Waste Originating from the Cleaning of Flue Gases from the Combustion of Industrial Wastes as a Lime Partial Replacement in Autoclaved Aerated Concrete

This paper aims to study the suitability of partial replacement of lime by waste originating from the cleaning of flue gases from the combustion of industrial wastes in the production of autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC). The compressive strength, bulk density, pore structure, phase composition, and microstructure of hydration products of the AAC were analyzed. According to the results, the addition of the waste can effectively enhance the mechanical properties of AAC due to the differences in morphology of hydration product—1.1 nm tobermorite and related dense microstructure. The pore size distribution was significantly influenced by waste addition, which was one of the main reasons for the increase in thermal conductivity. The XRD and SEM results showed that foreign ions introduced with the wastes affect the synthesis of 1.1 nm tobermorite. Moreover, it was shown that waste containing a high content of CaO can be used as lime replacement, which allows reducing CO2 emissions during the AAC production process.


Introduction
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is attracting considerable interest and large industrial demand. AAC is currently one of the most popular building materials used in residential and industrial construction in Poland [1]. The porous microstructure of concrete and the matrix formed mainly by hydrated calcium silicates (poorly crystalline C-S-H phase and 1.1 nm tobermorite), which are responsible, inter alia, for the mechanical strength, result in aerated concrete combining the advantages of construction and insulation material [2]. The basic technological operations during AAC production include [2] preparation of raw materials (cement, lime, quartz sand), mixing of raw materials in a water suspension with the addition of aluminum powder (an aerating agent), growth of mass (related to the evolution of hydrogen as a result of the reaction of aluminum powder with Ca(OH) 2 ), precuring process (obtaining a hardness sufficient for further technological operations, related to cutting into blocks), cutting hardened concrete mass into blocks, autoclaving (achieving the final strength of the products), cooling, and storage.

Raw Materials
The raw materials for AAC sample preparation were cement, lime, quartz sand, and aluminum powder. The quartz sand was ground in a laboratory ball mill to a specific Blaine surface area of 2000 cm 2 /g [29]. The ordinary Portland cement (OPC) CEM I 42.5R conforming to the EN 197 standard was used as the cementitious material. Pure p.a. calcium carbonate delivered by POCH (Gliwice, Poland) was calcined at 1000 • C for 2 h to obtain a CaO source. Aluminum powder with a water coverage of 5500 cm 2 /g according to the procedure described in PN-77/H-04949 [30] standard was used as a pore-generating agent.
In the present study, solid waste from flue gas cleaning in an industrial waste incinerating plant was used as received, as well as after thermal treatment. The chemical composition of the raw waste is presented in Table 1. The waste was classified as 19 01 07* "solid wastes from gas treatment" according to EUROSTAT Guidance on EWC-Stat Waste Categories [31]. Thermal treatment of raw waste was applied in order to increase the reactivity of the material. Calcium hydroxide present in raw waste albeit reactive is not as reactive as calcium oxide. The material was heated for 1 h at 550 • C. This temperature was chosen in order to allow calcium hydroxide to decompose [32]. On the other hand, to obtain a material of good reactivity, the temperature should not be too high, since thermal treatment of calcium oxide at elevated temperatures may cause sintering, recrystallization, and grain growth, which negatively influence reactivity [33]. The temperature was also chosen to ensure that chlorine was not released from the sample during thermal treatment. This was confirmed by the results of the thermal analysis investigations presented in Section 3.1.

Mix Proportions
For the preparation of reference mix OPC, burnt lime, quartz sand, aluminum powder, and water were used as raw materials. The raw waste and calcined waste were used to replace some of the lime. The dosage of waste was calculated on the basis of calcium oxide mass content in the form of calcium hydroxide. Burnt lime used as a raw material for AAC preparation was replaced at a level of 10% by weight with the calcium hydroxide/calcium oxide from raw waste/calcined waste, respectively. Calcium oxide in the form of calcium hydroxide was taken into account during calculations. The mix proportions are summarized in Table 2. In the experiment, the AAC samples with raw waste and calcined waste were coded as R-AAC and C-AAC, respectively. The AAC samples were prepared as follows: the weighed OPC, lime, and ground quartz sand were first mixed for 2 min. Then, the water was added and mixed for another 30 s. Finally, the aluminum powder suspension (prepared from aluminum powder and about 25 mL of mixing water taken prior to mixing) was added. The water/solid (w/s) ratio was constant for all the mixes. It was found that the introduction of the waste did not significantly change the workability of the mixes. The slurry was poured into preheated steel molds with dimensions of 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm and cured at the temperature of 60 • C for 2 h. After demolding, the samples were autoclaved at a temperature 180 • C for 8 h in a laboratory autoclave.

