Health, Hope, and Harmony: A Systematic Review of the Determinants of Happiness across Cultures and Countries

The aim of this study was to review the literature on what constitutes happiness across cultures and countries to advance scholarly knowledge on the happiness construct. A systematic review was conducted to examine the determinants of happiness in samples across cultures and countries. Five different databases, including APA PsycNet, EBSCO-Academic, EBSCO-Business, Project MUSE, and Google Scholar, grey literature, and in-text references from relevant review articles were used. A total of 155 articles were included in the review, encompassing studies from over 100 countries and 44 cultures. Myriad determinants of happiness were found that were placed into three broad categories labeled Health, Hope, and Harmony. The predominant happiness determinants were mental, emotional, and physical well-being, a purposeful holistic work–life balance, nurturing social relationships, caring for self and others, and being in harmony with one’s culture, traditions, community, religion, and environment. This study engendered an “Integrated Model of the Determinants of Happiness” to provide a universally applicable conceptualization of the happiness construct. By examining studies on determinants of happiness across the globe in the past 90 years, this review uncovered that happiness constitutes multiple determinants that fall under three major categories: ‘Health’, ‘Hope’, and ‘Harmony’.


Introduction
"Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim, and the end of human existence". The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle said these words more than 2000 years ago, and they still ring true today. In Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, happiness is described as the human good that we all aim for its sake alone, and Freud emphasized that happiness is something we strive towards, desire to attain, and maintain throughout our lives [1][2][3]. The 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence states that all men have a right to "the pursuit of happiness," where the notion of happiness is equated to the attainment of a worthy life [4].
Moreover, the concept of happiness is gaining increasing popularity within and across cultures [5][6][7], so much so that in recent years, there has been a shift in measuring economic production to measuring happiness as an indicator of social development and individual welfare across nations [8].
Since the advent of the field of positive psychology in the late 1990s, scientific investigations have uncovered happiness as an essential psychological ingredient for optimal human functioning that makes life worth living [9]. Happiness is conceptualized as an appraisal of life [8], a state of mind [6], a psychological state [5], and a positive health

Articles Search and Counts
In a meta-analysis [27] (p. 2695), the following keywords that were derived [28] were highlighted, which included terms such as, "happiness" OR "fulfillment" OR "satisfaction" OR "subjective well-being" OR "meaning" OR "pleasure". Thus, for this systematic review [23], searches were conducted using the Boolean search strategy that utilized similar keywords, "happiness" OR "well-being" OR "health" OR "life-satisfaction" OR "hope" OR "pleasure" OR "harmony". The justification for the use of these keywords was to examine happiness and its underlying determinants. Using these keywords, initial studies were identified from the following databases: APA PsycNet-384 studies, EB-SCO Academic-1260 studies, EBSCO Business-206, Google Scholar-379, and Project MUSE-446. A total number of 2675 studies relating to happiness and its underlying determinants were shortlisted for review. The procedure for shortlisting included first reviewing titles that examined happiness, after which, the corresponding abstracts were read. Other published works such as book chapters, case studies, commentaries, or grey literature were initially screened but excluded due to the lack of focus on their empirical quality in assessing the happiness variable. In total, 2238 articles were removed that did not meet the authors' generic and the three specific inclusion criteria. Furthermore, 223 articles were sought for retrieval using Mendeley research software, at which point, 3 were further removed for overlaps found (Figure 1).
For consistency in the search and quality assurance, all searches were performed using specific inclusion criteria, (i) the happiness variable was measured specifically within the study, (ii) happiness was a dependent variable only and not an independent variable, and (iii) happiness was measured quantitatively. Based on the search results, the inclusion criteria for the literature search and study selection included selecting studies, (i) between 1930 and the present that included the oldest empirical study of happiness [29], (ii) the article type that was peer-reviewed empirical research, and scholarly journals with an impact factor closer to 10 (between 8 and 10), and (iii) all studies had at least one of the search keywords mentioned above. The data were sought to arrive at the underlying determinants of happiness across cultures and countries, through the investigation of the concept of happiness. The extraction criteria were based on the PRISMA model of systematic reviews ( Figure 1) [23,26].
Identification: During the identification stage, an initial 2675 peer-reviewed articles related to happiness from 1930 to current (90 years) were found. Before screening, a total of 214 duplicate articles were removed from articles downloaded from four databases ( Table 1). In total, 14 duplicate articles were found in APA PsycNet, 43 duplicate articles were found in EBSCO Academic, 21 duplicate articles were found in EBSCO Business, and 136 articles were found in the Project MUSE database (Table 1). Screening: During the screening stage, a total of 2461 abstracts were selected after removing 214 redundancies (overlaps/duplicates). The abstracts for all 2461 articles were downloaded and further screened for articles that aligned with the authors' generic and specific inclusion criteria. A total of 220 articles were thus chosen as eligible for a detailed systematic review. These were downloaded onto Mendeley's research software.
A detailed study of each of the 220 articles led to a further exclusion of 65 articles that comprised 18 review articles and 47 articles that were screened out by the authors' exclusion criteria where (i) no happiness variable was measured specifically within the study, or, (ii) happiness was an independent variable only and not a dependent variable, or, (iii) happiness was only measured qualitatively.
After the studies were identified, duplicate records were removed and screened, and studies were sought for retrieval and assessed for eligibility (PRISMA model, Figure 1), and chosen for review ( Figure 1) [26]. In total, 155 studies were shortlisted for review after applying the exclusion and inclusion criteria and the CASP checklist [24]. Studies were selected for a full review if they helped respond to the following questions: What constitutes happiness? Or what contributes to happiness? Or what does happiness consist of?

