Life in the Current: Anatomy and Morphology of Utricularia neottioides

Rheophytism is extremely rare in the Utricularia genus (there are four strictly rheophytic species out of a total of about 260). Utricularia neottioides is an aquatic rheophytic species exclusively growing attached to bedrocks in the South American streams. Utricularia neottioides was considered to be trap-free by some authors, suggesting that it had given up carnivory due to its specific habitat. Our aim was to compare the anatomy of rheophytic U. neottioides with an aquatic Utricularia species with a typical linear monomorphic shoot from the section Utricularia, U. reflexa, which grows in standing or very slowly streaming African waters. Additionally, we compared the immunodetection of cell wall components of both species. Light microscopy, histochemistry, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy were used to address our aims. In U. neottioides, two organ systems can be distinguished: organs (stolons, inflorescence stalk) which possess sclerenchyma and are thus resistant to water currents, and organs without sclerenchyma (leaf-like shoots), which are submissive to the water streaming/movement. Due to life in the turbulent habitat, U. neottioides evolved specific characters including an anchor system with stolons, which have asymmetric structures, sclerenchyma and they form adhesive trichomes on the ventral side. This anchor stolon system performs additional multiple functions including photosynthesis, nutrient storage, vegetative reproduction. In contrast with typical aquatic Utricularia species from the section Utricularia growing in standing waters, U. neottioides stems have a well-developed sclerenchyma system lacking large gas spaces. Plants produce numerous traps, so they should still be treated as a fully carnivorous plant.


Introduction
The small generic section Avesicaria of the genus Utricularia L. (bladderwort) contains only two South American aquatic or partly amphibious, rheophytic species: Utricularia neottioides A.St.-Hil. & Girard and U. oliveriana Steyerm [1][2][3]. These exclusively grow attached to rocks in shallow streaming or seeping waters While the latter species closely resembles the typical, smaller terrestrial Utricularia species with spatulate leaves, U. neottioides, is morphologically one of the most modified and remarkable Utricularia The plant grows very vigorously and rapidly in a sterile in vitro culture in a half-strength Gamborg B5 medium with 2.5% sucrose [4]. The plant formed very thin stolons with finely filamentous leaves 2-5 cm long. However, any growth ex vitro as submerged in humic waters in aquaria was impossible for unknown reasons. The plant could, however, rapidly grow in a terrestrial form with 8-18 mm long filamentous leaves (diam. ca. 100-120 µm) which survived on the brown peat for 5-6 months but did not propagate further [4].
The main aim of the present paper is to characterize in detail the shoot morphology and anatomy of rheophytic U. neottiodes. Additionally, we compare it with those of a typical member of the section Utricularia, namely aquatic U. reflexa Oliv., a species with linear monomorphic shoots adapted to growing in standing waters in Africa. We also performed immunodetection of cell-wall components to determine if there were any differences between U. neottiodes and U. reflexa.

Utricularia neottioides
The plant body consists of ( Figure  The organ has an asymmetric structure and is flattened ventrally (lower side, Figure 2D,E), with the parenchyma being better developed on the dorsal and lateral sides than on the ventral side. Epidermal adhesive trichomes (produce substances which glue the stolon to rocks) occur along the ventral side ( Figure 2D,E) and the epidermal cells vary in size depending on their location. Cells on the ventral side are much smaller than those on the dorsal side ( Figures 2E and 3A,B). Cuticle has folds and these folds are not only composed of a cuticle but represent an irregular cell-wall contour covered by a cuticle ( Figure 3C Figure S2C). Adhesive trichomes occur only along the ventral side ( Figure 3A,B,D), each consisting of one bottle-shaped basal cell, one short, pedestal cell and a head cell ( Figure 3E). The lateral wall of the pedestal cell is impregnated by cutin and the head cell is strongly elongated. They produce a secretion ( Figure 3F), which is not PAS positive but stains positively with MB/AII ( Figure 3D) and the head cells stain positively with ruthenium red. Beneath the epidermis, there is a hypodermis containing sclerotic cells. The sclerenchyma forms a sheath, which surrounds a ground tissue and a cortex The stolon hypodermis has up to three layers ( Figures 2E and 3A Figure 4B) and they reflect polarized light ( Figure 4C). Pits occur and some of these are branched ( Figure 4A). The cytoplasm strand of the pits can include mitochondria ( Figure 4D). Parenchyma cells contain strongly-staining cytoplasm and are mostly filled with a PAS-positive material (probably mucilage) ( Figure 5A,B). This material stains slightly with Lugol (Supplementary Materials Figure S2). However, this material does not stain positively with ruthenium red (Supplementary Materials Figure S2A). Starch grains occur (Supplementary Materials Figure S2B,C). There are small intercellular spaces between the parenchyma cells ( Figure 5B,C), sometimes filled with a material, which stains pink with MB/AII ( Figure 5C). The vascular bundle is small and is situated closer to the ventral side and it consists of both xylem and phloem; the xylem occurs on the upper part of the bundle ( Figure 5B). One or two tracheary elements occur. Vessels have reticulate pits ( Figure 5D) and the vessel diameter varies from 7.5-9 µm. The phloem is better developed than the xylem and sieve tubes are well visible ( Figure 5D). Formation of new stolons (branching) is observed on the ventral-lateral side or the ventral side ( Figure 5E,F). the xylem and sieve tubes are well visible ( Figure 5D). Formation of new stolons (branching) is observed on the ventral-lateral side or the ventral side ( Figure 5E,F).

