Domesticating Commercially Important Native Tree Species in the Philippines: Early Growth Performance Level

: Selection of native tree species for commercial purposes is a continuing challenge and an opportunity in tropical silviculture. Because of this, we explored domesticating 33 native species in the Philippines that were tested for survival rate, total height, and diameter-at-ground-level (dgl) increments. The ﬁrst ﬁve years (2014–2018) of assessment showed that 13 species (40%) of the 33 native species reached a survival rate of more than 80%. Grouped as ‘slow’-, ‘medium’- and ‘fast’-growing ﬁeld trial species, a 709 cm average total height at ﬁve years was attained by the fast-growing cluster where Bagalunga ( Melia dubia L.) and Kupang ( Parkia javanica (D.C.) Merr.) were among the fastest-growing species. Slow-growing trees like Tindalo ( Afzelia rhomboidei (Blanco)) and Kamagong ( Diospyros blancoi (Willd)) were among the slowest-growing with an average height of 193.8 cm. Dipterocarps like Yakal ( Shorea stylosa (Foxw.)), Tanguile ( Shorea polysperma (Blanco)) and Mayapis ( Shorea squamata (Blanco) Merr.) had the lowest diameter at ground level (dgl) increments (average 25.9 mm) while diametric expansion of fast-growing species spanned up to 93.5 mm. Overall, height and dgl increments were almost ﬁve times the original measurement ﬁve years after planting. A sudden surge in the rate of change in total height (83%) and dgl (72%) occurred a year after planting, yet a sudden decline occurred in the ﬁfth year with only 21% for height and 23% for diameter growth suggesting the ﬁrst 3–4 years as the crucial stage in seedling development. Survival rate is better correlated with the changes in dgl increment ( R 2 = 0.19, p < 0.05) than the height growth ( R 2 = 0.12, p < 0.05). Increasing rainfall and optimum air temperature signiﬁcantly correlated with height and diameter growth while any increase in recorded wind speed slightly reduced the growth of the species. Our ﬁndings are initial steps towards developing appropriate silvicultural and management interventions when planning for the massive plantation development of domesticated Philippine native trees in the future.


Introduction
For decades, there have been calls for native rainforest trees to be domesticated and planted [1] as an alternative to the large-scale mixed and monocultures which dominate in the tropics [2,3]. Currently, the norm remains a small number of exotic species grown as monocultures, despite the associated risks [4]. Domesticating native species will allow the reduction of economic dependence on a few Table 1. Native species considered for tree domestication purposes.

Species Code
Common Name Family Name Scientific Name

Experimental Design, Planting and Measurements
An incomplete block design was used with five seedlings per plot replicated four times. Randomization of the treatment was done through Cyc design software. Plot spacing measurements were 2 m by 3 m (Figure 1). Buffer plants (Eucalyptus deglupta) were planted in the perimeter of the plots to eliminate the boundary effect of the observation plants situated in the border plots. Experimental plots were established during the onset of rainy season in October 2013. The understory vegetation was cleared manually across the whole plot in all plots six times during the first two years and thereafter four times a year. Planting was done in November-December 2013, and measurements of each individual seedling diameter at ground level (dgl) and height were taken initially two months after planting and thereafter twice a year every February and August each year. Tree height was measured in centimeters using a height measuring pole while dgl was measured using a Vernier caliper. Surface soil samples at 5 cm depth were taken for analysis at the Department of Agriculture Soil Laboratory in Taguibo, Butuan City. Climate data were obtained from the nearest station of Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration (PAG-ASA). PAG-ASA used a thermometer and thermograph to measure air temperature, a tipping bucket raingauge for precipitation and a pin balloon/theodolite to measure wind speed and direction. A monthly record of climate parameters from PAG-ASA was used in this study.

