Mitigating Potential-Induced Degradation (PID) Using SiO 2 ARC Layer

: Potential-induced degradation (PID) of photovoltaic (PV) cells is one of the most severe types of degradation, where the output power losses in solar cells may even exceed 30%. In this article, we present the development of a suitable anti-reﬂection coating (ARC) structure of solar cells to mitigate the PID e ﬀ ect using a SiO 2 ARC layer. Our PID testing experiments show that the proposed ARC layer can improve the durability and reliability of the solar cell, where the maximum drop in e ﬃ ciency was equal to 0.69% after 96 h of PID testing using an applied voltage of 1000 V and temperature setting at 85 ◦ C. In addition, we observed that the maximum losses in the current density are equal to 0.8 mA / cm 2 , compared with 4.5 mA / cm 2 current density loss without using the SiO 2 ARC layer.


Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) energy conversion based on crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells is one of the significant technological pillars of the tremendous success of the PV industry in the last decade. Confirmed terrestrial PV module efficiencies of c-Si are above 24%, and for multi-crystalline silicon solar cells are as close as 20% [1].
Improving the efficiency of solar cells has been a perpetually challenging task, since there is a strong interaction between the different recombination losses, including intrinsic and extrinsic recombination loss with current density at maximum power point (MPP) as a function of the surface recombination at the rear side [2]. In addition, the anti-reflection coating (ARC) structures of the solar cell play an essential role in shaping the maximum efficiency of the cell; an incorrect ARC structure can lead to a significant drop in the current density of more than 3.5 mA/cm 2 [3].
To keep the efficiency of solar cells at its highest levels, the reliability and stability must be carefully checked. To facilitate this inspection, potential-induced degradation (PID) testing is strongly advised [4]. The PID test measures the leak current by applying a high voltage (normally 1000 V and above, according to IEC 62804 standard) in a high-temperature and high-humidity environment. After the full duration of the test-96 h-the degradation of the PV module, or on a small scale as a standalone solar cell, can be measured by comparing the current-voltage (I-V) curve before PID testing begins and after the PID test is fully complete [5]. In addition, the electroluminescence (EL) imaging can be captured prior to and after the PID test to visualise the actual collision on the surface structure after PID testing is done. EL imaging can also facilitate the overview of the cracks and defects of the cell, which is immeasurably valuable [6].

Experiment
In this study, a PID test was conducted by constructing three polycrystalline silicon solar cells with three types of ARC structures. The test was carried out using PIDcon PID-tester according to IEC 62804 standard, at 0 h and after 96 h. The working principles of the PIDcon test setup are shown in Figure 1.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12 bottom of SiNx. Lastly, Section 6 presents the overall conclusion of the results discussed in the article, followed by the acknowledgement and the reference list.

Experiment
In this study, a PID test was conducted by constructing three polycrystalline silicon solar cells with three types of ARC structures. The test was carried out using PIDcon PID-tester according to IEC 62804 standard, at 0 h and after 96 h. The working principles of the PIDcon test setup are shown in Figure 1. The layer consists of a solar cell, polymer foil, and glass between the two metal electrodes. A positive voltage is applied at the upper electrode, while the bottom electrode is virtually grounded/heated. The shunt resistance (Rsh) as a function of time is also measured. The standard test conditions were as follows: (i) voltage 1000 V, (ii) temperature 85 °C, (iii) dry conditions, no use of water and (iv) test duration 96 h.
The solar cells' structure that has been tested in this study is shown in Figure 2. The first solar cell structure (Figure 2a) is made free of SiO2 while the second solar cell structure as in Figure 2b includes the SiO2 thin film placed on the top of the silicon nitride (SiNx). The last solar cell is where the SiO2 thin film is placed at the bottom of the SiNx. For ease of referencing the solar cells, we called them the first cell #1, the second cell #2 and the third cell #3.

