical Impact Analysis: Unlike many technical papers, we provide an in-depth analysis of the educational impact of EV prototype projects, offering valuable insights for curriculum development in engineering programs.

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Scalable and Adaptable Model: Our approach is designed to be scalable and adaptable to various educational settings, filling a gap in the literature for flexible, educationfocused EV prototype development methodologies.
By addressing these aspects, our paper fills a significant research gap in the literature on educational EV prototypes.While numerous studies focus on commercial EV development or general engineering education, there is a lack of comprehensive research that specifically addresses the design, fabrication, and educational impact of EV prototypes in an academic setting.Our work provides a much-needed bridge between theoretical EV knowledge and practical, hands-on learning experiences, offering educators and researchers a valuable resource for implementing effective EV-focused educational programs.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a comprehensive literature review, covering the historical development of electric vehicles, recent trends, and relevant case studies.Section 3 details our methodology, including the research approach, conceptual design, simulations, material selection, and construction techniques.Section 4 presents the results of our prototype development and testing.Section 5 discusses these results, evaluating the prototype's performance and safety features.Section 6 explores the lessons learned and potential areas for improvement.Section 7 concludes the paper, summarizing our key findings and offering recommendations for future work in educational EV prototype development.Finally, The last part provides a complete list of the references used throughout this study.

The Evolution of Electric Vehicles
Contrary to popular conspiracy theories, the early decline of electric vehicles was not orchestrated by oil industry interests.Rather, it was a result of technological limitations that persist, to some extent, even today [21].
The dominance of internal combustion engines over electric vehicles can be attributed to several factors: • The superior energy density and convenience of liquid fuels compared to early battery technology.• Challenges in developing large, efficient, and cost-effective electric batteries or accumulators.

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Limited range and lack of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles.
These issues made internal combustion engines more practical for widespread adoption [22].Similarly, external combustion engines failed to gain prominence due to inherent inefficiencies compared to their internal combustion counterparts.It is worth noting that even modern magnetic engines, despite their potential, face significant hurdles before they can outperform internal combustion engines.These challenges include material demagnetization, component overheating, power and torque losses, and operational interruptions [23].

Historical Development of EVs
The history of electric vehicles provides crucial context for modern educational EV prototype projects.Early EV designs, dating back to the 1830s, demonstrate fundamental principles still relevant in today's prototypes.For instance, the 1890s Baker Electric car's simple motor-to-wheel power transmission system is often replicated in student projects due to its straightforward design [24].Thomas Edison's work on improved battery technology in the early 1900s highlights the ongoing importance of energy storage in EV design, a key focus in many educational prototypes.The decline of EVs in the 1920s due to limitations in range and charging infrastructure underscores the critical need for students to address these persistent challenges in their designs [25].
The resurgence of interest in EVs in the 1970s, driven by environmental concerns, mirrors the motivations behind many current educational EV projects.This historical perspective helps students understand the cyclical nature of technological development and the importance of addressing long-standing challenges in their prototype designs [26,27].By studying this history, students gain insights into the evolution of EV technology, helping them to identify areas for innovation in their own projects.Past failures in EV development include the limited range and high cost of early models like the GM EV1 in the 1990s, and the lack of widespread charging infrastructure.To break through these boundaries in the future, advancements are needed in battery technology to increase range and reduce costs, as well as for the expansion of fast-charging networks and the integration of smart grid technologies for efficient energy management.Innovations in lightweight materials and aerodynamic designs could also significantly improve EV performance and efficiency [28].The timeline in Figure 3 shows major milestones in the development of battery electric vehicles, from the first electric carriages in the 1830s to the modern era of EVs.
even modern magnetic engines, despite their potential, face significant hurdles before they can outperform internal combustion engines.These challenges include material demagnetization, component overheating, power and torque losses, and operational interruptions [23].

Historical Development of EVs
The history of electric vehicles provides crucial context for modern educational EV prototype projects.Early EV designs, dating back to the 1830s, demonstrate fundamental principles still relevant in today's prototypes.For instance, the 1890s Baker Electric car's simple motor-to-wheel power transmission system is often replicated in student projects due to its straightforward design [24].Thomas Edison's work on improved battery technology in the early 1900s highlights the ongoing importance of energy storage in EV design, a key focus in many educational prototypes.The decline of EVs in the 1920s due to limitations in range and charging infrastructure underscores the critical need for students to address these persistent challenges in their designs [25].
The resurgence of interest in EVs in the 1970s, driven by environmental concerns, mirrors the motivations behind many current educational EV projects.This historical perspective helps students understand the cyclical nature of technological development and the importance of addressing long-standing challenges in their prototype designs [26,27].By studying this history, students gain insights into the evolution of EV technology, helping them to identify areas for innovation in their own projects.Past failures in EV development include the limited range and high cost of early models like the GM EV1 in the 1990s, and the lack of widespread charging infrastructure.To break through these boundaries in the future, advancements are needed in battery technology to increase range and reduce costs, as well as for the expansion of fast-charging networks and the integration of smart grid technologies for efficient energy management.Innovations in lightweight materials and aerodynamic designs could also significantly improve EV performance and efficiency [28].The timeline in Figure 3 shows major milestones in the development of battery electric vehicles, from the first electric carriages in the 1830s to the modern era of EVs.