Critical Appraisal and Assessment Procedure
The critical appraisal [24,25] further involved specific inclusion and assessment criteria that validated each study regarding its thoroughness and credibility. The studies that we included in the systematic review were mainly empirical studies. The three inclusion criteria applied within the study, (i) the happiness variable was measured specifically within the study, (ii) happiness was a dependent variable only and not an independent variable, and (iii) happiness was measured quantitatively. It involved looking at crucial elements such as (i) the study's purpose, (ii) objectives, (iii) a methodological design that included p-value significance testing (p ≤ 0.05), (iv) the use of valid and reliable happiness measures that showed high Cronbach's alpha coefficient values (0.7 or higher) for the population in each study, (v) sample demographics such as size, age, gender distributions, geographic, or ethnic distributions, and (vi) institutional review board-compliant studies. Ranking the research methodology was also performed based on (i) methodology quality-prevent systematic errors, (ii) precision-random errors (width of confidence around the results), (iii) external validity-the extent to which we applied results to the target population and, (iv) conclusion-expressed on the bases of exploration of 'what ifs' and sensitivity analysis. Finally, the following three exclusion criteria were applied for excluding studies beyond the scope of this systematic review, (i) no happiness variable was measured specifically within the study, (ii) happiness was an independent variable only and not a dependent variable, and (iii) happiness was only measured qualitatively.
The Critical Appraisal Skill Program (CASP) checklist [24] for systematic reviews [23], was used to appraise the studies and extract data. Three broad issues were considered when appraising the studies: (i) Are the results of the study valid? (ii) What are the results? (iii) Will the results help locally? Moreover, based on the 10 questions from the CASP Checklist [24], the reviewers evaluated the three broad issues systematically. The 10 questions comprised some screening questions that were answered with either a 'yes' or 'no'. The 10 questions and their responses were, i.
Whether the review addresses a focused question? Yes, the focused question was to examine what constitutes happiness across cultures and countries. ii. Did the reviewers look for the right type of papers? Yes, studies with an appropriate study design and set inclusion/exclusion criteria were selected. iii. Whether all relevant studies were included? Yes, the reviewers looked at the reference list and bibliographic databases that were used in addition to the chosen academic databases to saturate the search on relevant articles pertaining to this study. iv. Did the reviewers assess the quality of the studies included? Yes, the reviewers considered the rigor of the studies as identified in the inclusion and exclusion criteria. v.
Was it reasonable to combine the results of the studies? Yes, when the results from different studies were similar in terms of the determinants of happiness then the results were combined and shown under the positive and negative associations of these determinants with happiness under the Section 3. vi. What were the overall results of the review? These are shown in each of the tables under findings and correlation analysis. vii. How precise were the results? The precision was assessed based on how neatly the outcomes matched the study samples with a low rate of errors. viii. Are the results of the study valid? p-value significance testing (p = <0.05) was considered to ensure the validity of the results in each study. ix. Will the results help locally? Yes, as studies explored happiness in local contexts such as specific countries. x.
Were all important outcomes considered? Yes, the information gathered was large and comprehensive.
The total number of studies was equally divided amongst the authors for individual manuscript review. Using the CASP checklist, each author assessed a set number of studies (e.g., around 50+ studies per author) and created a table to organize the key points from each study, including study journal, happiness measure, sample size/range, and variable findings (Appendix A: Tables A1-A3). Using this method, all studies were referenced, noting each study's participant demographics and the results where happiness was the dependent variable, and its determinants were the independent variables. Thus, out of the initial 2675 articles identified from the databases (Table 1), a final count of 155 empirical studies on happiness was shortlisted and included in the review (Figure 1).
The 155 manuscripts that were included in the review were equally and randomly divided amongst the three reviewers. Each reviewer was responsible for reviewing around 50 articles. All three authors reviewed the literature and read the abstracts and articles. Based on the CASP checklist [24] appraisal and the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the three reviewers agreed on which studies to include or exclude. All three reviewers reached a consensus on the criteria for the studies. Subsequently, each reviewer extracted the data, populated tables, compiled the manuscript findings, organized the references, and formatted the tables for their designated set of studies. All three reviewers collectively discussed and put together the thematic and characterization work and developed the universal model of happiness based on the common determinants that emerged during the systematic review.
Whereas the systematic review was not based on any specific theoretical model, the happiness findings uncovered used many theoretical models ranging from the integrative model of sustainable happiness [14], philosophy and psychological theory, where to the average individual, personal happiness is generally held to be the ultimate aim of all human endeavor [30], the 'theory of Seligman' [28], which offers three possibilities: happiness can be reached through pleasure, meaning, or engagement [31], the implicit theory framework of happiness to foster a more complete understanding of the processes underlying wellbeing [32], the theory of personality, where happiness is a personality variable for which a biological basis can be considered [33], and the theory of positive psychology [14].

Results
The final 155 studies revealed manifold determinants of happiness (Tables A1-A3). Based on the commonalities between these determinants across the findings, we placed these happiness determinants into three broad categories, labeled as, Health, Hope, and Harmony. We conceptualized the first category, "Health", as a complete state of mental, emotional, and physical well-being. We conceptualized the second category "Hope" as the highest degree of well-founded expectation such as goal achievement and personal and economic growth. Lastly, we conceptualized the third category "Harmony" as a state of being in alignment with aspects of social, familial, cultural, and environmental determinants. The relationships between all categorized determinants and happiness are further elucidated below ( Figure 2).

Health and Happiness
A total of 56 studies (Table A1) examined the determinants of health. For precision and simplicity, the Health determinants were categorized under mental, emotional, and physical determinants based on the patterns that emerged across the studies.

Mental Health and Happiness
A total of nineteen studies examined the effects of mental health on happiness. The age range of the participants across these studies was between 10 and 99 years, and the participants were from China, Europe, Germany, India, Iran, Korea, New Zealand, Romania, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, the UK, and the USA. These studies used both female and male participants where a majority were male (55% female, 45% male).
Thirteen studies showed an increase in happiness caused by mental health determinants such as positive general mental health, mindfulness, decreased posttraumatic stress symptoms, creativity, and self-affirmation. Six studies showed a decrease in happiness caused by the determinants of mental health such as adverse mental health outcomes, depression, poor perception of health, lifetime trauma, addiction, and heavy use of screenbased media. These determinants were seen to have a negative relationship with happiness across Asian, American, Black, Hispanic, Native American, Mixed, and White cultures and ethnic groups. Several studies investigated mental health treatment and its relationship with happiness. A group of researchers showed that meditation (seven-day intensive Vipassana retreat) enhanced happiness [34]. Another research study found that a greater number of sessions per client and decreased post-traumatic stress symptoms were associated with greater counselor happiness [35]. Mindfulness, grit, and coping competence were found to positively predict happiness [9,[36][37][38]. Hope and mindfulness were found to share a positive relationship with happiness, and the recognition of new possibilities and personal strength predicted happiness [39,40]. Another group of researchers showed that engaging in spontaneous self-affirmation was related to greater happiness and that self-esteem is an antecedent of happiness [41,42].
Several studies examined negative determinants of happiness. A research study found that a poorer perception of mental health was associated with less happiness [43]. Another study showed daily subtle negative experiences were related to adverse mental health outcomes, such as depression, suicidality, and decreased happiness [44]. A study that examined alexithymia, depression, anxiety, stress, and the relationship of fatigue with happiness, found that decreased posttraumatic stress symptoms were associated with greater counselor happiness [45]. Higher rates of current depression were associated with higher levels of happiness seeking, and greater distress (behavioral health) was associated with lower global happiness [46]. Research showed depression was significantly and negatively associated with pleasure [47], which in turn is associated with happiness. Research revealed an association between creativity and depression and happiness ratings [48]. Other studies examined traumatic life events and happiness. The relationship between lifetime trauma and happiness found that bereavement of a child was associated with lower levels of happiness [49,50]. A negative relationship between stressful life events and happiness was found among humbler people [51].
Studies that examined the association between addiction and happiness found that heavy screen-based media use was associated with less happiness [52], and higher addiction led to lower levels of happiness [53]. A study found internet addiction significantly related to subjective unhappiness [18].