SiO2
SiNx To compare the PID of the three examined solar cells, we must first identify the critical electrical parameters that have to be measured and compared. Here, we complied with the IEC 62804 standard, thus comparing the maximum power (Pmax), efficiency, and short-circuit current density (Jsc). The efficiency was calculated using the following (FF is the fill factor, and Voc corresponds to the opencircuit voltage): The layer consists of a solar cell, polymer foil, and glass between the two metal electrodes. A positive voltage is applied at the upper electrode, while the bottom electrode is virtually grounded/heated. The shunt resistance (R sh ) as a function of time is also measured. The standard test conditions were as follows: (i) voltage 1000 V, (ii) temperature 85 • C, (iii) dry conditions, no use of water and (iv) test duration 96 h.
The solar cells' structure that has been tested in this study is shown in Figure 2. The first solar cell structure ( Figure 2a) is made free of SiO 2 while the second solar cell structure as in Figure 2b includes the SiO 2 thin film placed on the top of the silicon nitride (SiN x ). The last solar cell is where the SiO 2 thin film is placed at the bottom of the SiN x . For ease of referencing the solar cells, we called them the first cell #1, the second cell #2 and the third cell #3.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12 bottom of SiNx. Lastly, Section 6 presents the overall conclusion of the results discussed in the article, followed by the acknowledgement and the reference list.

Experiment
In this study, a PID test was conducted by constructing three polycrystalline silicon solar cells with three types of ARC structures. The test was carried out using PIDcon PID-tester according to IEC 62804 standard, at 0 h and after 96 h. The working principles of the PIDcon test setup are shown in Figure 1. The layer consists of a solar cell, polymer foil, and glass between the two metal electrodes. A positive voltage is applied at the upper electrode, while the bottom electrode is virtually grounded/heated. The shunt resistance (Rsh) as a function of time is also measured. The standard test conditions were as follows: (i) voltage 1000 V, (ii) temperature 85 °C, (iii) dry conditions, no use of water and (iv) test duration 96 h.
The solar cells' structure that has been tested in this study is shown in Figure 2. The first solar cell structure (Figure 2a) is made free of SiO2 while the second solar cell structure as in Figure 2b includes the SiO2 thin film placed on the top of the silicon nitride (SiNx). The last solar cell is where the SiO2 thin film is placed at the bottom of the SiNx. For ease of referencing the solar cells, we called them the first cell #1, the second cell #2 and the third cell #3.

SiO2
SiNx To compare the PID of the three examined solar cells, we must first identify the critical electrical parameters that have to be measured and compared. Here, we complied with the IEC 62804 standard, thus comparing the maximum power (Pmax), efficiency, and short-circuit current density (Jsc). The efficiency was calculated using the following (FF is the fill factor, and Voc corresponds to the opencircuit voltage): To compare the PID of the three examined solar cells, we must first identify the critical electrical parameters that have to be measured and compared. Here, we complied with the IEC 62804 standard, thus comparing the maximum power (P max ), efficiency, and short-circuit current density (J sc ). The efficiency was calculated using the following (FF is the fill factor, and V oc corresponds to the open-circuit voltage): Energies 2020, 13, 5139 4 of 12

SiO 2 Layer Preperation and Properties
The SiO 2 thin film was prepared by liquidphased deposition. The deposition system contained temperature-controlled water to maintain uniformity in the deposition temperature amongst the surface and a Teflon vessel as a liquid solution. Initially, 25 g of silica powder with 99.9% purity was mixed with 500 mL of hydrofluorosilicic acid; this mixture was stirred for almost 24 h to ensure that the hydrofluorosilicic acid became saturated. The next step was to mix 32 mL of the saturated hydrofluorosilicic acid with 25 mL boric acid for the deposition of the SiO 2 film.
After the deposition process was complete, we rinsed a tin-doped indium oxide glass in water; this process is required to make a purified nitrogen gas. Finally, the thin film was annealed in the air for 10 min at 425 • C. The chemical reaction between oxygen and silicon to generate SiO 2 is usually driven by a high-heat environment; however, even at room temperature, a shallow layer of native oxide, approximately 1 nm thick, can form in an air environment.
The reasons for selecting SiO 2 to mitigate the PID effect of solar cells are summarised as follows: • It is straightforward to deposit on various materials and grown thermally on silicon wafers, which makes it manageable for manufacturing purposes.