Modern Advancements and Trends in EV Technology
The resurgence of interest in EVs began in the 1970s, driven by concerns over air pollution and the oil crisis [29].Governments and automakers started investing in EV research and development, leading to the introduction of modern EVs like the General Motors EV1 in the 1990s [30].However, it was not until the release of the Toyota Prius hybrid in 1997 and the Tesla Roadster in 2008 that EVs began to gain significant market attention [31].In recent years, advancements in lithium-ion battery technology, power electronics, and electric motors have greatly improved the performance, range, and affordability of EVs [32].The development of fast-charging infrastructure and the implementation of government policies and incentives have further accelerated the adoption of EVs worldwide [33].As a result, the market share of EVs has been steadily increasing, with many countries setting ambitious targets for EV adoption in the coming decades [34].

The Role of Educational Institutions in the EV Revolution
Educational institutions play a crucial role in the EV revolution by preparing the future workforce with the necessary skills and knowledge to design, develop, and maintain EVs [35].Universities and colleges are increasingly incorporating EV-related courses and programs into their engineering curricula to meet the growing demand for EV professionals [36].These programs cover various aspects of EV engineering, including battery technology, power electronics, electric machines, and vehicle dynamics [37].In addition to traditional coursework, educational institutions are also engaging students in hands-on EV projects, such as the design and fabrication of EV prototypes [38].These projects provide students with practical experience and expose them to real-world challenges in EV development, fostering innovation and problem-solving skills [39].Moreover, collaborations between educational institutions and industry partners facilitate knowledge transfer and ensure that students are well-prepared to enter the EV workforce [40].The graph in Figure 4 illustrates the predicted increase in the number of electric vehicles over the coming decades.It is important to note the scale of this growth in context.If these predictions come true, by 2030, electric vehicles would comprise approximately 1.5% of the global vehicle fleet compared to internal combustion vehicles.While this represents significant growth in the EV market, it also underscores the continued dominance of internal combustion engines in the near term.This 1.5% figure highlights both the rapid growth of the EV market and the massive scale of the existing internal combustion vehicle fleet.It emphasizes the long-term nature of the transition to electric mobility, even as EV adoption accelerates.This context is crucial for understanding the challenges and opportunities in the shift towards electric transportation.

Enhancing Hands-On Learning Experiences
One of the most significant benefits of educational EV prototype projects is the portunity for students to engage in hands-on learning experiences.By designing, fabri ing, and testing EV prototypes, students can apply the theoretical knowledge gained the classroom to real-world engineering challenges [43].This hands-on approach he students develop practical skills, such as CAD modeling, machining, welding, and e trical wiring, which are essential for success in the engineering profession [44,45].Mor ver, hands-on learning experiences help students better understand abstract concepts a complex systems by providing tangible examples and opportunities for experimentat [46].Through the process of building and testing EV prototypes, students can observe As the EV industry continues to grow and evolve, educational institutions will need to adapt their curricula and teaching methods to keep pace with the latest advancements in EV technology [41].This may involve the integration of emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and the Internet of Things, into EV engineering education [42].By staying at the forefront of EV education, universities and colleges can play a significant role in driving the EV revolution forward and shaping the future of sustainable transportation.

Enhancing Hands-On Learning Experiences
One of the most significant benefits of educational EV prototype projects is the opportunity for students to engage in hands-on learning experiences.By designing, fabricating, and testing EV prototypes, students can apply the theoretical knowledge gained in the classroom to real-world engineering challenges [43].This hands-on approach helps students develop practical skills, such as CAD modeling, machining, welding, and electrical wiring, which are essential for success in the engineering profession [44,45].Moreover, hands-on learning experiences help students better understand abstract concepts and complex systems by providing tangible examples and opportunities for experimentation [46].Through the process of building and testing EV prototypes, students can observe the direct consequences of their design decisions and develop a deeper understanding of the relationships between various components and subsystems [47].Figure 5 depicts the hands-on construction progress of the chassis for the educational electric vehicle prototype.

