Challenges and Possibilities of ICT-Mediated Assessment in Virtual Teaching and Learning Processes

: The transformations in educational environments due to the immersion of information and communication technologies (ICT) make it necessary to analyze the limits and possibilities of the assessment of the virtual training process. This paper presents an analysis of the meanings of ICT-mediated assessment, establishing what kinds of knowledge are suitable for this type of evaluation, and the challenges and possibilities of virtual tools. For this, we present a systematic review of ICT-mediated evaluation and assessment according to the educational paradigms and their implementation. We highlight that contemporary pedagogical models and their implementation in ICT mediation tools show a trend towards quantitative and summative valuation. The commonly used learning management systems (LMS) include several types of questions oriented to quantitative evaluation, with multiple-choice being the most common. However, new technological approaches like gamiﬁcation, virtual reality and mobile learning open new assessment possibilities. The ICT educational platforms and new technologies demand new skills for all educational actors, such as digital literacy.


Introduction
Assessment is the action of assigning a value to generate a judgment on the validity of an action, a process, or a relationship according to socially validated parameters. In education, evaluation mediates the relationships between teachers and students, and between the educational standards regulated at the international and national level and concrete educational practices [1]. In this sense, the evaluative action represents an institutional framework that reflects a place of power in the pedagogical relationship, usually associated with educational quality [2,3]. In this way, educational assessment guarantees the culmination of access to knowledge and, at the same time, is an observable and quantifiable element that facilitates measurement and comparison with others. Educational assessment and evaluation set a standard benchmark that attempts to infer the degree of progress based on these standards [4].
Currently, it is possible to distinguish three major perspectives of educational assessment: the first has an objective and quantifiable character [5]; the second one is hermeneutic and dialectic [6]; and the third is a critical view that questions the relationship between teachers and students [7]. In a particular way, these perspectives locate the relationships among the actors of the teaching process and the way of understanding knowledge and training purposes. Given the evaluative centrality in the teaching 1.
What are the meanings of ICT-mediated assessment? 2.
What kind of knowledge is susceptible to ICT-mediated assessment? 3.
What are the assessment possibilities offered by the current ICT platforms?

Methodology
The study was conducted using a mixed methodology divided into two phases. Initially, we performed a systematic review of ICT-mediated evaluation and assessment. From this review, we established trends of ICT-mediated assessment according to actors, purposes of assessment, fields of knowledge, educational levels, digital tools, and platforms. In the second phase of this study, we analyzed the most used platforms for teaching and learning mediated by ICT and their possibilities for online assessment.
For the systematic review, we used the PRISMA methodology [18]. The search Equation (1) includes terms related to ICT-mediated learning-teaching processes such as: "eLearning", "virtual education", "online education", "online learning", and "mobile learning". Additionally, Equation (1) includes the terms "evaluation" and "assessment" to limit the search to works related to following and scoring the learning process.
(("eLearning" OR "virtual education" OR "online education" OR "online learning" OR "mobile learning") AND ("evaluation" OR "assessment")) OR (e-assessment OR eassessment) (1) This review used three databases: SAGE, SCOPUS, and Taylor&Francis, selected by their high number of journals in the field of social sciences and humanities. The search was limited to research articles published between 2016 to 2020. Conferences proceedings, book chapters, and pre-print papers were not included in the results. Figure 1 describes the step by step of PRISMA methodology.
Future Internet 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22 (("eLearning" OR "virtual education" OR "online education" OR "online learning" OR "mobile learning") AND ("evaluation" OR "assessment")) OR (eassessment OR eassessment) (1) This review used three databases: SAGE, SCOPUS, and Taylor&Francis, selected by their high number of journals in the field of social sciences and humanities. The search was limited to research articles published between 2016 to 2020. Conferences proceedings, book chapters, and pre-print papers were not included in the results. Figure 1 describes the step by step of PRISMA methodology. Using the search Equation (1), we obtained 541 articles in SCOPUS, 302 in Taylor&Francis, and 92 in SAGE Journals. Then, duplicated records were identified using Mendeley, obtaining 863 articles. We screened the titles and abstracts of these articles to select only documents closely related to ICTmediated assessment. Table 1 summarized the inclusion and exclusion criteria employed for paper selection. We excluded 656 documents from the title and abstract screening. Most of the excluded papers report evaluation of online platforms or digital tools. It was also common to find the design of courses, online platforms, or digital contents without details about assessment approaches. Then, 207 full-text articles were assessed, considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria of Table 1 again, finding that some text did not meet these criteria and were not detected in the initial screening due to the lack of information in their titles and abstracts. Finally, the systematic review included 150 documents. This study established ten categories to classify the research papers and synthesize the trends. These categories are described in detail in the results.  Using the search Equation (1), we obtained 541 articles in SCOPUS, 302 in Taylor&Francis, and 92 in SAGE Journals. Then, duplicated records were identified using Mendeley, obtaining 863 articles. We screened the titles and abstracts of these articles to select only documents closely related to ICT-mediated assessment. Table 1 summarized the inclusion and exclusion criteria employed for paper selection. We excluded 656 documents from the title and abstract screening. Most of the excluded papers report evaluation of online platforms or digital tools. It was also common to find the design of courses, online platforms, or digital contents without details about assessment approaches. Then, 207 full-text articles were assessed, considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria of Table 1 again, finding that some text did not meet these criteria and were not detected in the initial screening due to the lack of information in their titles and abstracts. Finally, the systematic review included 150 documents. This study established ten categories to classify the research papers and synthesize the trends. These categories are described in detail in the results.
In the second phase of this study, we analyzed the most used ICT platforms for teaching and learning processes. We included four LMS (learning management systems), widely used in higher education [19]: Moodle, DOKEOS, Caroline, and SAKAI. Additionally, we incorporated Microsoft Teams and Google Classroom. In each of these platforms, the available tools for evaluation are analyzed. We identify limitations and possibilities comparing these LMS with the digital tools and platforms detected in the systematic review.