Testing Procedure
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) was performed to obtain the chemical composition of waste. XRF analysis was performed using a PANalytical WDXRF Axios mAX spectrophotometer. The morphology of raw waste was characterized using a JEOL JEM-1011 transmission electron microscope. Thermal measurements (DTA/TG/MS analysis) were performed with a Netzsch STA 449 F3 Jupiter apparatus. The rate of heating was 10 • C/min. Analyses were performed in an inert atmosphere of helium (50 cm 3 /min). The composition of gases evolved during the thermal analysis of the sample was determined using a quadrupole mass spectrometer QMS 403 D Aëolos ® . The Blaine specific surface area of quartz sand was determined according to . X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to investigate phase composition of AAC samples. The phase compositions of the samples were examined using a Philips X-ray diffractometer X'pert system with monochromatic CuKa radiation. Pieces of material from the inside of the cube were taken, dried in an oven at 60 • C, and then ground with a mortar and pestle until the whole sample passed through a 0.063 mm sieve. The microstructure of samples was observed using a low-vacuum FEI NanoSEM 200 scanning electron microscope. Freshly broken fractured surfaces were sputtered with a thin carbon layer in order to avoid the charging of samples during observations. The bulk density was determined according to EN 772-13 [34]. The compressive strength test was conducted according to EN 772-1 [35]. An ISOMET 2104 (Applied Precision, Ltd., Bratislava, Slovakia) heat transfer analyzer was used to measure the thermal conductivity of the samples [36]. Table 1 presents the chemical composition of the raw waste used in the experiments. As can be seen, the principal chemical compound of the waste was CaO, allowing its use as a calcareous material in AAC production. XRD analysis was conducted to compare changes in the phase composition of the waste before and after calcination. Figure 1 shows the XRD patterns of raw waste and after calcination for 1 h at 550 • C. It can be seen that the main crystalline phases were calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2 ) in the form of portlandite, calcium chloride hydrate (CaClOH), halite (NaCl), and calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) in the form of calcite. As expected, portlandite was converted to lime. The mineral composition of wastes also allowed their consideration as alternative calcareous resources to reduce the consumption of lime. Figure 2 presents TEM observations of raw waste. The microphotograph of the raw waste shows the hexagonal plates of portlandite and irregular shapes of fine grains.

Characterization of Waste
The thermal treatment of investigated waste at 550 • C did not cause any chlorine emissions during the process. Results of Dal Pozzo et al. [25] showed that chlorine starts to evolve from the sample at about 1000 • C. The examination performed for waste used in the present study showed that, within the range of temperatures applied, no chlorine evolved from the material during its thermal treatment. In Figure 3, results of thermal analysis of the sample are presented. The mass changes observed on DTG curves were caused by water release, as confirmed by the MS analysis (m/z = 18) of evolved gases. The massive loss of water with a maximum at about 490 • C was associated with calcium hydroxide decomposition [32]. No signal for m/z 36 or 37 was noted during the tests. This means that, under applied conditions, chlorine was stable in the sample.  The thermal treatment of investigated waste at 550 °C did not ca emissions during the process. Results of Dal Pozzo et al. [25] showed th to evolve from the sample at about 1000 °C. The examination performe in the present study showed that, within the range of temperatures app evolved from the material during its thermal treatment. In Figure 3, r analysis of the sample are presented. The mass changes observed on D caused by water release, as confirmed by the MS analysis (m/z = 18) of ev massive loss of water with a maximum at about 490 °C was associated droxide decomposition [32]. No signal for m/z 36 or 37 was noted duri   The thermal treatment of investigated waste at 550 °C did not caus emissions during the process. Results of Dal Pozzo et al. [25] showed that to evolve from the sample at about 1000 °C. The examination performed in the present study showed that, within the range of temperatures applie evolved from the material during its thermal treatment. In Figure 3, resu

Bulk Density
The bulk density of AAC is related to its physical properties, especially i strength and thermal insulation. The effect of the addition of waste on the b AAC is shown in Table 3. The reference AAC, which was produced without waste, had a bulk d kg/m 3 . The bulk densities of the R-AAC and C-AAC samples were slightly l bulk density of the reference sample. The introduction of waste into the AA both calcined and raw form, did not cause significant changes in the properti mixture. It was observed that samples with waste achieved a higher final h mass compared to the reference samples, which was manifested by the low concrete containing waste. The process underlying the increase in AAC mass by a number of factors, including the quality of the used raw materials, es and aluminum powder. Moreover, in some cases, the process underlying t AAC mass can be significantly affected by the introduced wastes [10,17 shows the pore structure of AAC samples. As can be seen, the pores of the R AAC samples were significantly coarser than the pores in the reference sam nificant difference in pore microstructure observed between samples led to