Enhancing Hands-On Learning Experiences
One of the most significant benefits of educational EV prototype projects is the opportunity for students to engage in hands-on learning experiences.By designing, fabricating, and testing EV prototypes, students can apply the theoretical knowledge gained in the classroom to real-world engineering challenges [43].This hands-on approach helps students develop practical skills, such as CAD modeling, machining, welding, and electrical wiring, which are essential for success in the engineering profession [44,45].Moreover, hands-on learning experiences help students better understand abstract concepts and complex systems by providing tangible examples and opportunities for experimentation [46].Through the process of building and testing EV prototypes, students can observe the direct consequences of their design decisions and develop a deeper understanding of the relationships between various components and subsystems [47].Figure 5 depicts the handson construction progress of the chassis for the educational electric vehicle prototype.

Fostering Interdisciplinary Collaboration and Teamwork
Educational EV prototype projects often require collaboration among students from different engineering disciplines, such as mechanical, electrical, and computer engineering.This interdisciplinary approach fosters a holistic understanding of EV systems and encourages students to think beyond the boundaries of their specific field of study [48].By working together on a common project, students learn to communicate effectively, share knowledge, and leverage each other's strengths to solve complex problems [49,50].
In addition to interdisciplinary collaboration, EV prototype projects also promote teamwork and project management skills.Students learn to divide tasks, set goals, and manage resources effectively to meet project deadlines [51].They also develop important interpersonal skills, such as leadership, conflict resolution, and decision-making, which are highly valued in the engineering industry [52].

Developing Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking Skills
Designing and fabricating EV prototypes presents students with a wide range of technical challenges that require creative problem-solving and critical thinking skills.Throughout the project, students must analyze complex systems, identify potential issues, and develop innovative solutions to overcome obstacles [53].This process helps students cultivate a systematic approach to problem-solving that involves breaking down large problems into smaller, more manageable components [54].Furthermore, educational EV prototype projects often involve a significant amount of trial and error, as students test and refine their designs iteratively.This experience helps students develop perseverance and adaptability, teaching them to learn from failures and adjust their approach based on empirical evidence [55].By engaging in this type of experiential learning, students develop the critical thinking skills necessary to tackle real-world engineering challenges and drive innovation in the EV industry [56].
The hands-on experience and practical skills gained through educational EV prototype projects are highly valued by employers in the EV industry.By participating in these projects, students can demonstrate their ability to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world problems, work effectively in teams, and manage complex projects [57].This experience gives students a competitive edge when seeking internships, co-op positions, and full-time employment opportunities in the EV sector [58].Moreover, working on EV prototype projects exposes students to the latest technologies and trends in the EV industry, such as advanced battery systems, high-performance electric motors, and regenerative braking [59].This exposure helps students stay current with industry developments and prepares them to contribute to the design and development of next-generation EVs [60].

Promoting Sustainability and Environmental Awareness
Educational EV prototype projects play a crucial role in promoting sustainability and environmental awareness among engineering students.By focusing on the development of clean, efficient, and environmentally friendly transportation solutions, these projects help students understand the importance of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change [61].Through their involvement in EV prototype projects, students gain a deeper appreciation for the role of engineers in creating a more sustainable future [62].They learn about the environmental benefits of EVs, such as reduced air pollution, lower carbon footprint, and decreased dependence on fossil fuels [63,64].This awareness can inspire students to pursue careers in sustainable engineering and become advocates for green transportation solutions [65].Furthermore, educational EV prototype projects often incorporate principles of eco-design and lifecycle assessment, encouraging students to consider the environmental impact of their design choices throughout the product's entire lifecycle [66][67][68].By adopting a holistic approach to sustainability, students learn to balance economic, social, and environmental factors in their engineering decisions [69,70].Table 1 provides a concise overview of the key components and systems discussed in the article, making it easier for readers to understand their functions and importance in modern electric vehicles.Educational EV prototype projects have a profound impact on engineering education, providing students with valuable hands-on learning experiences, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration and teamwork, developing problemsolving and critical thinking skills, preparing students for careers in the EV industry, and promoting sustainability and environmental awareness.

Steering mechanisms
Allows the driver to control the direction of the vehicle Rack-and-pinion system is the most common Electric power steering (EPS) reduces the effort required to turn the wheels

Chassis and body design
Provides structural support and protection for the vehicle and its components Lightweight materials like aluminum and composites are increasingly used The Skateboard platform places the battery and motors between the axles for low CG

Design and Fabrication Methodologies for Educational EV Prototypes 4.1. Conceptual Design and Systems Engineering Approach
Our methodology employs a system engineering approach, emphasizing the interdependence of various subsystems in an electric vehicle.This perspective is crucial for students to understand the complexities of EV design and development.

Holistic Systems Engineering Approach
We begin with a comprehensive requirements analysis, considering educational objectives, safety standards, and performance goals.This process involves:

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Stakeholder Analysis: Students identify and analyze the needs of various stakeholders, including drivers, manufacturers, and regulators [71].