Emotional Health and Happiness
A total of nine studies examined the effects of emotional health on happiness. The age range of the participants across these studies was between 9 and 64 years, and the participants were from Asia, Africa, Australia, Canada, China, Europe, India, the Middle East, the UK, and the USA. These studies also used both female and male participants (50% female, 50% male).
All nine studies showed an increase in happiness across countries caused by myriad emotional health determinants that included psychological well-being, Big Five personality traits, humor, gratitude, efficacy, caring climate, and positive emotions. These determinants were seen to have a positive association with happiness.
A study found that psychopathic personality traits such as fearless dominance positively correlated with higher durable happiness and negatively correlated with fluctuating happiness [54]. Fluctuating happiness was described as a sudden increase in happiness, followed by a sudden decrease [54]. Big Five personality traits of extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness to experiences were found to be associated with subjective happiness [33]. Holistic wellness and resilience were found to be determinants of happiness [33,55]. Similarly, psychological well-being was found to have a significant positive association with subjective happiness [56]. Research showed a positive association between positive emotions and greater happiness [57]. Positivity predicted positive emotions with greater happiness [14].
Efficacy and a caring climate were positively associated with happiness (emotional health) [58]. Adaptive humor styles (affiliative humor and self-enhancing humor) significantly predicted subjective happiness, whereas maladaptive humor styles (aggressive humor and self-defeating humor) did not strongly predict subjective happiness [59]. Gratitude practice was found to bolster happiness [59].
Various studies investigated psychological determinants of subjective happiness. Three positive psychology determinants that included gratitude visits, three good things in life, and using signature strengths in a new way, were found to increase happiness [28]. Positive psychological intervention improved happiness of patients undergoing in vitro fertilization as a treatment to become pregnant [60].

Physical Health and Happiness
A total of 28 studies examined the effects of physical health on happiness. The age range of participants across these studies was between 5 and 100 years, and the participants were from 44 countries including Africa, Canada, 15 European countries, the Far East, France, Germany, Georgia, Greece, India, Iran, Italy, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Palestine, Poland, South America, Taiwan, the UK, and the USA. These studies also used most male participants (45% female, 55% male).
A total of 16 studies showed an increase in happiness caused by various physical health determinants that included regular physical activity, general physical health, the health of parents, a healthy diet, health insurance, cochlear implantation surgery, and home dialysis, and nine studies showed a decrease in happiness caused by various determinants of physical health such as poor health, disability, handicap, abuse, advancing age, disfigurement, transition to adulthood, older transgender youth, perceived illness, and health problems.
A study by a group of researchers showed that general health is associated with general happiness [61]. Similarly, health was found to positively associate with happiness [22]. Physical activity was associated with higher levels of happiness [62] and increasing the volume of physical activity was found to be associated with higher levels of happiness [63]. Another study found that individuals who are more physically active are happier [64]. A study also found that regular physical activity was associated with greater happiness [65].
Some studies examined severe disability and illness with happiness. A group of researchers found increased levels of perceived illness to be significantly associated with decreased happiness [66]. More health problems and greater perceived seriousness of the health problems/effects were found to be associated with less happiness [67]. Disability was found to be associated with moderate to large drops in happiness over time [68]. Positive meta-stereotype (positive image) and better perceived general health were associated with higher overall happiness, whereas feelings of loneliness and disability/handicap were associated with lower overall happiness [69]. Suffering from a severe disability was associated with less happiness, and higher BMI was associated with steeper declines in happiness [70]. Conversely, greater happiness was also found among handicapped youth vs. control handicapped youth [16]. People with disfigurements were subjectively judged as being less happy [71].
Several studies investigated medical health policies and the perceptions of health and their relation to happiness. A study showed that national health insurance significantly increased happiness [72]. Cochlear implantation surgery was found to increase happiness in mothers of children with hearing loss [73]. Higher levels of happiness were found among home dialysis patients [66]. Another study reported greater happiness post-renal transplant [74]. Use of a microswitch-based program for Rett syndrome (promotes locomotion fluency) was found to increase happiness [75]. Some studies established relationships between age and happiness in general and based on early trauma and stressful events experienced throughout life. Some studies found no significant difference in the happiness levels between children, adolescents, and adults [10,76]. Another study showed individual happiness determined by age and found a U-shaped relationship between age and happiness [77]. Studies also found a trend in the trajectory of happiness from early adulthood to midlife [8,78]; they showed that older adults who experienced traumatic events during childhood vs. after the transition to adulthood exhibited lower subjective happiness; as age increased, happiness levels decreased. Transition to adulthood exhibited lower subjective happiness and happiness showed a downward trend in the older age groups [79,80]. Research showed a negative association between a past-negative time perspective and happiness with aging [81]. A study found that older transgender youth experienced lower happiness than younger patients [82]. Being younger, widowed, or separated from a spouse and experiencing high levels of stress had significant direct effects on diminishing happiness with low levels of health satisfaction [83]. Another study showed that eudaimonia and hedonic happiness remained relatively stable across the lifespan only in the most affluent nations [84]. This showed the role of determinants in the relationship between age and happiness.

Hope and Happiness
Hope was an emergent happiness theme. A total of 23 studies (Table A2) examined the hope-based determinants of happiness, classified into the categories of purpose and goal achievement, personal growth, and economic growth, based on the patterns that emerged across the studies. Within these categories, goal achievement, task performance, a greater set of goals to pursue, the enjoyment of and success at work, life satisfaction, and positive thinking about the future had a positive association with happiness; socioeconomic status, economic scarcity, and unemployment had a positive association with happiness.

Goal Achievement and Happiness
A total of 10 studies identified a range of work-and study-related determinants that influenced happiness through hope for goal achievement. The age range of participants was between 15 and 94 years, and the participants were from 32 countries including Asia, China, Europe, Germany, Iran, and the USA. Both female and male participants were present in these studies, with a majority being female (55% female, 45% male).
All 10 studies showed an increase in happiness caused by the determinants of goal and purpose that included occupation, task performance, goal focus, a greater set of goals to pursue, education, the enjoyment of and success at work, occupational control, compensation, scholastic achievement, self-employment, job training, and need-supplies across different communities.
Mastery-approach goals were found to facilitate higher levels of happiness with task performance than performance-approach goals in conditions of unfavorable social comparisons [85]. Greater elective selection (choosing a particular goal or set of goals to pursue), loss-based selection (selecting goals in the face of resource loss), optimization (enhancing or acquiring resources to achieve a goal), and compensation (reallocating resources towards another goal to maintain functioning at a specific level) were found related to greater happiness [86]. A person's valence success at a task predicted greater happiness when they succeeded, but greater unhappiness when they failed [87]. High core self-evaluation and needs-supplies fit (congruence between employees' needs and the rewards received for work) significantly predicted greater happiness [88]. Enjoyment of and success in work and serious hard-working living were determinants contributing to happiness [29]. Job training, cognition, health, social network, and extraversion explained a substantial proportion of variance in happiness [89]. Higher occupational status corresponded to greater happiness [90]. Similarly, more education, higher personal income, and greater occupational control were related to increased happiness (in men) [91]. Job satisfaction in self-employed workers vs. organizational workers is related to greater happiness [92]. Nations with better scholastic achievement performances (mathematics, reading, and scientific literacy) displayed higher happiness scores [93].

Personal Growth and Happiness
A total of eight studies examined the effects of personal growth on happiness. The age range of the participants across these studies was between 18 and 91 years, and the participants were from Ghana, Slovenia, Switzerland, and the USA. Both female and male participants were present in these studies, with the majority being female (55% female, 45% male). The determinants of personal growth on happiness that emerged were life satisfaction, positive thinking about oneself, growth mindsets, opportunities for learning, perceived power, personal meaning, and positive engagement.
All studies showed an increase in happiness caused by personal growth determinants such as personal growth, life satisfaction, positive thinking about oneself, growth mindsets, opportunities for learning, perceived power, personal meaning, and positive engagement.
Emotional intelligence, personal growth initiative, and life satisfaction showed an association with happiness [94]. Growth mindsets led to stronger beliefs in the changeable nature of happiness and were found associated with greater well-being and greater relationship satisfaction [32]. Perceived power was positively related to happiness [95]. Other studies examined the association between meaning, positive engagement in happiness showed that meaning and engagement were positively associated with happiness [31]. Orientation to pleasure, meaning, and engagement (dimension-centered approach) was positively associated with happiness [96]. Rumination inducing messages led to less happiness, whereas hope-inducing messages led to greater happiness [97]. Higher personal mastery and positive health behaviors were positively correlated with happiness [98]. Higher resilience was associated with greater joviality and happiness [99].