Bulk Density
The bulk density of AAC is related to its physical properties, especially its mechanical strength and thermal insulation. The effect of the addition of waste on the bulk density of AAC is shown in Table 3. The reference AAC, which was produced without waste, had a bulk density of 703 kg/m 3 . The bulk densities of the R-AAC and C-AAC samples were slightly lower than the bulk density of the reference sample. The introduction of waste into the AAC mixture, in both calcined and raw form, did not cause significant changes in the properties of the fresh mixture. It was observed that samples with waste achieved a higher final height of fresh mass compared to the reference samples, which was manifested by the lower density of concrete containing waste. The process underlying the increase in AAC mass is influenced by a number of factors, including the quality of the used raw materials, especially lime and aluminum powder. Moreover, in some cases, the process underlying the increase in AAC mass can be significantly affected by the introduced wastes [10,17,37]. Figure 4 shows the pore structure of AAC samples. As can be seen, the pores of the R-AAC and C-AAC samples were significantly coarser than the pores in the reference sample. The significant difference in pore microstructure observed between samples led to the decrease in bulk density. AAC mass can be significantly affected by the introduced wastes [10,17,37]. Figure 4 shows the pore structure of AAC samples. As can be seen, the pores of the R-AAC and C-AAC samples were significantly coarser than the pores in the reference sample. The significant difference in pore microstructure observed between samples led to the decrease in bulk density.

Compressive Strength
The changes in the mechanical properties of investigated concretes are given in Table 4. As shown in Table 4, the strength of the AAC samples increased as the bulk density decreased ( Table 3). The replacement of lime by waste resulted in a significant increase in compressive strength. In the case of concrete with raw waste, the increase in strength was 50%, while, in the case of calcined waste, the increase was 31%. It is worth highlighting that these increases took place despite the slight decrease in concrete density by approximately 5%. According to [38], porosity has a significant influence on the compressive strength of AAC, and the reduction in bulk density and the related increase in porosity generally cause a reduction in strength. However, the increase in strength could not be related to the pore structure (the size, shape, and the distribution) due to the fact that samples with waste, characterized by a lower bulk density and bigger pore size, had a higher value of compressive strength. The enhancement of mechanical properties may be attributed to the microstructure of the AAC matrix. As for many materials, the microstructure of the AAC matrix has a great influence on its properties, particularly compressive strength and thermal conductivity, since the porosity of AAC is between 60% and 80% [38]. The microstructure of AAC also depends on the type and number of phases present within the matrix, the rate of hydration, type of reaction products formed, and their distribution in the AAC matrix [38]. These features strongly depend on the chemical composition of the raw mix and the course of hydrothermal treatment. Therefore, the compressive strength of AAC is governed not only by the porosity and distribution of pores in the AAC matrix but also by the type, amount, and microstructure of hydration products. In this study, the increase in the compressive strength of the AAC specimens produced with waste could be attributed to differences in the microstructure of the AAC matrix and alteration of the 1.1 nm tobermorite morphology. SEM images illustrate three different morphologies of 1.1 nm tobermorite: the needle-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in the control sample (Figure 5a), plate-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in the R-AAC sample (Figure 5b), and lath-like in the C-AAC sample ( Figure 5c). It is worth noting that, as the lime was partially replaced by waste, the AAC microstructure became denser (Figure 5b,c). The microstructure of the hydration product (1.1 nm tobermorite) was found to be one of the major factors affecting strength development. The dense and compact microstructure of AAC with waste resulted in an increase in strength despite the increase in the size of the macropores generated by the evolution of hydrogen (Figure 4). These observations are consistent with some previous studies [37,39,40], where the formation of C-S-H phases with different microstructure and morphology was observed to have a significant effect on the compressive strength of AAC.
OR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13 Moreover, the results obtained indicate that the compressive strength of the AAC samples was more affected by the morphology of the hydration product and related dense microstructure than the pore size distribution. It can be concluded that the dense microstructure of AAC was able to compensate for the loss of strength associated with the increase in macropore size distribution.

Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity, one of the most important physical properties of AAC, is widely considered by researchers [41][42][43][44][45][46][47]. Many factors may affect the thermal conductivity coefficient of AAC. It is well known that the thermal conductivity of AAC is governed by the porosity, the pore size distribution, and the thermal conductivity of individual components of the material [38]. Table 5 illustrates the impact of waste as a partial Moreover, the results obtained indicate that the compressive strength of the AAC samples was more affected by the morphology of the hydration product and related dense microstructure than the pore size distribution. It can be concluded that the dense microstructure of AAC was able to compensate for the loss of strength associated with the increase in macropore size distribution.

Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity, one of the most important physical properties of AAC, is widely considered by researchers [41][42][43][44][45][46][47]. Many factors may affect the thermal conductivity coefficient of AAC. It is well known that the thermal conductivity of AAC is governed by the porosity, the pore size distribution, and the thermal conductivity of individual components of the material [38]. Table 5 illustrates the impact of waste as a partial replacement of lime on the thermal conductivity of AAC. The thermal conductivity of the samples with waste (R-AAC, C-AAC) was slightly higher than the reference value, and the values were found to be not strongly dependent on the bulk density. The lowest thermal conductivity value was observed in the control AAC. It was found to be 0.148 W/(m·K). Partial replacement of lime with raw and calcined waste increased the thermal conductivity by 12% and 14%, respectively, with respect to the reference sample. This can be explained by differences in the porous microstructure of AAC. The increase in thermal conductivity of concrete that incorporated waste as a lime replacement could be attributed to the differences in the pore size distribution of samples ( Figure 4). The pore size distribution is an important factor determining heat transport through porous materials. The tiny pores observed in the reference AAC ( Figure 4a) indicated a lower thermal coefficient than the larger pores observed in samples containing waste (Figure 4b,c).
To achieve satisfactory thermal properties of AAC with waste, the pore size distribution should be optimized. The pore size distribution can be controlled during the technological process of AAC production. There are some methods for shaping the density and size of the pores in AAC technology, such as by changing the foam stabilizer content and stirring time [43] or fineness and dosage of aluminum powder [48]. Therefore, the factors related to foaming should be examined in the future.

X-ray Diffraction Analysis
The phase composition of the AAC samples was examined using XRD. The diffraction patterns are presented in Figure 6.  The thermal conductivity of the samples with waste (R-AAC, C-AAC) was sligh higher than the reference value, and the values were found to be not strongly depende on the bulk density. The lowest thermal conductivity value was observed in the cont AAC. It was found to be 0.148 W/(m•K). Partial replacement of lime with raw and calcin waste increased the thermal conductivity by 12% and 14%, respectively, with respect the reference sample. This can be explained by differences in the porous microstructu of AAC. The increase in thermal conductivity of concrete that incorporated waste as a lim replacement could be attributed to the differences in the pore size distribution of samp ( Figure 4). The pore size distribution is an important factor determining heat transpo through porous materials. The tiny pores observed in the reference AAC (Figure 4a) in cated a lower thermal coefficient than the larger pores observed in samples containi waste (Figure 4b,c).
To achieve satisfactory thermal properties of AAC with waste, the pore size distrib tion should be optimized. The pore size distribution can be controlled during the techn logical process of AAC production. There are some methods for shaping the density a size of the pores in AAC technology, such as by changing the foam stabilizer content a stirring time [43] or fineness and dosage of aluminum powder [48]. Therefore, the facto related to foaming should be examined in the future.

X-Ray Diffraction Analysis
The phase composition of the AAC samples was examined using XRD. The diffra tion patterns are presented in Figure 6. The main constituents in autoclaved concrete were calcium silicate hydrates (1.1 nm tobermorite and the poorly crystalline C-S-H phase), which significantly affected the mechanical properties and durability of the ACC. According to literature data, the foreign ions introduced with wastes can affect the synthesis of calcium silicate hydrates [49][50][51][52][53][54]. For these reasons, the influence of investigated replacement materials on phase formation must be examined. Furthermore, the composition of the waste used is often a factor that influences the phase composition of aerated concrete [11,16]. For example, Peng et al. [16] produced autoclaved aerated concrete using graphite tailings as siliceous material. In the resulting material, hydration products typical for AAC were accompanied by muscovite originating from the unreacted raw materials [16]. In the present study, along with the waste, in addition to lime and calcium hydroxide, halite, calcite, and calcium chloride hydrate were introduced into the mixture of AAC. Some studies reported that the presence of calcite in starting materials may favor the formation of scawtite [19], which can reduce the compressive strength of AAC. As can be seen, the XRD patterns of the AAC samples were very similar. The introduction of calcareous waste as a lime partial replacement did not change the type of calcium silicate hydrates. XRD analysis ( Figure 5) showed mainly the presence of characteristic binding phases of AAC: crystalline 1.1 nm tobermorite (2 Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW produced autoclaved aerated concrete using graphite tailings as siliceous resulting material, hydration products typical for AAC were accompanie originating from the unreacted raw materials [16]. In the present study, waste, in addition to lime and calcium hydroxide, halite, calcite, and calciu drate were introduced into the mixture of AAC. Some studies reported th of calcite in starting materials may favor the formation of scawtite [19], wh the compressive strength of AAC. As can be seen, the XRD patterns of the were very similar. The introduction of calcareous waste as a lime partial r not change the type of calcium silicate hydrates. XRD analysis ( Figure 5) the presence of characteristic binding phases of AAC: crystalline 1.1 nm t = 7.81°, 1.13 nm) and poorly crystalline C-S-H phase (2Ɵ = 29.35°, 0.304 n 0.279 nm; 2Ɵ = 50.08°, 0.182 nm). Moreover, unreacted quartz (2Ɵ = 26.62° observed. However, the intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak at 1.13 n was noticeably higher in AAC samples with waste compared to the referen calculated relative intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak for R-AA an pared to the reference sample was 196% and 216%, respectively. Although the peaks could not be used for direct quantification of phases, it allowe that the replacement of lime by calcareous waste promoted the formation bermorite phase. This observation corresponds well to the high compress samples with waste (as shown in Table 4). The XRD results indicate that troduced with the waste influenced the synthesis of 1.1 nm tobermorite, w itive effect on the mechanical properties of AAC samples.