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Interface Management: Students learn to define and manage interfaces between subsystems, crucial for successful integration.• Trade-off Analysis: Teams conduct trade-off studies to balance competing requirements such as performance, cost, and sustainability [74].

Enhancing Interdisciplinary Understanding
The interdisciplinary nature of our approach significantly enhances students' comprehension of EV systems:

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Systems Thinking: Students develop a holistic view of EVs, understanding how decisions in one area impact the entire system [75].

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Cross-Disciplinary Communication: Working in diverse teams, students learn to communicate complex ideas across disciplinary boundaries.

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Integrated Problem-Solving: Challenges are addressed from multiple perspectives, leading to more innovative and comprehensive solutions.

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Lifecycle Consideration: Students consider the entire lifecycle of the EV, from design and manufacturing to use and end-of-life recycling [76].

Novel Educational Tools and Frameworks
The EV System Architecture Canvas is a comprehensive visual tool that allows students to map out the entire EV system, its subsystems, and their interactions.It includes sections for power systems, drivetrain components, control systems, and user interfaces, helping students understand the complex interrelationships within an EV.The Requirement Traceability Matrix is an interactive digital tool that enables students to link design decisions directly to specific requirements and stakeholder needs.This matrix helps in tracking how each component or feature addresses particular design criteria or regulations, ensuring a holistic approach to EV design [77,78].
The Sustainability Impact Analyzer is a software tool that provides a real-time assessment of the environmental impact of design choices.It considers factors such as material selection, energy efficiency, and lifecycle emissions, allowing students to make informed decisions that balance performance with sustainability.The Virtual Collaboration Platform is a custom-built environment that facilitates remote teamwork and system integration discussions.It includes features like shared 3D modeling spaces, virtual whiteboards for brainstorming, and integrated communication tools, mirroring the collaborative nature of real-world EV development projects.

Preparing Students for Real-World Challenges
Our approach prepares students for real-world EV development challenges in several ways:

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Industry-Aligned Processes: The systems engineering approach mirrors methodologies used in leading EV companies, giving students relevant experience.• Ethical Considerations: The approach incorporates discussions on the ethical implications of EV design decisions, preparing students for the broader impact of their work.

Advanced Modeling and Simulation Techniques
Our educational EV prototype project employs cutting-edge modeling and simulation techniques to provide students with hands-on experience in advanced EV design and analysis.This approach allows for iterative design improvements and a deep understanding of EV systems before physical prototyping.Figure 6 illustrates the setup process for the simulation, showing how initial conditions and analysis parameters are configured in the ANSYS software for the electric vehicle prototype crash test simulation.• SolidWorks: For the 3D modeling of mechanical components and assemblies.• ANSYS: For the finite element analysis (FEA) of structural components and thermal management systems.

Advanced CAD Tools and Simulation Software
We utilize a suite of industry-standard and custom-developed tools for comprehensive EV modeling and simulation [82][83][84]: • SolidWorks: For the 3D modeling of mechanical components and assemblies.• ANSYS: For the finite element analysis (FEA) of structural components and thermal management systems.

Electric Powertrain Design and Simulation
The electric powertrain design and simulation process is a core component of our methodology, emphasizing key EV-specific concepts: Figure 8 presents a 3D CAD model of the electric vehicle prototype's body design, showcasing the overall structure and form of the vehicle as conceived in the design phase.

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Energy Management Strategies: Students develop and test various energy management algorithms using Simulink, optimizing for factors like range, performance, and battery longevity [87].

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Regenerative Braking Simulation: A custom Simulink model allows students to design and optimize regenerative braking systems, analyzing energy recovery under various driving conditions.
Figure 8 presents a 3D CAD model of the electric vehicle prototype's body design, showcasing the overall structure and form of the vehicle as conceived in the design phase.

Innovative Tools and Methods for System Optimization
We have developed several innovative tools and methods specifically for educational purposes: • EV Performance Predictor: A machine learning-based tool that predicts EV performance based on input parameters, helping students understand the impact of design choices.

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Virtual Drive Cycle Simulator: An immersive simulator that allows students to test their EV designs in various virtual environments and driving conditions.

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Component Library and Parametric Design Tool: A database of EV components with a parametric design interface, enabling the rapid exploration of design alternatives [88,89].

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Multi-Objective Optimization Framework: A custom framework that guides students through the process of balancing competing objectives (e.g., range, cost, performance) using advanced optimization techniques.

Innovative Tools and Methods for System Optimization
We have developed several innovative tools and methods specifically for educational purposes:

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EV Performance Predictor: A machine learning-based tool that predicts EV performance based on input parameters, helping students understand the impact of design choices.• Virtual Drive Cycle Simulator: An immersive simulator that allows students to test their EV designs in various virtual environments and driving conditions.

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Component Library and Parametric Design Tool: A database of EV components with a parametric design interface, enabling the rapid exploration of design alternatives [88,89].