Economic Growth and Happiness
A total of five studies examined the effects of economic growth on happiness. These studies employed the following happiness measures: The age range of the participants across these studies was between 15 and 91 years, and the participants were from 32 cultures across 6 continents and 100 countries that included Asia, Africa, America, China, Indonesia, National Survey, Pakistan, Philippines, and Thailand. Both female and male participants were present in these studies, the majority being female (52% female, 48% male).
Three studies showed an increase in happiness caused by the determinants of economic growth that included increased economic growth, socio-economic status, and fiscal decentralization across economically diverse communities. Two studies showed a negative impact on happiness caused by the determinants of economic growth that included less economic freedom, economic scarcity, the earnings of others, unemployment, and economic disparity across communities.
The determinants of economic growth on happiness, such as socioeconomic status, and fiscal decentralization increased happiness (Table A2). Less economic freedom, economic scarcity, the earnings of others, unemployment, and economic disparity were determinants of economic growth that harmed happiness, as reported in the three studies referenced below.
Subjective socioeconomic status and coming from a higher-income country positively correlated with happiness [100]. Rapid economic growth and rises in the price of housing led to greater happiness in older people than the youth [101]. Income did not affect the level of happiness of those who lived in either urban or rural areas [102]. Fiscal decentralization (improved capacity of districts to deliver public services) significantly increased citizen happiness [103].
Other studies looked at the impact of economic scarcity on happiness. Individuals with unemployment and low health status reported lower happiness [104]. A study found less economic freedom was negatively associated with happiness [105]. These studies show that social comparison rather than absolute earnings or economic status has a great influence on the assessment of happiness. Collectively, these studies show the impact of one's economic status on happiness, whereas lower status has a greater negative impact on happiness.

Harmony and Happiness
Harmony emerged as a happiness determinants category, where 76 studies (Table A3) examined the determinants of harmony on happiness. For precision and simplicity, the harmony determinants were categorized under social, family, culture, and environment determinants based on the patterns that emerged across the studies.

Social Harmony and Happiness
A total of 12 studies examined the effects of social relationships on happiness and found a positive relationship between them. The age range of the participants across these studies was between 16 and 79 years, and the participants were from 34 countries including Asia, the Americas, Spain, Canada, Germany, South Africa, Slovak, Uganda, the UK, and the USA. Both female and male participants were present in these studies, the majority being female (54% female, 46% male).
In total, 11 studies showed an increase in happiness caused by the determinants of social context that included prosocial behavior, social relations, life balance, leisure, social support, sense of community, socializing, developing positive thinking about social groups, nurturing social relationships, and social context. One study showed no significant relationship between social support and happiness. Study showed that individual-level happiness was determined by social context, i.e., age, education, employer status, and health [106]. Prosocial actions (acts of kindness towards others) led to greater increase in happiness than self-focused actions and neutral behaviors [107]. Prosocial spending was consistently associated with greater happiness [108]. Influence, social relations, life balance, optimism, work, and leisure were all positively associated with happiness levels [15]. Social relations, higher social support, and a sense of community, even online (Facebook), contributed to decreased loneliness and increased happiness [109][110][111]. School belonging mediated the association between social and academic competence and students' concurrent happiness [112]. However, a study found no significant relationship between social support and happiness [113].
These studies collectively show that a sense of belonging, good social relations, and support are important determinants of happiness. Other studies examined the effect of social activities on happiness. Training programs in happiness that centered on fundamentals such as keeping busy, spending more time socializing, developing positive thinking, and working on a healthy personality demonstrated significant happiness increase over a control group receiving summary instruction in the program [30]. Activities endorsed by happiness seekers included nurturing social relationships, practicing acts of kindness, pursuing goals, practicing religion and/or spirituality, using strategies to cope with stress or adversity, avoiding overthinking and social comparison, practicing meditation, goal evaluation and tracking, savoring the moment, gratitude journaling, thinking optimistically, remembering happy days, and strengthening social relationships [13].

Family Harmony and Happiness
A total of 33 studies examined the effects of harmony in the family on happiness and found a positive relationship between them. The age range of participants across these studies was between 3 and 96 years, and the participants were from Africa, China, Egypt, Europe, the Far East, Iceland, India, Iran, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Portugal, South Africa, South America, Spain, the UK, and the USA. These studies used both female and male participants, where the majority were female (65% female, 35% male).
A total of 29 studies showed an increase in happiness caused by the determinants of family, which included family support, family communication, good connections with family, emotional support, home-dwelling elders, time spent with parents, positive mothering, positive marital relationship, entering cohabitation, perceived help from spouse, gender levels, women's self-esteem, quality of experience in wife's role, pregnant women, work-family conciliation, higher resilience, and women with higher affective intensity.
Studies that revolved around family communication, emotional support, and family social support, showed that improved subjective happiness led to family happiness [114][115][116][117]. Happiness was found to be positively associated with good connections with family and friends, school, regular exercise, and meals with family [118]. Family social support, i.e., cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict, showed a positive association with happiness [119]. Family communication, family well-being, and gratitude intervention improved family happiness [114,120]. Similarly, family communication, emotional support, and family social support were found leading to improved subjective happiness and family happiness [115].
Some studies examined the relationship between elders and happiness. Highly successful and home-dwelling elders demonstrated significantly higher happiness [121]. Emotional support from parents together with time spent with parents had the largest positive influence on happiness [122]. Higher perceptions of work-family conciliation predicted higher happiness [123]. Positive mothering led to increased joy and pleasure [124] and emotional deregulation [114].
Several studies examined marital relationships and happiness. Studies found that success in dealing with marriage contributed to happiness [29]; and that a positive relationship existed between marriage and happiness [125]. Higher happiness was found in a balanced marriage [126]; while fewer difficulties in a marital relationship status positively related to happiness and showed that perceived help from the spouse increased partners' happiness [127]. A more balanced marriage with intra-couple education (both husband and wife are well-educated) demonstrated higher happiness [126]. Unhappily married couples showed a deficit in problem-solving, in more unresolved problems, less involvement with one another, and less shared sexuality [128]. Less happiness in marriage was caused by viewing explicit sexual movies [129]. Other forms of close, intimate relationships also contributed to happiness. Studies found that entering cohabitation is as beneficial as entering marriage and contributed to a peoples' happiness [19,130].
Moreover, successful marital and parental relations were also positively associated with happiness. Therapist contact programs improved marital happiness [131]. In a study that was conducted in the USA with a racial/ethnic composition of the total enrolled sample that included both mothers and children, with 18% African American/Black, 79% Latino/Hispanic, and 1% of mixed racial/ethnic background, found that children of mothers living with HIV who underwent the Teaching, Raising, and Communicating with Kids (TRACK) program, exhibited increase in happiness [132].
Some studies examined women's gender role's impact on happiness. Self-esteem, the number of roles a woman occupied (e.g., paid worker, wife, mother), family income, being a paid worker, and quality of experience in a wife's role were significantly, positively associated with pleasure [47,133]. Women declared a lower level of happiness compared to men in post-socialist countries [134]. By contrast, women with higher affective intensity than men were as happy as men [79]. Women disagreeing with subservient gender attitudes reported higher happiness [8,135], and research showed males had higher happiness levels than females [136]. Most pregnant women, of maternal age (21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32)(33)(34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39)(40), and with no smoking history independently correlated with higher happiness [17]. Women with more planned pregnancies, and who had more difficulty in deciding to terminate, experienced lower levels of happiness when it came to deciding about abortions [137]. Most of the women in poverty/victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) showed an optimistic outlook, and higher feelings of social support led to greater happiness [138].
Finally, studies showed a decrease in happiness caused by various determinants of the family such as unhappy couples, negative marital relationships, viewing explicit sexual movies, and women terminating pregnancies [139,140].