Microstructure Characterization
The SEM images of the AAC samples are shown in Figure 5. It can be crystallized 1.1 nm tobermorite formed in all AAC samples. It can be seen t ment of lime with calcareous waste led to changes in the morphology o morite crystals. The SEM image illustrates the needle-like 1.1 nm toberm the reference sample (Figure 5a), plate-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in sa waste (Figure 5b), and lath-like in sample with calcined waste (Figure 5c) review demonstrates that the addition of some industrial wastes can signi not only the properties of ACC but also the morphology of calcium silica pecially 1.1 nm tobermorite [9,15,55]. In recent years, many studies investi ence of different types of industrial waste on the synthesis and morpho tobermorite [56][57][58][59]. Depending on the starting materials used for the sy tobermorite crystals have crystal habits that range from whiskers or flak [61,62], grass-like [10], tabular [58], fibers [63], plates [64], or needles [57]. T ture of the ACC with waste was denser than that of the reference sample crostructure of AAC and the differences in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobe positive contribution to the high compressive strength of AAC with waste. ing shows good agreement with the compressive strength and the XRD AAC produced. The 1.1 nm tobermorite size in R-AAC was obviously sma reference sample. As a result, the R-AAC sample was characterized by th pressive strength, since strength commonly increases with a decrease in g

Conclusions
Our investigation of the use of calcareous waste from flue gas clean replacement for lime in the production of ACC resulted in the following c 1. Waste can be potentially used as a substitution of lime in AAC technolo reducing the emissions of CO2 related to the limestone calcination proc 2. It was found that waste affects the properties of AAC by altering the 1.1 nm tobermorite and pore structure of AAC. produced autoclaved aerated concrete using graphite tailings as siliceous material. In the resulting material, hydration products typical for AAC were accompanied by muscovite originating from the unreacted raw materials [16]. In the present study, along with the waste, in addition to lime and calcium hydroxide, halite, calcite, and calcium chloride hydrate were introduced into the mixture of AAC. Some studies reported that the presence of calcite in starting materials may favor the formation of scawtite [19], which can reduce the compressive strength of AAC. As can be seen, the XRD patterns of the AAC samples were very similar. The introduction of calcareous waste as a lime partial replacement did not change the type of calcium silicate hydrates. XRD analysis ( Figure 5 However, the intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak at 1.13 nm (2Ɵ = 7.81°) was noticeably higher in AAC samples with waste compared to the reference sample. The calculated relative intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak for R-AA and C-AAC compared to the reference sample was 196% and 216%, respectively. Although the intensity of the peaks could not be used for direct quantification of phases, it allowed us to assume that the replacement of lime by calcareous waste promoted the formation of a 1.1 nm tobermorite phase. This observation corresponds well to the high compressive strength of samples with waste (as shown in Table 4). The XRD results indicate that foreign ions introduced with the waste influenced the synthesis of 1.1 nm tobermorite, which had a positive effect on the mechanical properties of AAC samples.

Microstructure Characterization
The SEM images of the AAC samples are shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that wellcrystallized 1.1 nm tobermorite formed in all AAC samples. It can be seen that the replacement of lime with calcareous waste led to changes in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals. The SEM image illustrates the needle-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in the reference sample (Figure 5a), plate-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in sample with raw waste (Figure 5b), and lath-like in sample with calcined waste (Figure 5c). The literature review demonstrates that the addition of some industrial wastes can significantly change not only the properties of ACC but also the morphology of calcium silicate hydrates, especially 1.1 nm tobermorite [9,15,55]. In recent years, many studies investigated the influence of different types of industrial waste on the synthesis and morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite [56][57][58][59]. Depending on the starting materials used for the synthesis, 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals have crystal habits that range from whiskers or flakes [60] to laths [61,62], grass-like [10], tabular [58], fibers [63], plates [64], or needles [57]. The microstructure of the ACC with waste was denser than that of the reference sample. The dense microstructure of AAC and the differences in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite made a positive contribution to the high compressive strength of AAC with waste. Thus, this finding shows good agreement with the compressive strength and the XRD results for the AAC produced. The 1.1 nm tobermorite size in R-AAC was obviously smaller than in the reference sample. As a result, the R-AAC sample was characterized by the highest compressive strength, since strength commonly increases with a decrease in grain size.