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Multi-Objective Optimization Framework: A custom framework that guides students through the process of balancing competing objectives (e.g., range, cost, performance) using advanced optimization techniques.

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Real-Time Co-Simulation Platform: A platform that combines physical hardware with virtual models, allowing students to test control algorithms on a mix of real and simulated components.

Sustainable Materials and Modular Design for Educational Flexibility
Our approach to material selection and design in the educational EV prototype emphasizes both sustainability and flexibility, which are crucial for environmental consciousness and effective learning.The sustainable material selection methodology includes:

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Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) Integration: Students use simplified LCA tools to evaluate the environmental impact of materials across their entire lifecycle.

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Material Sustainability Index: A custom-developed index rates materials based on factors such as recyclability, energy intensity of production, and scarcity.

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Local Sourcing Emphasis: Priority is given to locally sourced materials to reduce transportation emissions and support local economies.

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Biomimicry Principles: Students are encouraged to explore bio-inspired materials and designs, learning from nature's sustainable solutions.

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Recycled and Upcycled Materials: The incorporation of recycled materials is mandatory in non-critical components, teaching students about circular economy principles.
This comprehensive approach ensures that students consider sustainability at every stage of the design process.Figure 9 shows the simplified geometry model used for simulation purposes, representing a more streamlined version of the vehicle design optimized for computational analysis.

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Biomimicry Principles: Students are encouraged to explore bio-inspired materials and designs, learning from nature's sustainable solutions.

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Recycled and Upcycled Materials: The incorporation of recycled materials is mandatory in non-critical components, teaching students about circular economy principles.
This comprehensive approach ensures that students consider sustainability at every stage of the design process.Figure 9 shows the simplified geometry model used for simulation purposes, representing a more streamlined version of the vehicle design optimized for computational analysis.

Sustainable Material Selection Methodology
We have developed a comprehensive methodology for selecting sustainable materials:

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Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) Integration: Students use simplified LCA tools to evaluate the environmental impact of materials across their entire lifecycle [90][91][92].

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Material Sustainability Index: A custom-developed index that rates materials based on factors such as recyclability, energy intensity of production, and scarcity.

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Local Sourcing Emphasis: Priority is given to locally sourced materials to reduce transportation emissions and support local economies.

Sustainable Material Selection Methodology
We have developed a comprehensive methodology for selecting sustainable materials: • Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) Integration: Students use simplified LCA tools to evaluate the environmental impact of materials across their entire lifecycle [90][91][92].

•
Material Sustainability Index: A custom-developed index that rates materials based on factors such as recyclability, energy intensity of production, and scarcity.

•
Local Sourcing Emphasis: Priority is given to locally sourced materials to reduce transportation emissions and support local economies.

•
Biomimicry Principles: Students are encouraged to explore bio-inspired materials and designs, learning from nature's sustainable solutions.

•
Recycled and Upcycled Materials: The incorporation of recycled materials is mandatory in non-critical components, teaching students about circular economy principles.

Modular Design Approach
Our modular design approach facilitates learning and experimentation: • Standardized Interfaces: All major components use standardized interfaces, allowing for the easy swapping and testing of different designs.

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Plug-and-Play Subsystems: Key subsystems (e.g., battery packs, motor controllers) are designed as self-contained units that can be easily replaced or upgraded.

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Scalable Architecture: The EV prototype's architecture is scalable, allowing students to start with basic configurations and progressively add complexity [93,94].

Educational Value Enhancement
The combination of sustainable material selection and modular design significantly enhances the educational value; Figure 10 illustrates the fully assembled suspension system of the electric vehicle prototype, demonstrating the integration of various components such as springs, dampers, and linkages, and Figure 11 depicts the process or result of mounting the wheels onto the chassis of the electric vehicle prototype, showcasing an important step in the physical assembly of the vehicle.

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Hands-on Sustainability Learning: Students directly experience the challenges and benefits of sustainable design.

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Iterative Learning: The modular approach allows students to easily test different configurations, promoting experiential learning.

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Systems Thinking: Students learn to consider both component-level sustainability and system-level performance.

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Future-Proofing Skills: This approach prepares students for the growing emphasis on sustainability in the automotive industry.

Educational Value Enhancement
The combination of sustainable material selection and modular design significantly enhances the educational value; Figure 10 illustrates the fully assembled suspension system of the electric vehicle prototype, demonstrating the integration of various components such as springs, dampers, and linkages, and Figure 11 depicts the process or result of mounting the wheels onto the chassis of the electric vehicle prototype, showcasing an important step in the physical assembly of the vehicle.

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Hands-on Sustainability Learning: Students directly experience the challenges and benefits of sustainable design.

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Iterative Learning: The modular approach allows students to easily test different configurations, promoting experiential learning.