Experimental Design, Planting and Measurements
An incomplete block design was used with five seedlings per plot replicated four times. Randomization of the treatment was done through Cyc design software. Plot spacing measurements were 2 m by 3 m (Figure 1). Buffer plants (Eucalyptus deglupta) were planted in the perimeter of the plots to eliminate the boundary effect of the observation plants situated in the border plots. Experimental plots were established during the onset of rainy season in October 2013. The understory vegetation was cleared manually across the whole plot in all plots six times during the first two years and thereafter four times a year. Planting was done in November-December 2013, and measurements of each individual seedling diameter at ground level (dgl) and height were taken initially two months after planting and thereafter twice a year every February and August each year. Tree height was measured in centimeters using a height measuring pole while dgl was measured using a Vernier caliper. Surface soil samples at 5 cm depth were taken for analysis at the Department of Agriculture Soil Laboratory in Taguibo, Butuan City. Climate data were obtained from the nearest station of Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration (PAG-ASA). PAG-ASA used a thermometer and thermograph to measure air temperature, a tipping bucket raingauge for precipitation and a pin balloon/theodolite to measure wind speed and direction. A monthly record of climate parameters from PAG-ASA was used in this study.

Data Analysis
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the statistical significance for differences in total height and dgl increments. Tukey's pair-wise comparisons were used to determine statistically significant differences within each variable at a 95% confidence level. Regression analysis was employed to determine the effect of height and diameter on the survival of tested species or the effect of climate on height and diameter growth.
Since the diameter and height of seedlings varied upon outplanting, we standardized them for comparison purposes. Total height (cm) and dgl (mm) change were computed as the difference between the total height and dgl of the present year measurement to the previous year record. The rate of increase in total height and dgl is expressed as:

Data Analysis
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the statistical significance for differences in total height and dgl increments. Tukey's pair-wise comparisons were used to determine statistically significant differences within each variable at a 95% confidence level. Regression analysis was employed to determine the effect of height and diameter on the survival of tested species or the effect of climate on height and diameter growth.
Since the diameter and height of seedlings varied upon outplanting, we standardized them for comparison purposes. Total height (cm) and dgl (mm) change were computed as the difference between the total height and dgl of the present year measurement to the previous year record. The rate of increase in total height and dgl is expressed as: where Value present is the present year measurement record and Value previous is the previous year measurement of total height and dgl. K-Means clustering analysis using the cluster functions in R was used to categorize the 33 native species. Using this approach, we used mainly the total height and dgl increments at age 5 years as clustering variables in the algorithm to automatically categorize the species. The pamk function in the fpc package was used to determine the optimum number of clusters. We set the optimum number of clusters as three and called these (slow, medium, and fast) referring to the diameter and height growth performances of the species. This is regardless of whether these species have been previously reported as slow or fast-growing, shade-tolerant, or intolerant or any other characteristics. All analyses were processed in R version 3.4.2.

Survival Percentage of Species on Trial
At age 5 years, a total of 13 species, equivalent to 40% of all native species reached more than 80% survival rate ( Figure 2). Native species like Kupang (Parkia javanica), Talisay gubat (Terminalia foetidissima) and Toog (Petersianthus quadrialatus), Lanipau (Terminalia copelandii), Bogo (Garuga floribunda) and Bitanghol (Calophyllum blancoi) had high survival tendencies. However, Yakal (Shorea astylosa), Malabayabas (Tristaniopsis decorticata), Agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia) Bitaog (Calophyllum inophyllum), Tanguile (Shorea polysperma), Tindalo (Afzelia rhomboidei), Mayapis (Shorea squamata) and Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) did not survive well in an open plantation condition and suffered higher mortality rates (>75%) after planting. where Valuepresent is the present year measurement record and Valueprevious is the previous year measurement of total height and dgl. K-Means clustering analysis using the cluster functions in R was used to categorize the 33 native species. Using this approach, we used mainly the total height and dgl increments at age 5 years as clustering variables in the algorithm to automatically categorize the species. The pamk function in the fpc package was used to determine the optimum number of clusters. We set the optimum number of clusters as three and called these (slow, medium, and fast) referring to the diameter and height growth performances of the species. This is regardless of whether these species have been previously reported as slow or fast-growing, shade-tolerant, or intolerant or any other characteristics. All analyses were processed in R version 3.4.2.

Survival Percentage of Species on Trial
At age 5 years, a total of 13 species, equivalent to 40% of all native species reached more than 80% survival rate (

Growth Performances of Domesticated Species Per Cluster
Cluster analysis revealed that nine species belonged to the slow cluster. Surprisingly, species under slow cluster are mostly dipterocarp species. Fifteen species belonged to the 'medium' cluster,

Growth Performances of Domesticated Species Per Cluster
Cluster analysis revealed that nine species belonged to the slow cluster. Surprisingly, species under slow cluster are mostly dipterocarp species. Fifteen species belonged to the 'medium' cluster, while nine fast-growing native species belonged to the 'fast' cluster. Their height and dgl increment ranges are found in Table 2 and Figure 3. Table 2. Clustered species and their annual average total height and diameter at ground level increments from 2014 to 2018 (Years 1 to 4). Survival rate was determined at the end of the measurement period in 2018.