Results
This section describes the results of the systematic review and comparison of LMS. First, we present the categories for the quantitative synthesis and meta-analysis of selected papers. These categories are related with the research questions of this study. The analysis of the results and the answers to each of the research questions are presented in the discussion section.

Systematic Review of ICT-Mediated Assessment
According to the selected papers and the first analysis of these texts, we defined ten categories related to the three research questions. Table 2 presents the relation between the categories and the research questions and the type of analysis used for each one. Figure 2 presents the distribution of the selected documents per year of publications. For 2016, we obtained 34 documents using the inclusion and exclusion criteria of Table 2. The number of documents was the highest for 2017 (38 research articles). Additionally, we retrieved 24 documents for 2018 and 2019, respectively; and, 30 documents for 2020. Figure 3 shows the distribution of retrieved research articles per continent. The highest number of publications were obtained from Europe (53 documents). In this region, the countries with more ICT-mediated assessment publications were England and Spain, with 15 and 14 articles, respectively. We retrieved 50 documents from Asia; the country with more publications in this continent was China with 12 articles. On the other side, we obtained 21 articles from North America, finding the largest publication in the United States of America (19 documents). From Africa, Oceania, and South America, we obtained 13, 9, and 4 research articles, respectively.
The selected papers present descriptive, experimental, perception, case studies, and some works describing technological development, such as digital tools, platforms, web, or mobile applications. Figure 4 shows the percentages of documents in each type of study. Descriptive studies analyze how the use of digital tools or platforms affect student performance [20][21][22][23][24], describe online course designs and their assessment components [25,26], as well as present qualitative analyses of the possibilities and limitations of virtual assessment [27][28][29][30][31][32][33], and analysis of reliability and validity [34,35]. Of the selected articles, 39 correspond to descriptive studies. On the other hand, experimental studies (31 selected articles) compare the performance of the students using ICT-mediated assessment strategies [36][37][38][39][40]; some of these studies use control groups that develop the assessment activities as usual in the course [41][42][43][44][45][46][47], for example, in a face-to-face setting [48][49][50]. We also found 34 studies of perception, which seek to determine the acceptability, engagement, opinion, and valuation of digital tools, platforms, or ICT-mediated assessment strategies from students and teachers (e.g., [51][52][53][54]). Other articles present the design and implementation of digital tools, web or mobile platforms, or software supporting ICT-mediated assessment; 40 articles were found in this category (e.g., [55][56][57][58]). Finally, the selected articles include 6 case studies, which use few data or a small sample population to analyze online evaluation [59][60][61].     The selected papers present descriptive, experimental, perception, case studies, and some works describing technological development, such as digital tools, platforms, web, or mobile applications. Figure 4 shows the percentages of documents in each type of study. Descriptive studies analyze how the use of digital tools or platforms affect student performance [20][21][22][23][24], describe online course designs and their assessment components [25,26], as well as present qualitative analyses of the possibilities and limitations of virtual assessment [27][28][29][30][31][32][33], and analysis of reliability and validity [34,35]. Of the selected articles, 39 correspond to descriptive studies. On the other hand, experimental studies (31 selected articles) compare the performance of the students using ICT-mediated assessment strategies [36][37][38][39][40]; some of these studies use control groups that develop the assessment activities as usual in the course [41][42][43][44][45][46][47], for example, in a face-to-face setting [48][49][50]. We also found 34 studies of perception, which seek to determine the acceptability, engagement, opinion, and valuation of digital tools, platforms, or ICT-mediated assessment strategies from students and teachers (e.g., [51][52][53][54]). Other articles present the design and implementation of digital tools, web or mobile platforms, or software supporting ICT-mediated assessment; 40 articles were found in this category (e.g., [55][56][57][58]). Finally, the selected articles include 6 case studies, which use few data or a small sample population to analyze online evaluation [59][60][61].   To answer the question about the meanings and interpretation of ICT-meditated assessment, we establish three categories ( Table 2). The first one determines the actors who are given relevance in research about ICT-mediated assessment. From this category, we quantified how many studies are oriented only to a single actor (i.e., students or teachers) and how many consider both perspectives. Figure 5 presents the percentages for studies considering students, teachers, or both.
Student-centered works seek to measure students' performance or progress once ICT-mediated assessments are implemented and establish their opinions and perceptions about this assessment approach. Of the selected articles, 115 are focused on the student as the main actor in the research. On the other hand, there are few studies focused exclusively on teachers. In this systematic review, only eleven articles were oriented to the teachers. Some of these studies are aimed at: decreasing the possibility of copying or other types of misconduct during evaluations [62,63]; facilitating the grading of written texts [64,65] or automating this task [57,63]; reducing the bias of the grading process [40]; as well as, knowing the opinions and perceptions of teachers regarding the use of online assessment activities [66][67][68].
Additionally, some studies seek to analyze both perspectives (24 papers in this review). Examples of these researches include the adaptation of assessment activities to great scale courses [69]; the implementation of strategies based on peer-assessment [30,70], collaborative task [71], gamification [56], e-portfolios [72], online laboratories [73], or mobile device [52]; and, the impact evaluation of automatic grading tools in the training process [74]. We also found studies about the perception [75] and the need of multi-literacy skills to design and implement digital courses for teachers and to develop the courses for students [25,73].   To answer the question about the meanings and interpretation of ICT-meditated assessment, we establish three categories ( Table 2). The first one determines the actors who are given relevance in research about ICT-mediated assessment. From this category, we quantified how many studies are oriented only to a single actor (i.e., students or teachers) and how many consider both perspectives. Figure 5 presents the percentages for studies considering students, teachers, or both.  To answer the question about the meanings and interpretation of ICT-meditated assessment, we establish three categories ( Table 2). The first one determines the actors who are given relevance in research about ICT-mediated assessment. From this category, we quantified how many studies are oriented only to a single actor (i.e., students or teachers) and how many consider both perspectives. Figure 5 presents the percentages for studies considering students, teachers, or both.