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Systems Thinking: Students learn to consider both component-level sustainability and system-level performance.

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Future-Proofing Skills: This approach prepares students for the growing emphasis on sustainability in the automotive industry.

Educational Value Enhancement
The combination of sustainable material selection and modular design significantly enhances the educational value; Figure 10 illustrates the fully assembled suspension system of the electric vehicle prototype, demonstrating the integration of various components such as springs, dampers, and linkages, and Figure 11 depicts the process or result of mounting the wheels onto the chassis of the electric vehicle prototype, showcasing an important step in the physical assembly of the vehicle.

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Hands-on Sustainability Learning: Students directly experience the challenges and benefits of sustainable design.

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Iterative Learning: The modular approach allows students to easily test different configurations, promoting experiential learning.

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Systems Thinking: Students learn to consider both component-level sustainability and system-level performance.

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Future-Proofing Skills: This approach prepares students for the growing emphasis on sustainability in the automotive industry.

Safety Integration and Validation Protocols
The security feature integration method in our educational EV prototype project is comprehensive and multi-layered: 1.
Layered Safety Architecture: We implement multiple, redundant safety systems that mimic industry best practices.This includes primary, secondary, and tertiary safety measures for critical systems like the battery management system, drive controls, and passenger protection features.2.
FMEA in Design Process: Failure Mode and Effects Analysis is integrated throughout the design process.Students systematically identify potential failure modes, their causes, and effects, then develop mitigation strategies.This proactive approach helps anticipate and address safety issues before they occur.

3.
Smart Battery Management System (BMS): Our custom-designed BMS includes advanced safety features such as: • Real-time cell monitoring for voltage, temperature, and current; • Predictive fault detection using machine learning algorithms; • Automatic cell balancing to prevent overcharging and extend battery life; • Thermal management with active cooling systems.

4.
High-Voltage Isolation System: This system ensures safe handling of high-voltage components and includes: • Continuous insulation monitoring; • Automatic power disconnection in case of faults;

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Clearly marked high-voltage zones and safety interlocks.

5.
Active Safety Systems Integration: Students implement and test various active safety systems, • Traction control and stability control systems; • Emergency braking systems with pedestrian detection; • Lane departure warning and assistance systems.
By incorporating these advanced safety features, students gain hands-on experience with state-of-the-art EV safety technologies while ensuring the prototype meets rigorous safety standards.

Safety Education and Implementation
Safety considerations are woven throughout the curriculum:

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Safety-First Design Philosophy: All design decisions are evaluated through a safety lens first [95].

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Regular Safety Workshops: Conducted by industry experts to keep students updated on the latest EV safety standards and practices [96].

Novel Safety Features and Testing Methods
We have developed several innovative safety features and testing methods: • AI-Enhanced Fault Prediction System: A machine learning model that predicts potential faults based on real-time sensor data.

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Modular Safety Interlock System: A reconfigurable system allowing students to design and test various safety interlock strategies.• Augmented Reality-Assisted Assembly Verification: An AR system that guides and verifies the correct assembly of safety-critical components.
• Biometric Driver Monitoring System: An advanced system to monitor driver alertness and take appropriate safety actions.

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Gamified Safety Protocol Adherence: A point-based system rewarding students for consistently following safety protocols during the project.

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By implementing these comprehensive approaches to sustainable design, modularity, safety integration, and validation, we ensure that students gain practical, industryrelevant experience while prioritizing safety and sustainability in EV development.

Resource Limitations and Budget Constraints
One of the primary challenges faced by educational institutions and student teams working on EV prototype projects is the limitation of resources and budget constraints.Developing an EV prototype requires significant financial investment in components, materials, and manufacturing processes.Educational institutions may have limited funding allocated for such projects, which can restrict the scope and scale of the prototype development.To overcome these challenges, student teams can explore alternative funding sources, such as grants, sponsorships, and partnerships with industry or government organizations.They can also focus on cost-effective design choices, such as using off-the-shelf components, repurposing existing resources, and optimizing the design for manufacturing and assembly.

Technical Complexities and Skill Gaps
EV prototype projects involve a wide range of technical complexities, from battery management systems and power electronics to advanced materials and manufacturing techniques.Students may face challenges in understanding and applying these complex concepts, especially if they have limited prior exposure to EV technologies.Additionally, the rapid pace of technological advancement in the EV industry can make it difficult for students and educational institutions to stay current with the latest developments.
To bridge these skill gaps, educational institutions can offer targeted training programs, workshops, and seminars on EV technologies and their applications [99].They can also encourage students to participate in online courses, webinars, and conferences to gain exposure to cutting-edge research and industry practices.Collaboration with industry experts and mentors can also help students navigate technical complexities and develop the necessary skills for success in EV prototype projects.