Cluster
Scientific Name Height Increment (cm) Diameter at Ground Level Increment (mm) % Survival Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 1 Year 2 while nine fast-growing native species belonged to the 'fast' cluster. Their height and dgl increment ranges are found in Table 2 and Figure 3.

Variations in Growth Performances of Clustered Domesticated Species
At age 5 years, results showed that clustered species were significantly and statistically different ( Figure 4; p < 0.05) in terms of total height and dgl increments, as well as survival rate. The average total height increment varied from 193.8 cm (ranges from 107.0 cm to 291.9 cm) for the slow cluster, 400.2 cm (312.4 cm-473.8 cm) for the medium cluster and 709.5 cm (562.4 cm-1060.6 cm) for the fast-growing cluster. In the same manner, the average dgl increment varied from 25.9 mm (17.4 mm-33.2 mm) for the slow cluster, to 55.7 mm (316 mm-82.7 mm) for the medium cluster and 93.5mm (46.3 mm-151.4 mm) for the fast cluster. The highest rate of survival (70%) was attained by the medium cluster while the slow cluster species had the lowest (44%). The fast cluster had a 60% survival percentage.

Variations in Growth Performances of Clustered Domesticated Species
At age 5 years, results showed that clustered species were significantly and statistically different (Figure 4; p < 0.05) in terms of total height and dgl increments, as well as survival rate. The average total height increment varied from 193.8 cm (ranges from 107.0 cm to 291.9 cm) for the slow cluster, 400.2 cm (312.4 cm-473.8 cm) for the medium cluster and 709.5 cm (562.4 cm-1060.6 cm) for the fastgrowing cluster. In the same manner, the average dgl increment varied from 25.9 mm (17.4 mm-33.2 mm) for the slow cluster, to 55.7 mm (316 mm-82.7 mm) for the medium cluster and 93.5mm (46.3 mm-151.4 mm) for the fast cluster. The highest rate of survival (70%) was attained by the medium cluster while the slow cluster species had the lowest (44%). The fast cluster had a 60% survival percentage.   Clusters of native trees exhibited significant differences in their growing habits interannually with considerable increases from Year 1 to Year 4 (p < 0.05). The fastest growing species in terms of height were Bagalunga (Melia dubia) and Kupang (Parkia javanica) in the fast-growing cluster while Tindalo (Afzelia rhomboidea) and Kamagong (Diospyros blancoi) were the slowest growing among all the species ( Figure 5). Yakal, Tanguile and Mayapis which belong to the Dipterocarpaceae family were among those with lowest dgl increment in the slow cluster. Fast-growing native species (Kupang, Kalumpit and Talisay-Gubat) were among those with highest diameter growth annually. Overall, most native species increased five times in height and basal diameter over 5 years. More years are needed to verify whether or not the fourth year will be the peak for early growth at our field trial site and if the fifth year is to be the period at which growth dynamics should start to slow down.

Sources of Variations in Survival Rate of Clustered Species
Survival of the species correlated better to the diameter growth changes than their total height increment at an age of 5 years (Figure 7). Variances explained by dgl increment (R 2 = 0.19, p < 0.01) and total height increment (R 2 = 0.12, p < 0.05) were, small suggesting other biophysical factors In terms of the annual rate of the increases, a sudden surge in total height incremental growths in 2015 was observed a year after planting ( Figure 6). This year marked the highest rate of change among all years at 83% (ranges from 65% to 104%). The growth was maintained from 49% to 52% in 2016 and 2017, respectively, but had a sudden decline in 2018 with only 21% (Figure 6). A similar case of highest dgl increment (72%) measured in 2015 compared to 42% in 2016, 44% in 2017, and only 22% in 2018. More years are needed to verify whether or not the fourth year will be the peak for early growth at our field trial site and if the fifth year is to be the period at which growth dynamics should start to slow down.