Cultural Harmony and Happiness
A total of seven studies examined the effects of culture on happiness. The age range of participants across these studies was between 11 and 90 years, and the participants were from Australia, Canada, China, Germany, Ghana/Sub-Saharan Africa, India, Japan, Malaysia, Netherlands, Rwanda, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, and the USA. Both female and male participants were used in these studies, where the majority were female (56% female, 44% male). Six studies showed an increase in happiness caused by the determinants of culture, ethnicity, indigenous culture, multiculturalism, segregation, self-identification, and ethnic identification. Only one study showed a decrease in happiness caused by the determinants of culture.
All studies showed an increase in happiness caused by the determinants of culture that included culture, ethnicity, religion, spirituality indigenous culture, multiculturalism, segregation, self-identification, ethnic identification, faith, forgiveness, religious attendance, tolerance, and spirituality.
Studies found that the characterization of a happy person differed at a cultural level, [12,141], and found culture and polymorphism interacted to influence the perception of happiness. Some studies examined the role of indigenous culture on happiness. Indigenous Australians in remote areas reported higher levels of happiness [142]. Mountain indigenous peoples, females, the elderly, and those who were healthier, wealthier, highly educated, with western beliefs, who received medical benefits, and were without housing problems or financial difficulties were more likely to be happy [143]. Other researchers reported higher levels of happiness among indigenous people [142,143]. Other studies examined the role of identity, multiculturism, and segregation on happiness. National identification, ethnic identification, self-identification, strict identity duality, perceived acceptance, and feeling at home were significantly positively associated with happiness [144]. A positive relationship was found between perceived school multiculturalism and subjective happiness [145]. Decreased segregation was associated with a reduction in happiness among Black populations [146].

Religious Harmony and Happiness
A total of 12 studies examined the effects of religion on happiness. The age range of the participants across these studies was between 11 and 90 years, and the participants were from Australia, Canada, China, Germany, Ghana/Sub-Saharan Africa, India, Japan, Malaysia, Netherlands, Rwanda, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, and the USA. Both female and male participants were used in these studies, where the majority were female (56% female, 44% male).
A total of 10 studies showed an increase in happiness caused by the determinants of religion, faith, forgiveness, religious attendance, tolerance, and spirituality. Two studies showed a decrease in happiness caused by spiritual struggles.
Some studies examined the role of religious faith and forgiveness on happiness. The relationship between lifetime trauma and happiness was fully moderated for people who experienced a religious transformation [147]. A significant positive contribution of forgiveness (self, others, situation) was found to lead towards greater happiness [148]. Personal happiness was predicted by active religious involvement and regular attendance to religious services [149,150]. Religious attendance and religiosity were significant positive predictors of happiness [151]. Synagogue attendance, prayer and religious attendance were associated with greater happiness [152]. Happiness positively correlated with the characteristics of tolerance, helpfulness, beliefs, spirituality, responsibility, purposefulness, worthiness, trust, and reliability [153]. Religiousness positively affected with happiness [154]. Practicing Islamic-based gratitude exercises (associating blessings with Allah) raised participants' happiness levels [155]. Subjective happiness was positively correlated with non-organized religious activity and intrinsic religiosity [156]. Other studies examined the role of spiritual struggles and forgiveness on happiness. More spiritual struggles were associated with less happiness [157]. Specifically, all five types of the religious and spiritual struggles assessed (divine, demonic, interpersonal, moral, and ultimate meaning) correlated significantly negatively with happiness [158].

Environmental Harmony and Happiness
A total of 10 studies examined the effects of the environment on happiness. The age range of participants across these studies was between 18 and 93 years, and the participants were from Australia, Taiwan, the UK, and the USA. Both female and male participants were used in these studies, where the majority were female (60% female, 40% male).
Nine studies showed an increase in happiness caused by the determinants of environment such as ecology, aesthetic neighborhoods, park visitation, green environment, green space, more water, better air quality, quiet neighborhoods, dog ownership, horticulture therapy, and increased environmentally friendly fruit and vegetable consumption. One study showed a decrease in happiness caused by the determinant of environment that included disaster, whereas one study showed a decrease in happiness.
Living in urban vs. rural areas was associated with greater happiness [65]. Park visitation and greater diversity of park activities were found to stimulate happiness [159,160]. Neighborhoods with higher levels of aesthetics, more water, green space, and higher perceived safety were associated with greater happiness [11]. Better air quality/less pollution and quietness in the neighborhood, a higher level of ecological diversity derived from a green environment, diversity of species, and perceived naturalness enhanced happiness [161]. Horticulture therapy that included plant cultivation and plant-related material application significantly improved happiness [162]. Whereas these studies show the relationship between harmony with the local environment and happiness, other studies show the relationship between the foreign environment and happiness. A study showed that travel created short-term happiness through emotional and relational experiences [163]. Harmony with the environment also pertained to environmentally friendly food consumption. Increased fruit and vegetable consumption was predictive of increased happiness [100,164]. Dog ownership increased happiness [165]. This study indicates harmony with species in the immediate environment, important to happiness.
On the negative side, a study showed that environmental disasters significantly decreased happiness [115]. Age, leisure activity engagement, and the earnings of others in the neighborhood were negatively associated with happiness [166,167].
The findings of this systematic review and the subsequent categorization of the predominant emerging happiness determinants resolve previous disputes or indecisive issues about happiness by presenting determinants of happiness that were supported by most studies. Presenting these determinants under three consistent categories of Health, Hope, and Harmony have been depicted in Figure 2 as a process flow diagram.