Conclusions
Our investigation of the use of calcareous waste from flue gas cleaning as a partial replacement for lime in the production of ACC resulted in the following conclusions: 1. Waste can be potentially used as a substitution of lime in AAC technology. This allows reducing the emissions of CO2 related to the limestone calcination process. 2. It was found that waste affects the properties of AAC by altering the morphology of produced autoclaved aerated concrete using graphite tailings as siliceous material. In resulting material, hydration products typical for AAC were accompanied by musco originating from the unreacted raw materials [16]. In the present study, along with waste, in addition to lime and calcium hydroxide, halite, calcite, and calcium chloride drate were introduced into the mixture of AAC. Some studies reported that the pres of calcite in starting materials may favor the formation of scawtite [19], which can red the compressive strength of AAC. As can be seen, the XRD patterns of the AAC sam were very similar. The introduction of calcareous waste as a lime partial replacement not change the type of calcium silicate hydrates. XRD analysis ( Figure 5 observed. However, the intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak at 1.13 nm (2Ɵ = 7 was noticeably higher in AAC samples with waste compared to the reference sample. calculated relative intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak for R-AA and C-AAC c pared to the reference sample was 196% and 216%, respectively. Although the intensi the peaks could not be used for direct quantification of phases, it allowed us to ass that the replacement of lime by calcareous waste promoted the formation of a 1.1 nm bermorite phase. This observation corresponds well to the high compressive strengt samples with waste (as shown in Table 4). The XRD results indicate that foreign ion troduced with the waste influenced the synthesis of 1.1 nm tobermorite, which had a itive effect on the mechanical properties of AAC samples.

Microstructure Characterization
The SEM images of the AAC samples are shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that w crystallized 1.1 nm tobermorite formed in all AAC samples. It can be seen that the repl ment of lime with calcareous waste led to changes in the morphology of 1.1 nm to morite crystals. The SEM image illustrates the needle-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crysta the reference sample (Figure 5a), plate-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in sample with waste (Figure 5b), and lath-like in sample with calcined waste (Figure 5c). The litera review demonstrates that the addition of some industrial wastes can significantly cha not only the properties of ACC but also the morphology of calcium silicate hydrates pecially 1.1 nm tobermorite [9,15,55]. In recent years, many studies investigated the in ence of different types of industrial waste on the synthesis and morphology of 1.1 tobermorite [56][57][58][59]. Depending on the starting materials used for the synthesis, 1.1 tobermorite crystals have crystal habits that range from whiskers or flakes [60] to l [61,62], grass-like [10], tabular [58], fibers [63], plates [64], or needles [57]. The microst ture of the ACC with waste was denser than that of the reference sample. The dense crostructure of AAC and the differences in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite ma positive contribution to the high compressive strength of AAC with waste. Thus, this f ing shows good agreement with the compressive strength and the XRD results for AAC produced. The 1.1 nm tobermorite size in R-AAC was obviously smaller than in reference sample. As a result, the R-AAC sample was characterized by the highest c pressive strength, since strength commonly increases with a decrease in grain size.