Sources of Variations in Survival Rate of Clustered Species
Survival of the species correlated better to the diameter growth changes than their total height increment at an age of 5 years (Figure 7). Variances explained by dgl increment (R 2 = 0.19, p < 0.01) and total height increment (R 2 = 0.12, p < 0.05) were, small suggesting other biophysical factors

Sources of Variations in Survival Rate of Clustered Species
Survival of the species correlated better to the diameter growth changes than their total height increment at an age of 5 years (Figure 7). Variances explained by dgl increment (R 2 = 0.19, p < 0.01) and total height increment (R 2 = 0.12, p < 0.05) were, small suggesting other biophysical factors affecting the survival rate of all species. Generalized Additive Modelling analysis showed coupled dgl and total height growth explained 53% of the changes in survival of the fast-growing cluster while only explaining 37% for medium cluster and 14% for slow cluster species. In all cases, dgl increment is the key predictor over the total height increments. affecting the survival rate of all species. Generalized Additive Modelling analysis showed coupled dgl and total height growth explained 53% of the changes in survival of the fast-growing cluster while only explaining 37% for medium cluster and 14% for slow cluster species. In all cases, dgl increment is the key predictor over the total height increments.

Climatic Effects on Total Height and Dgl Increments of Clustered species
Increasing amount of annual rainfall significantly correlated with the annual total height growth of slow-growing species (R 2 = 0.85) and the correlation was higher than the medium (R 2 = 0.76) or the fast-growing (R 2 = 0.64) clusters (Figure 8). Similarly, annual dgl increment was also significantly correlated with the amount of precipitation and the effect was greatest for the slow-growing (R 2 = 0.84) cluster. Any increase in annual average air temperature increased annual total height growth exponentially in this order: fast > medium > slow with R 2 = 0.70, R 2 = 0.62 and R 2 = 0.56, respectively (Figure 8). Even a minimal change in annual average air temperature can also trigger increased annual dgl growth in the fast-growing cluster (R 2 = 0.70), while only about half of the variations in annual average air temperature can explain the changes in annual dgl in slow-growing clustered species (R 2 = 0.50). Significant increases in annual wind speed can reduce annual total height growth of clustered species (R 2 = 0.50~R 2 = 0.61). Fast-growing species were observed to be the most sensitive to annual average wind speed (Figure 8).

Climatic Effects on Total Height and Dgl Increments of Clustered species
Increasing amount of annual rainfall significantly correlated with the annual total height growth of slow-growing species (R 2 = 0.85) and the correlation was higher than the medium (R 2 = 0.76) or the fast-growing (R 2 = 0.64) clusters (Figure 8). Similarly, annual dgl increment was also significantly correlated with the amount of precipitation and the effect was greatest for the slow-growing (R 2 = 0.84) cluster. Any increase in annual average air temperature increased annual total height growth exponentially in this order: fast > medium > slow with R 2 = 0.70, R 2 = 0.62 and R 2 = 0.56, respectively (Figure 8). Even a minimal change in annual average air temperature can also trigger increased annual dgl growth in the fast-growing cluster (R 2 = 0.70), while only about half of the variations in annual average air temperature can explain the changes in annual dgl in slow-growing clustered species (R 2 = 0.50). Significant increases in annual wind speed can reduce annual total height growth of clustered species (R 2 = 0.50~R 2 = 0.61). Fast-growing species were observed to be the most sensitive to annual average wind speed (Figure 8).
fast-growing (R 2 = 0.64) clusters (Figure 8). Similarly, annual dgl increment was also significantly correlated with the amount of precipitation and the effect was greatest for the slow-growing (R 2 = 0.84) cluster. Any increase in annual average air temperature increased annual total height growth exponentially in this order: fast > medium > slow with R 2 = 0.70, R 2 = 0.62 and R 2 = 0.56, respectively (Figure 8). Even a minimal change in annual average air temperature can also trigger increased annual dgl growth in the fast-growing cluster (R 2 = 0.70), while only about half of the variations in annual average air temperature can explain the changes in annual dgl in slow-growing clustered species (R 2 = 0.50). Significant increases in annual wind speed can reduce annual total height growth of clustered species (R 2 = 0.50~R 2 = 0.61). Fast-growing species were observed to be the most sensitive to annual average wind speed (Figure 8). Figure 8. Relationship between annual total height and dgl increments with annual rainfall and annual averages of air temperature and wind speed. Each colored symbol represents the average annual data of all species clustered into slow, medium, and fast categories.