Student-centered works seek to measure students' performance or progress once ICT-mediated assessments are implemented and establish their opinions and perceptions about this assessment approach. Of the selected articles, 115 are focused on the student as the main actor in the research. On the other hand, there are few studies focused exclusively on teachers. In this systematic review, only eleven articles were oriented to the teachers. Some of these studies are aimed at: decreasing the possibility of copying or other types of misconduct during evaluations [62,63]; facilitating the grading of written texts [64,65] or automating this task [57,63]; reducing the bias of the grading process [40]; as well as, knowing the opinions and perceptions of teachers regarding the use of online assessment activities [66][67][68].
Additionally, some studies seek to analyze both perspectives (24 papers in this review). Examples of these researches include the adaptation of assessment activities to great scale courses [69]; the implementation of strategies based on peer-assessment [30,70], collaborative task [71], gamification [56], e-portfolios [72], online laboratories [73], or mobile device [52]; and, the impact evaluation of automatic grading tools in the training process [74]. We also found studies about the perception [75] and the need of multi-literacy skills to design and implement digital courses for teachers and to develop the courses for students [25,73].   Student-centered works seek to measure students' performance or progress once ICT-mediated assessments are implemented and establish their opinions and perceptions about this assessment approach. Of the selected articles, 115 are focused on the student as the main actor in the research. On the other hand, there are few studies focused exclusively on teachers. In this systematic review, only eleven articles were oriented to the teachers. Some of these studies are aimed at: decreasing the possibility of copying or other types of misconduct during evaluations [62,63]; facilitating the grading of written texts [64,65] or automating this task [57,63]; reducing the bias of the grading process [40]; as well as, knowing the opinions and perceptions of teachers regarding the use of online assessment activities [66][67][68].
Additionally, some studies seek to analyze both perspectives (24 papers in this review). Examples of these researches include the adaptation of assessment activities to great scale courses [69]; the implementation of strategies based on peer-assessment [30,70], collaborative task [71], gamification [56], e-portfolios [72], online laboratories [73], or mobile device [52]; and, the impact evaluation of automatic grading tools in the training process [74]. We also found studies about the perception [75] and the need of multi-literacy skills to design and implement digital courses for teachers and to develop the courses for students [25,73].
The second category asks what is being evaluated: contents, skills, or outcomes. Figure 6 shows the percentages for each type of assessed element. Case studies and perception papers were not considered for computing these percentages since these usually do not include details about what is being evaluated. Additionally, 12 papers cannot be categorized. About skills evaluation, 48 papers present ICT-mediated assessment tools or strategies. The evaluated skills include writing [22,48,70,74,76,77], communication in foreign languages [38,63,78,79], programing [40,45,80,81], problem solving [37,82], critical thinking [78,83,84], pedagogy [20,85], reading [86] skills, and others. A total of 45 papers are oriented to knowledge or contents evaluations, and only three papers to outcome assessment.
Finally, we analyzed the purposes of the ICT-mediated assessment. Several papers focus on measuring student performance according to specific knowledge and skills (e.g., [32,51,59]). However, less traditional perspectives are also found in the literature, such as those oriented to formative evaluation (e.g., [43,44,68]). Formative assessment is a student-centered approach that part of the needs and capabilities of students to design the learning process [44], where the effective feedback in the evaluation activities plays a central role [59], as well as the student motivation for the development of activities [24]. In the formative assessment, results are used to know the progress and identified factors that affect the learning process [24]. Formative assessment studies include developing and applying strategies for the customization of assessment activities according to the student's needs and levels [30,36,55,63,87,88]. Other works consider the assessment as an instrument to increase student engagement in the courses. Here we can see the implementation of tools like e-portfolios [20,21], mobile learning [89], and peer-assessment strategies (e.g., [22,49,71]). Peer-assessment involves both the students and teachers in the grading process. This assessment approach is useful for massive open online courses (MOOC) [49,90], but also in traditional learning settings since it improves the student engagement in its learning process [91]. Peer-assessment creates a collaborative environment [71]. However, some authors question their reliability and validity [22,34] due to the effect of personal interest in the grading [40]. The second category asks what is being evaluated: contents, skills, or outcomes. Figure 6 shows the percentages for each type of assessed element. Case studies and perception papers were not considered for computing these percentages since these usually do not include details about what is being evaluated. Additionally, 12 papers cannot be categorized. About skills evaluation, 48 papers present ICT-mediated assessment tools or strategies. The evaluated skills include writing [22,48,70,74,76,77], communication in foreign languages [38,63,78,79], programing [40,45,80,81], problem solving [37,82], critical thinking [78,83,84], pedagogy [20,85], reading [86] skills, and others. A total of 45 papers are oriented to knowledge or contents evaluations, and only three papers to outcome assessment. Finally, we analyzed the purposes of the ICT-mediated assessment. Several papers focus on measuring student performance according to specific knowledge and skills (e.g., [32,51,59]). However, less traditional perspectives are also found in the literature, such as those oriented to formative evaluation (e.g., [43,44,68]). Formative assessment is a student-centered approach that part of the needs and capabilities of students to design the learning process [44], where the effective feedback in the evaluation activities plays a central role [59], as well as the student motivation for the development of activities [24]. In the formative assessment, results are used to know the progress and identified factors that affect the learning process [24]. Formative assessment studies include developing and applying strategies for the customization of assessment activities according to the Contents 47% Skills 50% Outcomes 3% Figure 6. Elements considered for ICT-mediated assessment.