Conclusions
Our investigation of the use of calcareous waste from flue gas cleaning as a pa replacement for lime in the production of ACC resulted in the following conclusions 1. Waste can be potentially used as a substitution of lime in AAC technology. This all reducing the emissions of CO2 related to the limestone calcination process. 2. It was found that waste affects the properties of AAC by altering the morpholog = 32.05 • , 0.279 nm; 2 10 of 13 ved aerated concrete using graphite tailings as siliceous material. In the l, hydration products typical for AAC were accompanied by muscovite the unreacted raw materials [16]. In the present study, along with the to lime and calcium hydroxide, halite, calcite, and calcium chloride hyuced into the mixture of AAC. Some studies reported that the presence ng materials may favor the formation of scawtite [19], which can reduce trength of AAC. As can be seen, the XRD patterns of the AAC samples . The introduction of calcareous waste as a lime partial replacement did pe of calcium silicate hydrates. XRD analysis ( Figure 5) showed mainly aracteristic binding phases of AAC: crystalline 1.1 nm tobermorite (2Ɵ and poorly crystalline C-S-H phase (2Ɵ = 29.35°, 0.304 nm; 2Ɵ = 32.05°, .08°, 0.182 nm). Moreover, unreacted quartz (2Ɵ = 26.62°, 0.334 nm) was er, the intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak at 1.13 nm (2Ɵ = 7.81°) gher in AAC samples with waste compared to the reference sample. The e intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak for R-AA and C-AAC comence sample was 196% and 216%, respectively. Although the intensity of ot be used for direct quantification of phases, it allowed us to assume ent of lime by calcareous waste promoted the formation of a 1.1 nm to-This observation corresponds well to the high compressive strength of ste (as shown in Table 4). The XRD results indicate that foreign ions inwaste influenced the synthesis of 1.1 nm tobermorite, which had a posmechanical properties of AAC samples.
e Characterization ages of the AAC samples are shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that welltobermorite formed in all AAC samples. It can be seen that the replaceh calcareous waste led to changes in the morphology of 1.1 nm toberhe SEM image illustrates the needle-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in ple (Figure 5a), plate-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in sample with raw , and lath-like in sample with calcined waste (Figure 5c). The literature ates that the addition of some industrial wastes can significantly change erties of ACC but also the morphology of calcium silicate hydrates, esbermorite [9,15,55]. In recent years, many studies investigated the influtypes of industrial waste on the synthesis and morphology of 1.1 nm 9]. Depending on the starting materials used for the synthesis, 1.1 nm als have crystal habits that range from whiskers or flakes [60] to laths [10], tabular [58], fibers [63], plates [64], or needles [57]. The microstrucith waste was denser than that of the reference sample. The dense mi-AC and the differences in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite made a ion to the high compressive strength of AAC with waste. Thus, this findagreement with the compressive strength and the XRD results for the he 1.1 nm tobermorite size in R-AAC was obviously smaller than in the . As a result, the R-AAC sample was characterized by the highest com-, since strength commonly increases with a decrease in grain size.
ation of the use of calcareous waste from flue gas cleaning as a partial ime in the production of ACC resulted in the following conclusions: otentially used as a substitution of lime in AAC technology. This allows missions of CO2 related to the limestone calcination process. produced autoclaved aerated concrete using graphite tailings as siliceous material. In the resulting material, hydration products typical for AAC were accompanied by muscovite originating from the unreacted raw materials [16]. In the present study, along with the waste, in addition to lime and calcium hydroxide, halite, calcite, and calcium chloride hydrate were introduced into the mixture of AAC. Some studies reported that the presence of calcite in starting materials may favor the formation of scawtite [19], which can reduce the compressive strength of AAC. As can be seen, the XRD patterns of the AAC samples were very similar. The introduction of calcareous waste as a lime partial replacement did not change the type of calcium silicate hydrates. XRD analysis ( Figure 5 However, the intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak at 1.13 nm (2Ɵ = 7.81°) was noticeably higher in AAC samples with waste compared to the reference sample. The calculated relative intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak for R-AA and C-AAC compared to the reference sample was 196% and 216%, respectively. Although the intensity of the peaks could not be used for direct quantification of phases, it allowed us to assume that the replacement of lime by calcareous waste promoted the formation of a 1.1 nm tobermorite phase. This observation corresponds well to the high compressive strength of samples with waste (as shown in Table 4). The XRD results indicate that foreign ions introduced with the waste influenced the synthesis of 1.1 nm tobermorite, which had a positive effect on the mechanical properties of AAC samples.

Microstructure Characterization
The SEM images of the AAC samples are shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that wellcrystallized 1.1 nm tobermorite formed in all AAC samples. It can be seen that the replacement of lime with calcareous waste led to changes in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals. The SEM image illustrates the needle-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in the reference sample (Figure 5a), plate-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in sample with raw waste (Figure 5b), and lath-like in sample with calcined waste (Figure 5c). The literature review demonstrates that the addition of some industrial wastes can significantly change not only the properties of ACC but also the morphology of calcium silicate hydrates, especially 1.1 nm tobermorite [9,15,55]. In recent years, many studies investigated the influence of different types of industrial waste on the synthesis and morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite [56][57][58][59]. Depending on the starting materials used for the synthesis, 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals have crystal habits that range from whiskers or flakes [60] to laths [61,62], grass-like [10], tabular [58], fibers [63], plates [64], or needles [57]. The microstructure of the ACC with waste was denser than that of the reference sample. The dense microstructure of AAC and the differences in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite made a positive contribution to the high compressive strength of AAC with waste. Thus, this finding shows good agreement with the compressive strength and the XRD results for the AAC produced. The 1.1 nm tobermorite size in R-AAC was obviously smaller than in the reference sample. As a result, the R-AAC sample was characterized by the highest compressive strength, since strength commonly increases with a decrease in grain size.