Discussion
The purpose of this systematic review was to advance scholarly knowledge by critically reviewing [23][24][25] the literature on what constitutes happiness and the determinants of happiness across cultures and countries. We identified and analyzed 155 empirical studies that examined the effects of different determinants on happiness from over 100 countries and 44 cultures. Based on the patterns that emerged among these studies, the myriad happiness determinants were placed into three major categories: Health, Hope, and Harmony (Appendix A: Tables A1-A3).
The research questions that guided this inquiry were: Is happiness a temporary state of mind or emotion? Is happiness something we are born with, attain with time, or both? Or Is happiness a period of long-term life satisfaction and general well-being that we all aspire to have in our lives? The findings of this study revealed that happiness can be attained, decreased, and increased over one's lifetime. Happiness can also be a state infused by a period of long-term life satisfaction and general well-being. The happiness determinants derived from the reviewed studies support the transient nature of happiness and its influence by internal and external determinants and circumstances.
Health (mental, emotional, and physical health) and happiness studies show that by focusing on positive health determinants, one may promote the individual's and society's well-being for all ages, thus contributing to SDG Good Health and Well-Being (Goal 3).
Hope (goal achievement, personal, and emotional growth) and happiness studies show that by focusing on positive hope determinants, one may promote inclusivity and lifelong learning, sustainable economic growth, and employment opportunity for all ages, supporting SDG Decent Work and Economic Growth (Goal 8).
Harmony (social, familial, cultural, and environmental) and happiness studies show that by focusing on positive Harmony determinants, cities, and human settlements can become inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable through sustainable consumption and production patterns, supporting SDG Responsible Consumption and Production (Goal 12) through evidence-based research.
Happiness is conceptualized as an experience that occurs intermittently over one's lifetime. This fluctuating experience occurs because of the permutations and combinations of various mental, emotional, physical, goal achievement, personal, economic growth, social, family, cultural, religious, and environmental determinants, which can be categorized comprehensively as one's holistic aspirations for Health, Hope, and/or Harmony. These determinants can positively or negatively impact the experience of happiness and make it fluctuate (either increase or decrease) at different times in one's life journey. This fluctuating experience of happiness is a result of either a positive or a negative influence of the determinant/s during a given period. For example and to name a few, determinants such as mental depression, addiction, physical disability, economic poverty, social loneliness, separation from a spouse, the death of a loved one, and pollution that have a negative impact vs. determinants such as creativity, humor, relaxation, success at work, doing well at school, financial independence, national pride, religious faith, and pet ownership that have a positive impact can either result in a decrease or increase in one's happiness experience at a particular given time when the determinant exists.
The conceptualization of happiness has been depicted as an "Integrated Model of the Determinants of Happiness" (Figure 3).

Theoretical Contribution
This review paper contributes to the literature in the interdisciplinary area of environmental health sciences and public health, by presenting an "Integrated Model of the Determinants of Happiness" applicable across cultures and countries. The determinants of happiness are depicted by the authors in the inductively derived "Integrated Model of the Determinants of Happiness" (Figure 3). The model depicts that the three main determinants of happiness, i.e., Health, Hope, and Harmony, are interrelated and interact with each other in a symbiotic manner to determine the happiness of individuals and societies. The "Integrated Model of the Determinants of Happiness" provides a holistic framework that empowers individuals and societies to take control of their happiness ( Figure 3).

Implications for Policies and Practice
The systematic review [23] has several implications for policy and practice. The "Integrated Model of the Determinants of Happiness" serves as a foundation and tool for building happiness assessments for measuring the categories of Health, Hope, and Harmony. The results of such assessment can help policymakers and public health practitioners design and implement evidence-based happiness policies and clinical practices that will help individuals and families work on creating their happiness and making societies happier overall. The clinical public health implications are to implement policies and practices at a national level that foster the happiness of individuals as this will result in more productive, vital members of society that can meaningfully contribute to the prosperity of a country. Ultimately, this will lead to beneficial individual, familial, organizational, and economic outcomes, because happy people are more productive people.

Social Implications
The current times of geopolitical upheaval and disruption as well as the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in instability and uncertainty in the external environment [168,169]. Given these exogenous shock events and global disruptions and distress, "the Integrated Model of the Determinants of Happiness" has great significance, relevance, and impact as it depicts the elements of life that are vital for happiness-something we all strive towards and desire to attain and maintain throughout our lives.
The impacts of anthropogenic determinants on the quality of the environment, the interrelationships between environmental health and the quality of life and happiness, as well as the sociocultural, political, and economic related to happiness across the globe, are noteworthy considerations in fostering the happiness of individuals and societies.  Figure 3 depicts the three key categories of happiness and their underlying determinants. Health: a complete state of mental, emotional, and physical well-being. Hope: the highest degree of a well-founded expectation of goal achievement, personal, and economic growth. Harmony: a state of being in alignment with aspects of social, familial, cultural, religion, and environmental. + shows a positive impact. − shows a negative impact.

Limitations and Future Research
Some overlap was seen among research studies grouped under the three categories of Health, Hope, and Harmony. However, as a strict demarcation was not possible due to the interrelated and symbiotic nature of the three categories of happiness, the Health, Hope, and Harmony findings were grouped based on the dominant and common underlying determinants that emerged under each category. Future research can address this limitation.
Moreover, this research was conducted before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, whereas happiness studies conducted before the pandemic were analyzed. Therefore, we cannot make any inferences about how happiness has changed among individuals and societies during the pandemic, nor can we make any inferences about whether certain determinants of happiness become more prominent than others during times of crises and adversity.
There is scope for research in this field as each of the categories of happiness can be an area of further research considering external, global exogenous events such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Advanced statistical tools such as confirmatory factor analyses or path modeling can make for a more robust understanding of the pathways to explain happiness, thereby allowing for the statistical generalization of authors' findings to populations across the globe.

Conclusions
This systematic review [23] investigated the happiness construct to arrive at a universally applicable conceptualization of the determinants of happiness across the globe. By examining studies on determinants of happiness across 44 cultures and 100 countries in the past 90 years, this systematic review uncovered that happiness is constituted by multiple determinants that can be placed into three main categories: 'Health', 'Hope', and 'Harmony'. The happiness determinants are one's mental, emotional, and physical well-being (Health), having a purposeful holistic encompassing work-life balance, nurturing social relationships, caring for self and others (Hope), and being in harmony with one's culture, traditions, community, and the environment moderated by economic, social, cultural, and environmental conditions that impact individual and societal happiness (Harmony).
Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available in the Appendix A. Males showed higher happiness levels than females. As age increased, happiness levels decreased. Happiness was significantly higher in cities than in centers of provinces and rural areas, in never married or married persons in comparison to those divorced or widowed, in people with academic education and employed persons. The WHO defined different aspects of positive health as life satisfaction, quality of life, happiness, and self-rated health, and developed appropriate scales to measure positive health. Criterion validity of scales with a 40-question national happiness scale was examined in this research. The correlation coefficient of scales with a 40-item happiness scale was between 0. 49 100% Female).
Self-esteem, number of roles a woman occupied (e.g., paid worker, wife, mother), family income, paid worker, and quality of experience in a wife's role were significantly, positively associated with pleasure. Depression was significantly negatively associated with pleasure. Happiness or satisfaction are used as indices of well-being. Greater functional connectivity between the inferior frontal gyrus and a cluster including the right fusiform gyrus, right cerebellum, and right lingual gyrus was associated with greater happiness ratings. Greater connectivity between the cuneus and a cluster including the left occipital pole, the left fusiform gyrus, and the left lingual gyrus was associated with lower happiness ratings.
Positive mood induction resulted in mean in-scanner happiness ratings of 46   Health communication, 31(12), 1447-1459.  Grit (perseverance of effort, consistency of interests, and adaptability to situations) positively predicted life interdependent happiness. Study 2 showed grit positively predicted life satisfaction, positive affect, and interdependent happiness. It also indicates that grit is linked to subjective well-being, interdependent happiness, and optimal psychological health. Interdependent happiness pertains to "global, subjective assessment of whether one is interpersonally harmonized with other people, being quiescent, and being ordinary, and connected to the collective way of well-being" (  Task involvement was positively associated with happiness. The results showed that task involvement was related to happiness, pride, and hope positively, and these relationships were mediated by perceived performance. Ego involvement was positively related to happiness (Dewar and Kavussanu (2011)). Psychopathic personality traits-Fearless dominance was positively correlated with higher durable happiness and correlated negatively with fluctuating happiness. Impulsive antisociality was negatively correlated with durable happiness and correlated positively with fluctuating happiness. Research indicates that happiness, or affective well-being, is related primarily to the frequency, not to the intensity, of positive affect (PA). Fearless dominance (PPI-I) was positively correlated with higher durable happiness, the presence of meaning in life, personal growth, and hope, and correlated negatively with fluctuating happiness. Durable happiness includes characteristics such as contentment and inner peace. Fluctuating happiness represents a sudden increase in happiness, followed by a sudden decrease.  There was an upward trend in the trajectory of happiness from early adulthood to midlife.     People with "disfigurements" were subjectively judged as less happy. The authors suggested that people with "disfigurements" are perceived as having "fewer desirable personality traits" (e.g., emotional stability, conscientiousness), internal attributes (e.g., happiness, intelligence), and social attributes (e.g., trustworthiness, popularity  Psychological well-being was significantly positively associated with subjective happiness.