Survival Tendencies of Native Species
Most of the species showed >60% survival rates five years after establishment. Species with high survival potentials were also observed to have existed predominantly in Mindanao, e.g., Kupang (Parkia javanica), Talisay gubat (Terminalia foetidissima), and Toog (Petersianthus quadrialatus). These species showed high survival tendencies even when planted outside their usual growing condition. Toog, which showed >85%, survival is a species mostly remaining in the field after the logging activities in the 1960s to 1970s. Toog remained mainly due to post-harvest processing difficulties. If appropriate wood processing into profitable products is achieved, the wood of Toog could command a high market value. Toog is a very good structural support for housing and other infrastructure construction. High survival percentage, especially for medium-and fast-growing species in our study suggests the quick adaptation and acclimatization of these native species to new growing conditions. These are good predictors for the species survival at an early stage; although having five years of observation time may not be enough as more information that could explain the growth potential versus its environment still has to be established [5].
Difficulty in adapting to their new environment for some species could cause high mortality rates of some native species in the trial site. Lack of adaptation to plantation conditions was also found in other domestication studies [6]. We observed that Yakal (Shorea stylosa), Mayapis (Shorea squamata), Tindalao (Afzelia rhomboidea) and Tanguile (Shorea polysperma) belonging to the slow cluster suffered high mortality rates with survival rates of less than 25%. Yakal and Mayapis do not tolerate full sunlight exposure as they prefer partial shade-conditions [22,23]. Previous studies reported poor survival and slow growth among Dipterocarp species [24]. It appears that these species struggled to survive the unfavorable open canopy condition despite the presence of buffer trees at the edges of the field trial site. Although, other studies have reported that shade-tolerant species are able to survive in high light condition provided nutrients are adequate [16,22]. Thus, in any domestication efforts, it is therefore necessary to be cognizant of the seedling tolerance or intolerance to direct sunlight to ensure survival upon outplanting.

Early Stage of Development of Native Species
As mentioned earlier, species like Yakal, Tanguile, Sagimsim, Mayapis, Tindalo and Narra are slow growing trees. Yet these mentioned species were mostly preferred in Southern Leyte, Philippines for domestication purposes [9]. Farmers found these species lucrative due to their high market values. High wood quality compensates for the slow growth of these species [13,25]. These aspects along with many environmental and biological factors must be considered when dealing with native tree domestication for commercial purposes.
Earlier unpublished reports from ERDB-FWRDEC, Philippines showed that some fast-growing native species that are present in our study (e.g., Kalumpit, Banlag, Talisay-gubat, Bagalunga, Kupang, Agoho, Antipolo, Bitaog, and Bogo) have favorable stem and crown forms and superior diametric growth. These aforementioned species were reported to have shown potentials as alternative species to fast-growing exotic species common in most plantation forests in the Philippines such as Falcata (Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & Grimes), Mangium (Acacia mangium (Willd.) Pedley) and Bagras (Eucalyptus deplupta Blume.) [9]. Our tree domestication study therefore serves as a pattern showing that in the long term, these native species can be managed in high-density plantings similar to that of the common fast-growing exotic species plantations [25].
Even though most of these native species in our study had high survival rates and satisfactory growth, some species are not being used in reforestation programs in the country due to difficulty in sourcing planting materials as most of their mother trees are rare and phenological information is lacking. In the National Greening Program of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Philippines, these native species with promising growth potentials have been initially explored and were found to be growing vigorously [10]. Yet, most community-based organizations still prefer the use of exotic species due to their fast-growing tendencies and market availability.
Successful seedling establishment right after outplanting is dependent on the ability of seedlings to rapidly initiate new roots [26] as this can mitigate the effects of transplant shock. This transplanting problem can be described as the reduction in growth of seedlings caused by slow acclimatization to new environmental conditions immediately after outplanting [16,27] due to water stress, high temperature, open canopies and other unfavorable environmental conditions that are not similar to nursery conditions. Thus, a sudden surge in total height and dgl growths a year after planting in our study suggests that our site conditions are conducive for seedings to acclimatize quickly. The combined impact of soil, climate, seedling quality, site preparation, weed control, quality of planting techniques and other biophysical factors have contributed to this sudden increase in growth of species a year after transplanting.
The decline in percent rate of change in total height and dgl increment of the species on the fifth year (2017-2018) measurement period suggests that the peak of early growth performances of native species may have occurred in the fourth year after outplanting. However, we cannot rule out human error or other environmental controls that may contribute to this decline. More years are needed to verify this account. Although, the peak in growth in the fourth year in our study is within the range of the reported peak in growth for Acacia mangium within 3-8 years after planting and which declines thereafter [28,29]. Nevertheless, this early growing pattern up to the fourth year in our study posed a pivotal period to be observed on the early growth evaluation of native trees that warrants appropriate management intervention to ensure the success of future tree domestication efforts.