Conclusions
Our investigation of the use of calcareous waste from flue gas cleaning as a partial replacement for lime in the production of ACC resulted in the following conclusions: 1. Waste can be potentially used as a substitution of lime in AAC technology. This allows reducing the emissions of CO2 related to the limestone calcination process. produced autoclaved aerated concrete using graphite tailings as siliceous material. In the resulting material, hydration products typical for AAC were accompanied by muscovite originating from the unreacted raw materials [16]. In the present study, along with the waste, in addition to lime and calcium hydroxide, halite, calcite, and calcium chloride hydrate were introduced into the mixture of AAC. Some studies reported that the presence of calcite in starting materials may favor the formation of scawtite [19], which can reduce the compressive strength of AAC. As can be seen, the XRD patterns of the AAC samples were very similar. The introduction of calcareous waste as a lime partial replacement did not change the type of calcium silicate hydrates. XRD analysis ( Figure 5) showed mainly the presence of characteristic binding phases of AAC: crystalline 1.1 nm tobermorite (2Ɵ = 7.81°, 1.13 nm) and poorly crystalline C-S-H phase (2Ɵ = 29.35°, 0.304 nm; 2Ɵ = 32.05° 0.279 nm; 2Ɵ = 50.08°, 0.182 nm). Moreover, unreacted quartz (2Ɵ = 26.62°, 0.334 nm) was observed. However, the intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak at 1.13 nm (2Ɵ = 7.81°) was noticeably higher in AAC samples with waste compared to the reference sample. The calculated relative intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak for R-AA and C-AAC compared to the reference sample was 196% and 216%, respectively. Although the intensity of the peaks could not be used for direct quantification of phases, it allowed us to assume that the replacement of lime by calcareous waste promoted the formation of a 1.1 nm tobermorite phase. This observation corresponds well to the high compressive strength of samples with waste (as shown in Table 4). The XRD results indicate that foreign ions introduced with the waste influenced the synthesis of 1.1 nm tobermorite, which had a positive effect on the mechanical properties of AAC samples.

Microstructure Characterization
The SEM images of the AAC samples are shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that wellcrystallized 1.1 nm tobermorite formed in all AAC samples. It can be seen that the replacement of lime with calcareous waste led to changes in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals. The SEM image illustrates the needle-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in the reference sample (Figure 5a), plate-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in sample with raw waste (Figure 5b), and lath-like in sample with calcined waste (Figure 5c). The literature review demonstrates that the addition of some industrial wastes can significantly change not only the properties of ACC but also the morphology of calcium silicate hydrates, especially 1.1 nm tobermorite [9,15,55]. In recent years, many studies investigated the influence of different types of industrial waste on the synthesis and morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite [56][57][58][59]. Depending on the starting materials used for the synthesis, 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals have crystal habits that range from whiskers or flakes [60] to laths [61,62], grass-like [10], tabular [58], fibers [63], plates [64], or needles [57]. The microstructure of the ACC with waste was denser than that of the reference sample. The dense microstructure of AAC and the differences in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite made a positive contribution to the high compressive strength of AAC with waste. Thus, this finding shows good agreement with the compressive strength and the XRD results for the AAC produced. The 1.1 nm tobermorite size in R-AAC was obviously smaller than in the reference sample. As a result, the R-AAC sample was characterized by the highest compressive strength, since strength commonly increases with a decrease in grain size.

Conclusions
Our investigation of the use of calcareous waste from flue gas cleaning as a partia replacement for lime in the production of ACC resulted in the following conclusions: 1. Waste can be potentially used as a substitution of lime in AAC technology. This allows = 7.81 • ) was noticeably higher in AAC samples with waste compared to the reference sample. The calculated relative intensity of the 1.1 nm tobermorite peak for R-AA and C-AAC compared to the reference sample was 196% and 216%, respectively. Although the intensity of the peaks could not be used for direct quantification of phases, it allowed us to assume that the replacement of lime by calcareous waste promoted the formation of a 1.1 nm tobermorite phase. This observation corresponds well to the high compressive strength of samples with waste (as shown in Table 4). The XRD results indicate that foreign ions introduced with the waste influenced the synthesis of 1.1 nm tobermorite, which had a positive effect on the mechanical properties of AAC samples.

Microstructure Characterization
The SEM images of the AAC samples are shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that well-crystallized 1.1 nm tobermorite formed in all AAC samples. It can be seen that the replacement of lime with calcareous waste led to changes in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals. The SEM image illustrates the needle-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in the reference sample (Figure 5a), plate-like 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals in sample with raw waste (Figure 5b), and lath-like in sample with calcined waste (Figure 5c). The literature review demonstrates that the addition of some industrial wastes can significantly change not only the properties of ACC but also the morphology of calcium silicate hydrates, especially 1.1 nm tobermorite [9,15,55]. In recent years, many studies investigated the influence of different types of industrial waste on the synthesis and morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite [56][57][58][59]. Depending on the starting materials used for the synthesis, 1.1 nm tobermorite crystals have crystal habits that range from whiskers or flakes [60] to laths [61,62], grass-like [10], tabular [58], fibers [63], plates [64], or needles [57]. The microstructure of the ACC with waste was denser than that of the reference sample. The dense microstructure of AAC and the differences in the morphology of 1.1 nm tobermorite made a positive contribution to the high compressive strength of AAC with waste. Thus, this finding shows good agreement with the compressive strength and the XRD results for the AAC produced. The 1.1 nm tobermorite size in R-AAC was obviously smaller than in the reference sample. As a result, the R-AAC sample was characterized by the highest compressive strength, since strength commonly increases with a decrease in grain size.