•
It can block the ion diffusion implementation of many undesired contaminants, particularly when placed on the bottom of the SiN x layer.

•
The interface between silicon and silicon dioxide has relatively few mechanical and electrical defects.

•
It has high dielectric strength and a relatively wide bandgap, making it an excellent insulator.

•
It has high-temperature stability of up to 1600 • C, making it a useful material for process and device integration [24].

•
The SiO 2 layer causes the silicon-silicon dioxide interface to move into the wafer while the oxide grows. This would typically mean that while the oxide grows, it consumes the silicon atoms at the surface of the wafer, making it a more reliable structural layer.

Experiment Setup (Tools and Equipment)
To perform the PID test on the solar cell samples, PIDcon PID-tester has been used. The main characteristics of this tester are that no climate chamber is necessary during the PID test and no lamination of the solar cells is required [25]. The leakage current, output power and I-V curve also can be measured using this device. After the completion of PID testing, the solar cells were subjected to EL imaging. This procedure used a high-resolution Keland EL tester. This device also allows the inspection of the current density of the solar cells. Therefore, by the end of each experiment, the I-V curve, EL and current density images were analysed and compared.
The circuit diagram of the double diode model used for the analysis of the I-V curve measurements is shown in Figure 3. The junction recombination is modeled by adding a second diode (D 2 ) in parallel with the first (D 1 ) and setting the ideality factor typically to two.

SiO2 Layer Preperation and Properties
The SiO2 thin film was prepared by liquidphased deposition. The deposition system contained temperature-controlled water to maintain uniformity in the deposition temperature amongst the surface and a Teflon vessel as a liquid solution. Initially, 25 g of silica powder with 99.9% purity was mixed with 500 mL of hydrofluorosilicic acid; this mixture was stirred for almost 24 hours to ensure that the hydrofluorosilicic acid became saturated. The next step was to mix 32 mL of the saturated hydrofluorosilicic acid with 25 mL boric acid for the deposition of the SiO2 film.
After the deposition process was complete, we rinsed a tin-doped indium oxide glass in water; this process is required to make a purified nitrogen gas. Finally, the thin film was annealed in the air for 10 min at 425 °C. The chemical reaction between oxygen and silicon to generate SiO2 is usually driven by a high-heat environment; however, even at room temperature, a shallow layer of native oxide, approximately 1 nm thick, can form in an air environment.
The reasons for selecting SiO2 to mitigate the PID effect of solar cells are summarised as follows:  It is straightforward to deposit on various materials and grown thermally on silicon wafers, which makes it manageable for manufacturing purposes.  It can block the ion diffusion implementation of many undesired contaminants, particularly when placed on the bottom of the SiNx layer.  The interface between silicon and silicon dioxide has relatively few mechanical and electrical defects.  It has high dielectric strength and a relatively wide bandgap, making it an excellent insulator.  It has high-temperature stability of up to 1600 ˚C, making it a useful material for process and device integration [24].  The Sio2 layer causes the silicon-silicon dioxide interface to move into the wafer while the oxide grows. This would typically mean that while the oxide grows, it consumes the silicon atoms at the surface of the wafer, making it a more reliable structural layer.

Experiment Setup (Tools and Equipment)
To perform the PID test on the solar cell samples, PIDcon PID-tester has been used. The main characteristics of this tester are that no climate chamber is necessary during the PID test and no lamination of the solar cells is required [25]. The leakage current, output power and I-V curve also can be measured using this device. After the completion of PID testing, the solar cells were subjected to EL imaging. This procedure used a high-resolution Keland EL tester. This device also allows the inspection of the current density of the solar cells. Therefore, by the end of each experiment, the I-V curve, EL and current density images were analysed and compared.
The circuit diagram of the double diode model used for the analysis of the I-V curve measurements is shown in Figure 3. The junction recombination is modeled by adding a second diode (D2) in parallel with the first (D1) and setting the ideality factor typically to two.