Time Management and Project Planning
Effective time management and project planning are critical for the successful completion of educational EV prototype projects.Students must balance their academic coursework, extracurricular activities, and personal commitments with the demands of the project.Poor time management can lead to delays, missed deadlines, and suboptimal project outcomes [100].To mitigate these challenges, student teams should adopt a structured approach to project planning and execution.This includes breaking down the project into smaller, manageable tasks, setting realistic timelines and milestones, and assigning clear roles and responsibilities to team members.Regular progress reviews and open communication among team members can help identify and address potential bottlenecks and ensure the project stays on track.

Collaboration with Industry Partners
Collaboration with industry partners can provide valuable opportunities for educational EV prototype projects, but it also presents challenges.Industry partners can offer technical expertise, access to resources and facilities, and real-world insights into EV development processes.However, aligning the goals and expectations of educational institutions and industry partners can be difficult, as they may have different priorities and constraints.To foster successful collaborations, educational institutions should establish clear communication channels and partnership agreements with industry partners.These agreements should outline the scope of the collaboration, the roles and responsibilities of each party, and the expected outcomes and deliverables.Regular meetings and progress updates can help ensure that the collaboration remains aligned with the project's objectives and that any issues or concerns are addressed promptly.

Incorporating Emerging Technologies and Trends
The EV industry is characterized by rapid technological advancements and emerging trends, such as autonomous driving, wireless charging, and vehicle-to-grid integration.Incorporating these emerging technologies and trends into educational EV prototype projects can provide students with valuable exposure to cutting-edge developments and prepare them for future careers in the industry.However, integrating these technologies can also present challenges, as they may require additional technical expertise, resources, and infrastructure.Educational institutions should carefully evaluate the feasibility and relevance of incorporating emerging technologies into their EV prototype projects, considering factors such as student readiness, curriculum alignment, and long-term sustainability.To address these challenges, educational institutions can partner with technology providers, research organizations, and industry experts to gain access to the necessary knowledge and resources.They can also encourage students to explore these emerging technologies through independent research projects, capstone assignments, and participation in innovation competitions.

Future Directions and Research Opportunities
The future of educational EV prototype development holds exciting possibilities that could revolutionize both engineering education and sustainable transportation.By integrating cutting-edge technologies and innovative approaches, we can create a new paradigm for hands-on learning and vehicle design.One promising avenue is the incorporation of biometric sensors and AI-driven adaptive systems, which could personalize the learning experience and provide real-time feedback based on students' cognitive states and performance.This could be complemented by immersive virtual reality environments that enable collaborative design across geographical boundaries, allowing students to work together on complex prototypes in a shared virtual space.Pushing the boundaries of materials science, we envision the use of bioengineered components and self-healing materials inspired by natural processes, potentially leading to more sustainable and durable EV designs.The application of quantum computing algorithms could dramatically accelerate the optimization of EV systems and enable the discovery of novel materials for next-generation batteries and lightweight structures.Furthermore, exploring the use of swarm robotics for modular EV assembly could result in highly adaptable prototypes that can reconfigure themselves for different terrains or use cases.These forward-thinking approaches not only enhance the educational value of EV prototypes but also have the potential to drive innovation in the broader field of electric vehicle design and manufacturing.By pursuing these research directions, educational institutions can provide students with unparalleled learning experiences while contributing to groundbreaking advancements in sustainable transportation technology.

Conclusions
The design and fabrication of educational electric vehicle (EV) prototypes have emerged as a powerful approach to preparing engineering students for careers in the rapidly growing EV industry.This comprehensive review has explored the key components and systems in modern EVs, the design and fabrication methodologies employed in educational EV prototype projects, the impact of these projects on engineering education, the challenges and opportunities they present, and the future directions and research opportunities in this field.

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Hands-on learning experiences through EV prototype projects help students develop practical skills, problem-solving abilities, and a deep understanding of EV technologies.

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Engaging in the design and fabrication of EV prototypes exposes students to real-world engineering challenges and enables them to apply theoretical concepts to practical situations.