Self-report item using 5-point
The results showed a significant positive relationship between subjective happiness and psychological well-being.  Culture and CNR1 polymorphism interacted to influence the perception of happiness. The subjective happiness level was the highest in Japanese individuals with the CC genotype, whereas in Canadian participants, it was the highest in individuals with the TT genotype. Furthermore, the effects of the CNR1 genotype on situation-specific happiness were also different between the groups. Happiness accompanied by being surrounded by happy people was the highest among Japanese individuals with the CC genotype, whereas among Canadian individuals, it was the highest in TT genotype carriers. Genotypes on happiness might differ among different cultures because the concept of happiness varies by culture.
In Japan, favorable external circumstances determine the concept of happiness, and in Canada, the concept of happiness centers on positive feelings.  Older adults who experienced traumatic events during childhood vs. after the transition to adulthood exhibited lower subjective happiness.
Older adults whose most distressing trauma occurred during childhood reported lower subjective happiness (M = 5.11, SD = 1.18) compared to those whose most distressing trauma    Women with more planned pregnancies and who had more difficulty deciding to terminate experienced lower levels of happiness when it came to deciding about abortions. The participants completed semiannual phone surveys to assess whether they felt that having the abortion was the right decision for them; negative emotions (regret, anger, guilt, sadness) about the abortion; and positive emotions (relief, happiness).   Encouraging growth mindsets led to stronger beliefs in the changeable nature of happiness. Happiness growth mindsets were associated with greater well-being and greater relationship satisfaction. In the current work, we extend the implicit theory framework to happiness to foster a more complete understanding of the processes underlying well-being appraisals and subsequent satisfaction with relationships, jobs, and life more generally. Happiness is associated with well-being and related satisfaction outcomes.

No significant difference was found in the happiness levels between adolescents and adults.
Happiness is about our lives as a whole; it includes the fluctuating feelings we experience every day but also our overall satisfaction with life. It is influenced by our genes, upbringing, and our external situation. However, crucially, it is also heavily influenced by our choices, our inner attitudes, how we approach our relationships, our personal values, and our sense of purpose. Happiness is the sum over a lifetime of all specific feelings (Kahneman, 1999).  There was a significant positive relationship between happiness and extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness to experiences. The results of correlation analyses demonstrated that there was a significant positive relationship between happiness (p < 0.001) and each of the personality trait dimensions of extraversion (p < 0.001, r = 0.594), agreeableness (p < 0.001, r = 0.431), neuroticism (p < 0.001, r = 0.368), conscientiousness (p < 0.001, r = 0.351), and openness to experiences (p < 0.001, r = 0.151). According to the theory of personality by Eysenck SB et al., happiness is a personality variable for which a biological basis can be considered [26].   More education, higher personal income, and greater occupational control were related to increased happiness (in men), and increasing age was related to lower happiness (in women).

+ inner attitudes
Stepwise regression results indicate that occupational characteristics (higher occupational complexity, control, and personal income) explain a small but significant proportion of variance in each measure of psychological well-being controlling for the effects of age and education. Occupational characteristics also explain a significant proportion of variance in self-confidence for both men and women and in happiness for men. Testing for causality showed that prosocial spending was consistently associated with greater happiness.

Cross-cultural research has shown that the within-country correlations between how much money individuals make, and their happiness may vary according to a country's average income (e.g., Deaton, 2008; Diener and Biswas-Diener, 2002). This
suggests that the link between how individuals spend that money, and their happiness might also differ between poor and wealthy countries.   A training program in happiness that centered on fundamentals including keeping busy, spending more time socializing, developing positive thinking, and working on a healthy personality demonstrated significant happiness increases in a control group receiving summary instructions in the program. In philosophy, in psychological theory, and for the average individual, personal happiness is generally held to be the aim of all human endeavor. Happiness has come to be defined as something much broader in scope than a temporary mood state. Mastery-approach goals facilitated higher levels of happiness with task performance than performance-approach goals in conditions of unfavorable social comparisons. The interactive effects between performance-approach goals and normative information were statistically significant in the two regression analyses that aimed to predict competence or happiness with task performance.

Self-esteem is an antecedent of happiness. Cross-cultural research established that an interdependent construal of the self is associated with higher self-esteem, which in turn, is associated with increased happiness. Structural equation modeling analyses verified that self-esteem is an antecedent of both happiness and dimensions of independent self-construal. One's positive evaluation of self-worth precedes one's self-perception of being a happy and independent
person.  Characteristics and Behaviors-Higher rates of current depression were associated with higher levels of happiness seeking. Most activities endorsed by happiness seekers were nurturing social relationships, practicing acts of kindness, pursuing goals, practicing religion and/or spirituality, using strategies to cope with stress or adversity, avoiding overthinking and social comparison, practicing meditation, goal evaluation and tracking, and savoring the moment. Happiness is more than just a personally important goal or a set of pleasant mood states; a meta-analysis of 225 cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental studies found that happiness is related to, precedes, and causes a variety of favorable life outcomes (Lyubomirsky, King, and Diener, 2005     Factors contributing to happiness were the enjoyment of and success in work, good health in childhood, popularity, success in dealing with people, marriage, election to offices, the love of nature, and serious hard-working living. Three major factors of unhappiness were: failure in love, the expectancy of loneliness in old age, fears, and shyness. The individual is called happy if he believes himself happier than most others of like age and sex, if he believed his prevailing moods cheerful, his spirits high, his satisfaction lasting, his days full of interesting and amusing things, his prevalent attitude described by such words as 'enthusiastic', 'jolly', 'tranquil', etc. Higher occupational status corresponded to greater happiness. Overt occupational characteristics of power and occupational prestige and covert characteristics of justice, self-confidence, and mental health were significant as objective social factors promoting happiness. Through a survey, we found that higher occupational status corresponded to greater happiness. Our results further confirm that happiness can be stratified based on occupational status, and our findings add to understanding of the mechanism behind how occupational status affects happiness.