Performance of the Examined Solar Cell Samples Before PID Testing
The EL, current density and I-V curves of the three solar cell samples before the PID test are shown in Figure 4. The critical parameters before the PID test began are summarised in Table 1: the efficiency of cell #3 is equal to 19.24% (the lowest) and 20.32% for cell #2 (the highest). In addition, the value of the current density, open-circuit voltage and the fill factor are almost identical for the three solar cell samples.

Performance of the Examined Solar Cell Samples Before PID Testing
The EL, current density and I-V curves of the three solar cell samples before the PID test are shown in Figure 4. The critical parameters before the PID test began are summarised in Table 1: the efficiency of cell #3 is equal to 19.24% (the lowest) and 20.32% for cell #2 (the highest). In addition, the value of the current density, open-circuit voltage and the fill factor are almost identical for the three solar cell samples.   According to Figure 4, the EL image showed no cracks or significant defects in the examined solar cells before the PID test began. The current density images also show a uniform distribution of the current for all samples, meaning no defects or leakage current is present. Seeing that the negative  According to Figure 4, the EL image showed no cracks or significant defects in the examined solar cells before the PID test began. The current density images also show a uniform distribution of the current for all samples, meaning no defects or leakage current is present. Seeing that the negative value of current density represents a reverse current following from the solar cell, zero current density Energies 2020, 13, 5139 6 of 12 represents no flow of current at a particular area of the cell, whereas the positive value of the current density shows a direct DC current generated by the cell.

SiO 2 -Free (Cell #1)
After the completion of the PID test over 96 h, the EL and current density images were taken, as shown in Figure 5. It is evident that the solar cell had a considerable amount of degradation. As exhibited by the current density image, after PID testing there is a significant part of the solar cell that produces even negative current density, which typically results in a decrease in the efficiency of the cell.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12 value of current density represents a reverse current following from the solar cell, zero current density represents no flow of current at a particular area of the cell, whereas the positive value of the current density shows a direct DC current generated by the cell.

SiO2-Free (Cell #1)
After the completion of the PID test over 96 h, the EL and current density images were taken, as shown in Figure 5. It is evident that the solar cell had a considerable amount of degradation. As exhibited by the current density image, after PID testing there is a significant part of the solar cell that produces even negative current density, which typically results in a decrease in the efficiency of the cell.  Figure 6 shows the actual I-V curve of the solar cell before vs. after PID testing. The summary of the comparison between all relevant parameters is presented in Table 2. As can be seen, after PID testing, all related parameters of the solar cell significantly dropped. Remarkably, the efficiency of the solar cell became 13.96%, compared with 19.80% before PID testing (loss = 5.84%). Therefore, without the SiO2 coating, the solar cell would potentially keep degrading over time.  Figure 6 shows the actual I-V curve of the solar cell before vs. after PID testing. The summary of the comparison between all relevant parameters is presented in Table 2. As can be seen, after PID testing, all related parameters of the solar cell significantly dropped. Remarkably, the efficiency of the solar cell became 13.96%, compared with 19.80% before PID testing (loss = 5.84%). Therefore, without the SiO 2 coating, the solar cell would potentially keep degrading over time.  The leakage current of this cell is generated continuously. Therefore, PV modules made of SiO2free ARC structure would typically suffer from PID phenomena, leading to poor stability and significant decay of the output power production, and hence continuous degradation at higher rates.

SiO2 Thin Film Placed on the Top of the SiNx (Cell #2)
The I-V curve results of PID testing of the second solar cell, which has a top-layer SiO2 ARC structure, are shown in Figure 7. This result reveals that placing the SiO2 layer on the top of the SiNx does not have a significant impact on the stability of the solar cell. In fact, the experiment shows that the efficiency dropped by 7.03% (i.e., before PID it was 20.32%, and after PID it was 13.29%). Other relevant parameters are presented in Table 3.  The EL and current density images of the cell are shown in Figure 8. According to the Jsc, after completing PID testing, the solar cell dropped from 38.91 mA/cm 2 to 31.90 mA/cm 2 , approximately 18%. This result illustrates the negative impact of layering SiO2 on the top of the SiNx. In addition, the results of this experiment are almost identical to cell #1 results in terms of the drop in the shunt resistance from 84 Ω to below 10 Ω and the drop in the fill factor from almost 75% to 63%. Thus, it is  The leakage current of this cell is generated continuously. Therefore, PV modules made of SiO 2 -free ARC structure would typically suffer from PID phenomena, leading to poor stability and significant decay of the output power production, and hence continuous degradation at higher rates.