What Kind of Knowledge Is Susceptible to ICT-Mediated Assessment?
To answer the question about the kind of knowledge that is susceptible to ICT-mediated assessment, we identified both the fields of knowledge and training levels ( Table 2) to which the selected studies are oriented. Some of the articles could not be categorized, given the lack of student characterization. The categorization of the field of knowledge is based on the subject or degree program to which the students under study belong. The fields of knowledge included engineering, science, foreign language, education, health, economic and administrative science, art and humanities, and social sciences. Figure 7 shows the number of papers categorized according to these fields of knowledge. Students belong to engineering degrees were included in 32 papers. Another frequent field of knowledge (21 articles) is sciences (i.e., physics, biology, exact sciences). Foreign language is also a field of interest to incorporated ICT-mediated assessment, mainly in English as a second language (e.g., [48,76]). The area with the least number of studies (only three papers) is the social sciences [26,64,92]. Figure 7 shows a trend towards the use and development of ICT-mediated assessments in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math). We found 11 articles that develop higher education studies, 22 oriented to k-12 (primary and secondary) education, and 17 that could not be categorized. fields of knowledge. Students belong to engineering degrees were included in 32 papers. Another frequent field of knowledge (21 articles) is sciences (i.e., physics, biology, exact sciences). Foreign language is also a field of interest to incorporated ICT-mediated assessment, mainly in English as a second language (e.g., [48,76]). The area with the least number of studies (only three papers) is the social sciences [26,64,92]. Figure 7 shows a trend towards the use and development of ICT-mediated assessments in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math). We found 11 articles that develop higher education studies, 22 oriented to k-12 (primary and secondary) education, and 17 that could not be categorized.