Factors Affecting Survival, Total Height And Dgl Growth
Height and diameter at ground level can be used to assess the growth performances of seedlings, and in most cases these variables have been correlated with seedling survival or growth after outplanting [15]. Although these may not always be an accurate predictor of performance after outplanting, as root system morphology and physiological status may provide a more accurate indication of seedling potentials [16]. Height and diameter alone do not correlate with field performance in all cases [27,30]. The weak correlation between survival and height or diameter growth in our study has explained less of the variances that occurred. Although we have not measured root growth potentials in our study, we suppose that the production of seedlings with highly established root systems will enable seedlings to rapidly establish and thrive upon outplanting. Unfortunately, little research has focused intensively on root system assessment because of difficulty, time constraints, and inaccuracies due to their below-ground nature [31,32].
Light is one of the major drivers of plant adaptation and evolution, together with soil water and temperature [22,[33][34][35]. Although, growth responses will depend largely on differences in irradiance intensity that sometimes may have little predictive power for other ecological characteristics [35]. Unfortunately, records of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) were not available at our study site. Although, a study showed maximum growth for species occurred at an irradiance varying from 10% and 44% and that the inhibition of growth at higher irradiance was greater in the more shade-tolerant species [35]. Besides PPFD, other climate parameters like rainfall and temperature play a significant role in height and diameter growth [36,37]. In this study, we found an increasing height and diameter growth of all species (R 2 = 0.64~R 2 = 0.85) with increasing rainfall and a rather constant temperature. According to a study, where annual precipitation is high (>2000 mm per year) and temperatures more moderate due to higher elevation, native species had almost the same growth potential as the introduced species [6]. However, a study reported that neither low soil water nor high temperature were major limitations in seedling growth upon outplanting [22]. Our trial site is near a major lake system. This lake contributes to the substantial upcoming wind from the lakeside to the plantation site. As a result, we found a significant reduction in height and diameter growth with wind speed. The effects of wind on trees ranges from chronic to acute [38]. This airflow across the surface of leaves facilitates transpiration and the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the leaf and the atmosphere. Short-duration displacements of branches and leaves by wind leads to thigmomorphogenetic responses such as reduced shoot extension [39,40]. However, other studies reported positive growth responses to wind speed such as the production of shorter, thicker and therefore less slender stems and branches which better resist deflection [38] and improve root anchorage [41,42]. The seedling growth is a complicated physiological and morphological mechanism that requires an in-depth investigation.

Conclusions
This assessment of the initial stage of native species seedling development is a very crucial phase in any tree domestication study. It is at this stage where silvicultural interventions should be focused. Fast-growing species especially Kupang and Bagalunga adapted well to their new growing environment. These species are certainly of potential commercial importance since they have been planted by many farmers in some areas in the Philippines.
Our findings also show that slow-growing dipterocarp species (e.g., White lauan, Mayapis and Tanguile) can still survive even when planted in open areas outside their usual growing condition. This adaptation suggests that dipterocarps can be used successfully in reforestation provided proper silvilcultural interventions are administered. We should not underestimate the potential of slow-growing native species considering their premium wood quality, demand in the wood industries, and command of higher market values.
Since height and diameter parameters have not served as strong predictors of species survival, it is therefore recommended to incorporate below-ground morphological and physiological parameters and to include more climate variables in an attempt to better predict seedling performances following outplanting. These results presented here should be interpreted with caution due to varying growth patterns of the species, adaptation strategies, and ecological needs that were not fully studied. However, with the information we generated, we were able to provide initial steps towards developing sound silvicultural and management interventions for a more successful sustainable forestry production of goods and services with native species.