SiO 2 Thin Film Placed on the Top of the SiN x (Cell #2)
The I-V curve results of PID testing of the second solar cell, which has a top-layer SiO 2 ARC structure, are shown in Figure 7. This result reveals that placing the SiO 2 layer on the top of the SiN x does not have a significant impact on the stability of the solar cell. In fact, the experiment shows that the efficiency dropped by 7.03% (i.e., before PID it was 20.32%, and after PID it was 13.29%). Other relevant parameters are presented in Table 3.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12 Figure 6. I-V curve characteristics before and after PID testing of the first solar cell sample, SiO2-free. The leakage current of this cell is generated continuously. Therefore, PV modules made of SiO2free ARC structure would typically suffer from PID phenomena, leading to poor stability and significant decay of the output power production, and hence continuous degradation at higher rates.

SiO2 Thin Film Placed on the Top of the SiNx (Cell #2)
The I-V curve results of PID testing of the second solar cell, which has a top-layer SiO2 ARC structure, are shown in Figure 7. This result reveals that placing the SiO2 layer on the top of the SiNx does not have a significant impact on the stability of the solar cell. In fact, the experiment shows that the efficiency dropped by 7.03% (i.e., before PID it was 20.32%, and after PID it was 13.29%). Other relevant parameters are presented in Table 3.  The EL and current density images of the cell are shown in Figure 8. According to the Jsc, after completing PID testing, the solar cell dropped from 38.91 mA/cm 2 to 31.90 mA/cm 2 , approximately 18%. This result illustrates the negative impact of layering SiO2 on the top of the SiNx. In addition, the results of this experiment are almost identical to cell #1 results in terms of the drop in the shunt resistance from 84 Ω to below 10 Ω and the drop in the fill factor from almost 75% to 63%. Thus, it is  The EL and current density images of the cell are shown in Figure 8. According to the J sc , after completing PID testing, the solar cell dropped from 38.91 mA/cm 2 to 31.90 mA/cm 2 , approximately 18%. This result illustrates the negative impact of layering SiO 2 on the top of the SiN x . In addition, Energies 2020, 13, 5139 8 of 12 the results of this experiment are almost identical to cell #1 results in terms of the drop in the shunt resistance from 84 Ω to below 10 Ω and the drop in the fill factor from almost 75% to 63%. Thus, it is possible to assume that placing a layer of SiO 2 on the top of the SiN x leads to lowering J sc and P max and, consequently, the cell efficiency.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12 possible to assume that placing a layer of SiO2 on the top of the SiNx leads to lowering Jsc and Pmax and, consequently, the cell efficiency. In summary, both solar cell samples with an SiO2 layer on the top of the SiNx and SiO2-free samples had significant leakage of the current after PID testing. Therefore, this leads us to another experiment, which will be discussed in the next subsection.

SiO2 Thin Film Placed on the Bottom of the SiNx (Cell #3)
In this subsection, the results of PID testing of the third solar cell will be discussed. This solar cell has a SiO2 layer placed on the bottom of the SiNx. Placing this layer on the bottom of the SiNx will reasonably achieve the following:


Enhance the stability of the solar cell structure, because there will be a limited leakage of the current at the top layer (SiNx), preventing mismatched conditions of the solar cell, particularly during the PID test [26].  As there will be a limited leakage of the current, the expected drop in efficiency will also be at a minimum level. In addition, a drop in the shunt resistance is expected during PID testing [27]. However, it will be a limited drop as the current density will remain at its highest. Figure 9 shows the measured I-V curves before and after PID testing for cell #3. There is a limited drop in the maximum power of 0.01 W (approximately 2.2%); the efficiency also dropped by 0.69% (before PID 19.24% and after PID 18.55%). The shunt resistance dropped by 3.5 Ω, representing a decrease of 3.92%. All interpretive parameters before and after PID testing are presented in Table 4. In summary, both solar cell samples with an SiO 2 layer on the top of the SiN x and SiO 2 -free samples had significant leakage of the current after PID testing. Therefore, this leads us to another experiment, which will be discussed in the next subsection.