What Are the Assessment Possibilities Offered by the Current ICT Platforms?
We establish two categories to answer the question about the ICT-mediated assessment possibilities (Table 2). First, we analyzed the digital tools and strategies to incorporate ICT-mediated evaluation. Then, we analyze the pedagogical approaches considered in the studies.
From the review, we can identify several technological tools that enhance the assessment process, for instance, the use of e-portfolios and mobile devices. Education programs use E-portfolios for teacher training. However, these have the potential to be used in several fields of knowledge [20,21,93]. Students build E-portfolios to demonstrate skills acquired in the training process. One of its advantages is the opportunity for constant monitoring of student progress, allowing the personalization of the learning process [20,21]. While E-portfolios are assessment instruments, they also allow students to develop documentation and reporting skills [93]. However, its implementation requires teachers and students to use several digital tools, highlighting the importance of digital literacy [20,21].
On the other hand, mobile learning is a trend in educational research that seeks to exploit the ubiquity of mobile devices, such as cell phones and tablets, to encourage and enhance learning. The use of mobile devices for learning processes allows the development of evaluation activities of various types. These may include the traditional multiple-choice questionnaires [94], but also the construction of multimedia material (photographs, audios, and videos) to evidence the appropriation of knowledge and development of skills [94]. Teachers can promote a collaborative environment using mobile devices [94] but also can use these devices to develop outdoor assessment activities [89,95], highlighting the possibility to evaluate at any time and any place [95]. A standard research question is the willingness and acceptability of students to use their mobile phones as assessment tools; the studies report both positive and negative perceptions [52,89,94,96,97].
Additionally, there are other strategies for the incorporation of ICT-mediated assessment in learning processes, such as self-assessment, peer-assessment, gamification, augmented reality, learning analytics, adaptive assessment, and automated assessment. Table 3 summarizes these key strategies and challenges.