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Educational EV prototype projects foster interdisciplinary collaboration, teamwork, and project management skills, which are highly valued by employers in the EV industry.
The findings of this review have significant implications for engineering education and the EV industry.Educational institutions that integrate EV prototype projects into their curricula are better positioned to produce graduates with the knowledge, skills, and experience needed to excel in the EV sector.By aligning their programs with industry needs and providing students with hands-on learning opportunities, these institutions can contribute to the development of a highly skilled and innovative workforce for the EV industry.Furthermore, the review has identified several challenges and opportunities associated with educational EV prototype projects, such as resource limitations and budget constraints, technical complexities and skill gaps, and the need for collaboration with industry partners.Addressing these challenges and leveraging the opportunities will require concerted efforts from educational institutions, industry stakeholders, and policymakers.By working together to support and enhance educational EV prototype projects, these stakeholders can help bridge the gap between academia and industry, driving innovation and progress in the EV sector.
The future directions and research opportunities outlined in this review provide a roadmap for the continued evolution and improvement of educational EV prototype projects.Key areas for future research and development include integrating advanced EV technologies, fostering collaborative projects with industry and research institutions, expanding EV prototype projects to other educational levels, conducting longitudinal studies on the impact of these projects, and addressing diversity and inclusion in EV engineering education.This comprehensive review has demonstrated the vital role of educational EV prototype projects in preparing engineering students for careers in the EV industry and driving innovation in the transportation sector.The insights and recommendations provided in this review can inform the development of future research and educational initiatives, helping to ensure that engineering education remains aligned with the evolving needs of the EV industry.As the world continues to transition towards sustainable transportation solutions, the importance of educational EV prototype projects will only continue to grow.By investing in these projects and supporting the development of a skilled and diverse workforce for the EV industry, educational institutions, industry partners, and policymakers can contribute to a more sustainable, innovative, and equitable future for transportation.
visually represents the significant environmental benefits of EVs.It illustrates how EVs contribute to reduced CO 2 emissions, decreased air pollution, and lower overall energy consumption compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles.The figure also highlights the potential for EVs to integrate with renewable energy sources, further enhancing their positive environmental impact.World Electr.Veh.J. 2024, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Major milestone in the history of battery electric vehicles.Figure 3. Major milestone in the history of battery electric vehicles.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Major milestone in the history of battery electric vehicles.Figure 3. Major milestone in the history of battery electric vehicles.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Predicted increase in number of electric vehicles.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Predicted increase in number of electric vehicles.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Predicted increase in number of electric vehicles.

4. 2 . 1 .
Advanced CAD Tools and Simulation Software We utilize a suite of industry-standard and custom-developed tools for comprehensive EV modeling and simulation [82-84]:

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Setup of initial conditions and analysis setting.

Figure 7
displays the results of the crash test simulation, showing the total deformation of the vehicle chassis and the wall after the simulated collision.The color gradient represents the extent of deformation, with red indicating areas of maximum displacement and blue showing minimal movement.The chassis exhibits controlled deformation in the front crumple zone, while the passenger compartment (shown in cooler colors) maintains its structural integrity, demonstrating the effectiveness of the safety design.•MATLAB/Simulink: For system-level modeling and control algorithm development.

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Setup of initial conditions and analysis setting.

Figure 7
displays the results of the crash test simulation, showing the total deformation of the vehicle chassis and the wall after the simulated collision.The color gradient represents the extent of deformation, with red indicating areas of maximum displacement and blue showing minimal movement.The chassis exhibits controlled deformation in the front crumple zone, while the passenger compartment (shown in cooler colors) maintains its structural integrity, demonstrating the effectiveness of the safety design.•MATLAB/Simulink: For system-level modeling and control algorithm development.

Figure 7 .
Figure 7.Total deformation of the chassis and wall after collision.

Figure 7 .
Figure 7.Total deformation of the chassis and wall after collision.

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Motor Selection and Modeling: Students use MATLAB/Simulink to model various motor types (e.g., PMSM, induction motors) and select the optimal motor for their design based on efficiency, torque-speed characteristics, and cost [85].• Battery Pack Design: Using our custom Battery Pack Designer tool, students model battery cell arrangements, considering factors like capacity, voltage, thermal management, and pack geometry [86].• Power Electronics Simulation: LTspice is used to design and simulate power electronic circuits, including motor drives and DC-DC converters.• Energy Management Strategies: Students develop and test various energy management algorithms using Simulink, optimizing for factors like range, performance, and battery longevity [87].• Regenerative Braking Simulation: A custom Simulink model allows students to design and optimize regenerative braking systems, analyzing energy recovery under various driving conditions.

Figure 11 .
Figure 11.Wheel mounting on the chassis.

Figure 11 .
Figure 11.Wheel mounting on the chassis.Figure 11.Wheel mounting on the chassis.

Figure 11 .
Figure 11.Wheel mounting on the chassis.Figure 11.Wheel mounting on the chassis.

Table 1 .
Key components and systems in modern electric vehicles.
Transfers power from the electric motor to the wheels Single-speed reduction gearboxes are common Multi-speed transmissions may be used in high-performance EVs
[79]alable Complexity: Projects start simple and progressively increase in complexity, allowing students to tackle more challenging aspects as their skills develop[79].
• Constraint-Based Design: Students work within realistic constraints (e.g., budget, time, available materials), simulating real-world project conditions.• Iterative Development: The process encourages multiple design iterations, teaching students to refine their ideas based on testing and feedback.• Documentation and Communication: Students learn to document their design process and communicate technical information effectively, crucial industry skills [80,81].