SiO 2 Thin Film Placed on the Bottom of the SiN x (Cell #3)
In this subsection, the results of PID testing of the third solar cell will be discussed. This solar cell has a SiO 2 layer placed on the bottom of the SiN x . Placing this layer on the bottom of the SiN x will reasonably achieve the following: • Enhance the stability of the solar cell structure, because there will be a limited leakage of the current at the top layer (SiN x ), preventing mismatched conditions of the solar cell, particularly during the PID test [26].

•
As there will be a limited leakage of the current, the expected drop in efficiency will also be at a minimum level. In addition, a drop in the shunt resistance is expected during PID testing [27]. However, it will be a limited drop as the current density will remain at its highest. Figure 9 shows the measured I-V curves before and after PID testing for cell #3. There is a limited drop in the maximum power of 0.01 W (approximately 2.2%); the efficiency also dropped by 0.69% (before PID 19.24% and after PID 18.55%). The shunt resistance dropped by 3.5 Ω, representing a decrease of 3.92%. All interpretive parameters before and after PID testing are presented in Table 4.  The EL and current density images of the solar cell are shown in Figure 10. As can be noticed, there is a limited loss of approximately 2.2% in the current density after completing the PID test, before PID 37.72 mA/cm 2 and after PID 36.88 mA/cm 2 ; therefore, there is a total loss of 0.84 mA/cm 2 .  The EL and current density images of the solar cell are shown in Figure 10. As can be noticed, there is a limited loss of approximately 2.2% in the current density after completing the PID test, before PID 37.72 mA/cm 2 and after PID 36.88 mA/cm 2 ; therefore, there is a total loss of 0.84 mA/cm 2 .  The EL and current density images of the solar cell are shown in Figure 10. As can be noticed, there is a limited loss of approximately 2.2% in the current density after completing the PID test, before PID 37.72 mA/cm 2 and after PID 36.88 mA/cm 2 ; therefore, there is a total loss of 0.84 mA/cm 2 .  Table 5 summarises the percentage drop from before and after PID testing of each critical parameters analysed. Cell #3 shows lower drops for all parameters, reaffirming the effectiveness of using the SiO 2 ARC layer for PID mitigation. In contrast with the above results, one of the decisive successes of mitigating for PID testing when layering SiO 2 on the bottom of the SiN x is that the dark leakage current (J 0 ) is extremely low due to the effective hydrogenation process; this would characteristically reduce the trapped charge density of the solar cell structures, thereby improving the stability and reliability of the cell. In addition, PV modules consist of a series of those cells that can also produce a resolute output power with a limited degradation over time.

Conclusions
In this article, we discussed the potential of preventing PID by modifying the ARC structure in polycrystalline silicon solar cells. Three types of ARC structures were subjected to the PID test for a period of 96 h under 1000 V and 85 • C conditions, according to IEC 62804 standard. It is possible to conclude that the ARC structure containing SiO 2 -free or SiO 2 layer on the top of the SiN x has a significant drop in the efficiency, always higher than 5%, after the PID test. A considerable value also decreases all other relevant parameters, including the shunt resistance (R sh ), short-circuit current density (J sc ) and maximum output power (P max ).
We found that when the SiO 2 layer is placed on the bottom of the SiN x , there is a limited leakage of the current of the solar cell after the completion of the PID test. Consequently, there was a limited drop in the maximum output power of 0.01 W, which represents approximately 2.2%, and the efficiency also dropped by 0.69%. Therefore, this ARC structure was confirmed to be an effective PID mitigation, preventing PV module degradation as well as increasing its reliability.
For future research, it would be interesting to perform PID testing on a humidity environment since it is common that PV modules are subject to these conditions.