What Are the Assessment Possibilities Offered by the Current ICT Platforms?
We establish two categories to answer the question about the ICT-mediated assessment possibilities (Table 2). First, we analyzed the digital tools and strategies to incorporate ICT-mediated evaluation. Then, we analyze the pedagogical approaches considered in the studies.
From the review, we can identify several technological tools that enhance the assessment process, for instance, the use of e-portfolios and mobile devices. Education programs use E-portfolios for teacher training. However, these have the potential to be used in several fields of knowledge [20,21,93]. Students build E-portfolios to demonstrate skills acquired in the training process. One of its advantages is the opportunity for constant monitoring of student progress, allowing the personalization of the learning process [20,21]. While E-portfolios are assessment instruments, they also allow students to develop documentation and reporting skills [93]. However, its implementation requires teachers and students to use several digital tools, highlighting the importance of digital literacy [20,21].
On the other hand, mobile learning is a trend in educational research that seeks to exploit the ubiquity of mobile devices, such as cell phones and tablets, to encourage and enhance learning. The use of mobile devices for learning processes allows the development of evaluation activities of various types. These may include the traditional multiple-choice questionnaires [94], but also the construction of multimedia material (photographs, audios, and videos) to evidence the appropriation of knowledge and development of skills [94]. Teachers can promote a collaborative environment using mobile devices [94] but also can use these devices to develop outdoor assessment activities [89,95], highlighting the possibility to evaluate at any time and any place [95]. A standard research question is the willingness and acceptability of students to use their mobile phones as assessment tools; the studies report both positive and negative perceptions [52,89,94,96,97].
Additionally, there are other strategies for the incorporation of ICT-mediated assessment in learning processes, such as self-assessment, peer-assessment, gamification, augmented reality, learning analytics, adaptive assessment, and automated assessment. Table 3 summarizes these key strategies and challenges. Table 3. Key strategies to incorporate ICT-mediated assessment into learning processes.

Strategy Samples Reference Description Challenges
Self-assessment [35,97] • Students are involved in their monitoring, evaluating their performance, and building learning plans.

•
Increase learning motivation and contributes to a better understanding. •

Requires further research to establish validity and impact on learners
Peer-assessment [22,30,34,40,49,60,70,90,98] • In addition to the tools mentioned above, the systematic review revealed several platforms and software developed or used to improve assessment activities. Table 4 summarizes some of the software and platforms identified in the review. Table 4. Software and platforms that support ICT-mediated assessment.

SOCRATIVE [44]
Web-based platform for quizzes EduZinc [55] Application to customized assessment activities according to the needs and skills of students ICT-FLAG [56] Formative assessment tool including learning analytics and gamification services CC-LR prototype [58] Collaborative complex learning resource personalized awareness and feedback system using learning analytics FAMLE [68] Formative assessment multimedia learning environment based on assessment tasks that measure performance, learning, and knowledge and display learning data to students and teachers MeuTutor [70] Intelligent tutoring system that allows monitoring the formative process MyMOOCSpace [71] Cloud-based mobile system for collaborative learning process KNOWLA [84] Knowledge assembly web-based interface allows creating and grading assessments. Students should assemble a set of scrambled fragments into a logical order BASS 1.0 [87] Web-based system to design, development and delivery assessment and feedback TCU-AMS [112] Open online assessment management system compatible with Open edX platform supporting traditional self-and peer-assessment.
DSLab [109] Web-based system with automatic assessment, feedback, interactive comparison between student solution and the correct solution COBLE [101] Competence-based learning environment allowing visual information about assessment to students LASSO [113] Learning About STEM Student Outcomes web-based platforms with assessment instruments in several disciplines LON-CAPA [114] Open-source platform allowing to create and develop assessment ESPE-eLearning [115] European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology e-learning portal for medical training English for International Trade and Business [116] Multimedia platform for Chinese EFL students including self-checking and feedback system Adobe Connect [98] Software for online training and web conferencing STACK [117] Open-source for randomization of questions, integrated into Moodle, with automatic feedback.
Oriented to mathematical and algebraic questions.
JACK [118] Computer assisted assessment platform, originally created for programing course. Currently, supporting several fields.
SANCHO [120] Client server application to support automatic evaluation of text Cloud-AWAS [105] Cloud Adapted Workflow e-Assessment System supports learning analytics, can be integrated into any LMS DEWIS [121] e-assessment system integrating embedded R code. Support statistical analysis assessment.
Finally, the last category classified the research documents according to the pedagogical approaches. We cluster the pedagogical model as traditional, nontraditional, and critical, as described in Table 5 [122][123][124]. Traditional pedagogical models are teacher-centered that use summative assessments to measure and to compare student performance [122]. Instead, nontraditional models (such as experimental, new-school, developmental and constructivist) are student-centered, teachers are facilitators of the learning process, and assessment is a tool for recognizing weaknesses and potentialities to enhance the learning process [123]. In educational research, there is also the critical pedagogical model where self-reflection and identifying their own potential and needs are the basis for the training process [124]. The papers were categorized into traditional and nontraditional approaches. The systematic review did not obtain any studies based on the critical pedagogical approach. Some evaluation strategies or tools were oriented to traditional and nontraditional approaches; therefore, they were grouped into one category. Figure 8 presents the distribution of the selected articles in the pedagogical models. A trend was identified towards traditional approaches that include summative assessments, which seek to measure student performance or knowledge.