+ higher occupational status
China Chinese 51      Practicing Islamic-based gratitude exercises (associating blessings with Allah) raised participants' happiness levels. The results generally supported the hypothesis that practicing Islamic-based gratitude exercise would result in higher happiness levels over time and suggested that the Islamic-based gratitude is beneficial in raising participants' happiness levels.   Indigenous Australians were less likely to report frequent periods of happiness and more likely to report periods of extreme sadness than the non-Indigenous population. Indigenous Australians in remote areas reported higher levels of happiness. The main finding is that, when using retrospective measures, those in remote areas report higher levels of happiness than those in non-remote areas. After undertaking a stepwise regression, the Indigenous status coefficient was statistically significant in the happiness estimations at the 5% level of significance after controlling for age, sex, country of birth, marital status, family type, and level of education.      Higher resilience was associated with greater joviality and happiness. Males showed greater joviality and happiness than females, noting gender effects. Gender significantly affected the three components of well-being (joviality, happiness, and sociability).     National identification, ethnic identification, self-identification, strict identity duality, perceived acceptance, and feeling at home in NL were significantly positively associated with happiness. Perceived group and personal discrimination were significantly negatively associated with happiness. A one-item measure assessed how happy participants are, ranging from 1-very happy to 5-unhappy.   A U-shaped relationship was found between age and happiness (i.e., middle-aged had less happiness). The timing of the turn varies depending on the average country-level happiness and on individuals' positions in the well-being distribution. There is now much evidence for a remarkably consistent relationship between age and happiness. The U-shaped relationship between age and happiness held in 44 of the 46 countries. Measures of life satisfaction, happiness, reported mental illness, and/or daily moods and experiences-ranging from contentment to stress and anger-help us understand a range of behaviors, as well as their welfare benefits or costs, across individuals, countries, and generations. Numerous studies have found recurrent patterns between happiness and life satisfaction (whereas the terms are often used interchangeably, the latter is a better-specified question) and important experiences such as employment, marital status, and/or earnings.  Abused wives (physically abused, psychologically abused, sexually abused, and/or economically abused) expressed lower levels of both harmony and happiness. A survey (conducted from June to August 1995) also investigated some psychological effects of such experiences (i.e., low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety; Haj-Yahia, 2000a) as well as some marital effects (i.e., commitment, communication, satisfaction, affection, harmony, and happiness). Palestinian women were hypothesized to be psychologically, physically, sexually, and economically abused (as the main predictor variables of the study); the lower their levels of marital commitment, the more negative were their patterns of communication with their husbands, and the lower were their levels of marital satisfaction, affection, happiness, and harmony (as the main criterion variables of the study).  Table A3. Cont.
Neighborhoods with higher levels of aesthetics, more water, more green space, perceived as safer, and greater function were associated with greater happiness. The perceived absence of air pollution was associated with higher levels of happiness in more highly educated participants. Individuals with a larger social network, more social cohesion, and trusted neighbors showed greater happiness. The association between social networks and happiness was stronger in men than women. Associations of 14 physical and social environmental characteristics with happiness were analyzed using multivariable multinomial regression analyses with clustered standard errors. Living in neighborhoods with higher levels of aesthetics and more water and green space was associated with being very happy. A commonly used definition of happiness is "the degree to which an individual judges the overall quality of his/her life as a whole favorably". Segregation is associated with a reduction in happiness among the Black population (i.e., members of the Black population are found to be happier in more segregated metropolitan areas). This paper explored the relationship between residential segregation and self-reported happiness. Increased segregation is associated with a reduction in happiness among the Black population. Definitions of happiness typically focus on the cognitive dimensions of how people feel about their lives; the well-known connection between self-reported happiness and physical health suggests that the results from this study are potentially relevant to a broad set of health outcomes (   Happiness was positively associated with good connections with family, friends, and school, regular exercise, and meals with family. Happiness was negatively associated with witnessing yelling and the hitting of children and adults at home, discrimination, frequent marijuana use, sexual abuse, frequent alcohol use, and having a long-term health condition. Determines possible factors which may be associated with happiness among New Zealand adolescents. Happiness was measured using the WHO well-being index. Protective factors for happiness included family, school, and peer connection, as well as family meals, exercise, and belonging to a cultural group. Happiness was positively associated with good connections with family, friends, and school, regular exercise, and meals with family.  Perceived help from a spouse increased partners' happiness, i.e., when spouses believe their help is appreciated in daily life by their partners, they feel happier. A study showed that active help was associated with more positive affect for spouses when they perceived the help increased their partner's happiness and improved their partner's well-being. Helping predicted greater positive affect for above-mean  Students from countries of the Caribbean, South America, and Sub-Saharan Africa had greater happiness scores than students from countries in North Africa and Asia. The study examined health behaviors and happiness and associated factors in low. The results indicate that the overall happiness mean score among university students across 24 countries was 13.7 (range 4-20) in middle-and high-income countries. In multivariate linear regression analysis, better subjective socio-economic status, coming from a higher income country, higher social support, higher intrinsic religiosity, higher personal mastery, positive health behaviors, and negative health behaviors) were correlated with happiness. The two positive psychological states for happiness include 'positive affect or hedonic well-being' (feelings of happiness and enjoyment) and eudaimonia well-being (human self-actualization) ( Income did not affect the level of happiness of those who lived in either urban or rural areas. The study specifically investigates the differences between the health and happiness outcomes of people who live in urban and rural areas in Thailand. Income is found to not affect the level of happiness of those who live in either urban or rural areas. The study of happiness involves various academic fields, from psychology to economics. The results of studies using macro-level data such as employment rate, pollution rate, or level of income of a country, suggest that in the past 50 years, even though the average income and consumption level of the world's population has been continuously increasing, its happiness level has not increased as indicated by the happiness indicator measured by new Economic Foundation. Macro-level data suggest that happiness derives from living in a good society and an environment that fosters generosity and is free from cheating. Micro-data found that, on average, wealthy people are happier than impoverished people. The current study uses nationally surveyed data obtained from the Happiness Indicator of a study called "The Development and Testing of the New Version of Thai Mental Health Indicator" conducted by the Department of Mental Health, Ministry of Public Health. The comparative results here suggest that rural people's level of life satisfaction is generally higher than that of urban dwellers. Income is found to have no impact on physical and mental health, pleasure, and happiness levels.  Age, leisure activity engagement, and the earnings of others in the neighborhood were negatively associated with happiness; subjective economic status/progress and religious activity attendance were positively associated with subjective happiness. The relationships of subjective happiness and self-perceived health were significantly predicted by subjective socio-economic status, but not by actual family income.   Fiscal decentralization (improved capacity of districts to deliver public services) significantly increased citizen happiness. Multilevel analysis is used to examine the effect of fiscal and political decentralization on citizen happiness and shows that fiscal decentralization is significantly associated with citizen happiness.   (+) indicates positive influence of the determinants with happiness categories (Health, Hope, Harmony). While (−) indicates a negative influence of the determinant on happiness. SD-'Standard Deviation'.