LMS Evaluation Tools
We analyzed the characteristics and digital tools included in some commonly used LMS platforms. Table 6

LMS Evaluation Tools
We analyzed the characteristics and digital tools included in some commonly used LMS platforms. Table 6 summarizes the type of questions and general configuration included in Moodle, DOKEOS, Caroline, SAKAI, Microsoft Teams, and Google Classroom. These evaluation tools are characterized by different types of question configurations, which can construct quizzes and questionnaires. These LMS evidence that technologies form an ecosystem of their own that transgresses the relationships between actors and knowledge. In this sense, evaluative practices are also affected in this context, inviting other readings and sensitivities. These platforms alter the synchronic relationship, making time and sequential access to content more flexible.

Discussion
We can observe that the meaning of assessment has, on the one hand, a traditional approach, where evaluation is used to measure performance and to standardize the knowledge. However, on the other hand, there is an interest in new educative approaches inspired by ICT. Incorporating technological tools decentralizes the teacher's role in the assessment and creates other possibilities, such as peer-evaluation (see Table 3). There is also a migration from real-time to asynchronous assessments, where the hierarchical relationship of teacher and students is displaced (e.g., [52,74]). In this sense, a question arises about the role of the teacher in the virtuality [25,73]. The teacher becomes a digital content producer, requiring skills related to the management of digital tools and skills related with new literacies that allow taking advantage of these tools in the learning process (e.g., [24,43,44,59,68]). We found studies where the evaluation moves away from its grading purpose and becomes a diagnostic instrument for customizing the learning process [36,55,87,88,[101][102][103][104][105]. Through the assessment, the teachers identify the strengths and needs of the students and define student profiles.
Most researches were student-centered, focusing on the student role in their formative process. The perception studies show the importance of student engagement in their learning process and their relevance to teachers, digital tools, and learning contents [51][52][53][54].
Despite the diversity of technological possibilities, commonly used LMS are limited to quantitative evaluation, being the multiple-choice questions the key players. Although some of these LMS incorporated analytical and quantitative options such as testing, matching questions, and embedded responses, these platforms promote the summative evaluation, limiting the feedback to a predefined sentence. Therefore, there are multiple but scattered digital tools, which allow enhancing learning from assessment. However, these tools are conditioned to the teacher's skills to use and incorporate them efficiently in the training processes.
On the other hand, this review evidenced that the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) fields incorporate more frequently ICT-mediated assessment than other areas such as social sciences. Several authors highlight the gap of ICT-integration on social science education ( [99,125]). Questions that involve mathematical calculations and analysis are easier to implement in LMS than questions that assess a student's critical thinking. Here, teacher training in both pedagogical and technological issues plays a fundamental role. However, other tools are being introduced for ICT-mediated evaluation for a broad spectrum of knowledge areas.
Concerning the assessment possibilities, the ICT platforms provide new scenarios for interaction and knowledge construction, appealing to multiple senses: sound, visual and narrative. Incorporating other senses requires several skills that transgress the written culture present in the traditional evaluation paradigm. ICT allows asynchrony, promoting reflections about their meaning: what is being evaluated, what for, and how [95]. Paradoxically, the traditional evaluative practices are more closely with commonly used LMS. However, the opening of other forms of reading and writing, the asynchronous experience, and the reconfiguration of the learning spaces invite us to consider other assessment forms that transcend the informative level and give rise to critical analysis, argumentation, and the reflexive appropriation of knowledge.
An example of technological tools with a significant presence in the selected studies were mobile technologies [15,37,52,71,89,[94][95][96][97]99]. This type of device expands the forms and structure of the assessment activities. In mobile learning, the evaluation is not limited in space and time, changing the scenarios where the student performs the evaluation. These activities are involved in the daily life of the student.
Despite these advances, there is still a gap in addressing the critical or emancipatory perspectives of education. There is no evidence of ICT-mediation and ICT-assessment incorporation into critical education approaches. Additionally, there is a new challenge for institutions: while assessment practice has been transformed, the institutional expectation of assessment reimaging is unchanged. For educative institutions, the assessment is an indicator for standardization. Here, we found a need to design educational policies to be aligned with the new educational possibilities.
The ICT educational platforms demand new skills for all educational actors [112]-firstly, digital literacy contributes to the use of the available tools and familiarizing their uses; secondly, there is a demand to think of strategies that strengthen the practices of feedback evaluation [54]. Although the available tools allow communication with students and teachers, the evaluation exercises mediated by technologies often limit the monitoring, dialogue, and discussion. In this sense, works that incorporate teachers' reflection and technology management are required.

Conclusions
This paper analyzed the perspectives of ICT-mediated assessment from a systematic review of work published from 2006 to 2020 and a comparison of widely used LMS. The systematic review was developed using a PRISMA methodology using research papers on SAGE, SCOPUS and Taylor&Francis databases. Once we removed duplicated records and documents that did not meet the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 150 research papers related to the development or incorporation of ICT-mediated assessment were included in the analysis. This study defined eight categories used to classify the documents and to address the research questions.
The first was a quantitative synthesis of the type of studies found in the literature. This analysis evidenced the scientific community's interest in developing experimental, descriptive, and perception studies, as well as research involving technological development.
The second category analyzed the actors on which the research focuses: students, teachers, or both. We noted that most studies are student-centered, evidencing a change in the role of students in their formative process. However, the few studies oriented towards teachers show the need: first, to define the new role of teachers in virtual learning environments; and second, to determine the skills and knowledge that teachers require for the development of their role in the learning process.
We also analyzed the evaluation of contents, skills, and outcomes, and the purpose of this evaluation. We found that, while the traditional evaluation approach to measuring and standardizing knowledge levels is persistent, there are also nontraditional approaches that make use of ICT to explore new evaluation possibilities and interpretations. Here, we highlight the studies that orient the evaluation towards the diagnosis of students for the personalization of the formative process and others that place students as the protagonists of their formation, with strategies such as peer-assessment.
The review showed the tendency to develop and incorporate ICT-mediated assessment in STEM areas. However, the diversity of digital tools is an opportunity for the social sciences and other areas.
We found a high number of digital tools and applications, enabling the diversity of the assessment activities. We found both traditional settings, based on questioning, and more creative and interactive ways of assessment. However, this growing technological development imposes a challenge to the learning process actors: institutions, teachers, and students. It is necessary to define new educational approaches that allow the efficient incorporation of ICT at the institutional level. For their part, teachers require the acquisition of new skills to use digital tools and design significant evaluation activities that use them. Students are also forced to acquire those digital skills that enable them to new forms of education.
Finally, we can note some limitations of this study. On one side, there are limitations related to the methodology since the results depend on the research question, the database, and the inclusion and exclusion criteria. This study described a clear and precise search equation related to the research questions. However, the search equation can be posed differently, revealing other studies given each database's search algorithms. The selected databases also limit the study to the articles indexed in them.
On the other hand, we find a limitation related to the language of the publication. The selected databases include most articles in English. Therefore, studies in other languages are not reflected in this review. For example, there was a lag of studies in ICT-mediated assessment in regions such as Latin America.