Running Stolons
Running stolons have a similar structure to anchor stolons ( Figure 6A-C). However, the difference occurs in the sclerenchyma development. There are only a few sclerenchyma cells on the dorsal side ( Figure 6A) or only on the ventral side ( Figure 6B). Epidermal adhesive trichomes occur along the ventral side ( Figure 6A,B). In thicker stolons, xylem is better developed than in thinner ones, and up to seven vessels may occur ( Figure 6C).

Running Stolons
Running stolons have a similar structure to anchor stolons ( Figure 6A-C). However, the difference occurs in the sclerenchyma development. There are only a few sclerenchyma cells on the dorsal side ( Figure 6A) or only on the ventral side ( Figure 6B). Epidermal adhesive trichomes occur along the ventral side ( Figure 6A,B). In thicker stolons, xylem is better developed than in thinner ones, and up to seven vessels may occur ( Figure 6C).

Basal Portion of Inflorescence Stalk-Stolon Bearing Leaf-Like Shoots and Forming Inflorescence
As shown in the transverse sections, the organ is round ( Figure 6D) and there is no clear border between the cortex and the pith. Beneath the epidermis, there is a one-layered parenchyma and then the sclerenchyma, which forms a continuous lignified fiber belt ( Figure 6D,E) with about five small vascular bundles ( Figure 6D). The xylem and the phloem are readily visible. In the vascular bundle, the xylem occurs more to the outside than the phloem ( Figure 6F). The cuticle of epidermal cells has folds. The epidermal cells have chloroplasts ( Figure 6E) and there are epidermal trichomes: each trichome consists of basal cell, barrier cell, and terminal cell ( Figure 6E). Parenchyma cells contain starch grains ( Figure 6F).

Basal Portion of Inflorescence Stalk-Stolon Bearing Leaf-Like Shoots and Forming Inflorescence
As shown in the transverse sections, the organ is round ( Figure 6D) and there is no clear border between the cortex and the pith. Beneath the epidermis, there is a one-layered parenchyma and then the sclerenchyma, which forms a continuous lignified fiber belt ( Figure 6D,E) with about five small vascular bundles ( Figure 6D). The xylem and the phloem are readily visible. In the vascular bundle, the xylem occurs more to the outside than the phloem ( Figure 6F). The cuticle of epidermal cells has folds. The epidermal cells have chloroplasts ( Figure 6E) and there are epidermal trichomes: each trichome consists of basal cell, barrier cell, and terminal cell ( Figure 6E). Parenchyma cells contain starch grains ( Figure 6F).

Filamentous Leaf-Like Shoots
Leaf-like shoots branch dichotomously, exhibit apical growth ( Figure 7A), and they bear traps ( Figure 1D). However, traps may also occur on the anchor stolons. The surface of the shoots is covered by numerous trichomes (Figure 7A,B): each trichome consists of a basal cell, a barrier cell, and an elongate terminal cell ( Figure 7B). Epidermal cells have chloroplasts and amyloplasts ( Figure 7C-F). Filamentous leaf-like shoots have very simple structure; there is an epidermis, one or two layers of parenchyma and a centrally located vascular bundle ( Figure 7D-F). In smaller shoots, the phloem occurs but vessels are not observed in the vascular bundle.

Filamentous Leaf-Like Shoots
Leaf-like shoots branch dichotomously, exhibit apical growth ( Figure 7A), and they bear traps ( Figure 1D). However, traps may also occur on the anchor stolons. The surface of the shoots is covered by numerous trichomes (Figure 7A,B): each trichome consists of a basal cell, a barrier cell, and an elongate terminal cell ( Figure 7B). Epidermal cells have chloroplasts and amyloplasts ( Figure 7C-F). Filamentous leaf-like shoots have very simple structure; there is an epidermis, one or two layers of parenchyma and a centrally located vascular bundle ( Figure 7D-F). In smaller shoots, the phloem occurs but vessels are not observed in the vascular bundle.

Immunodetection of Cell Wall Components
In anchor stolons, the pectic epitope recognized by the JIM5 and JIM7 antibodies are abundant in primary cell walls of various cell types: epidermis, parenchyma, phloem ( Figure 8A-C). They are present in the intercellular matrices (primary cell walls) between sclerenchyma fibers and absent from the fiber secondary cell walls ( Figure 8B). The JIM5 epitope is detected in the interior of fiber cells ( Figure 8B). Both JIM5 and JIM7 epitopes also occur in vacuolar material in epidermal cells ( Figure 8A-C). Extensin epitope (JIM11) is in the intercellular matrices (primary cell walls) between sclerenchyma fibers and the fiber secondary cell walls and is also detected in cell walls of vessels ( Figure 8D,E). It occurs in cell walls of barrier cells of trichomes ( Figure 8E). AGPs recognized by JIM8 are detected inside sclerenchyma fiber cells and inside trichome cells ( Figure 8F). In the basal portion of inflorescence stalks, the occurrence of pectic epitopes recognized by the JIM5 ( Figure 9A) and JIM7 antibodies ( Figure 9B), the extensin epitope (JIM11) ( Figure 9C) and the arabinogalactan protein (AGP, JIM8) ( Figure 9D) is similar to that in anchor stolons. In filamentous leaf-like shoots, pectic epitopes recognized by the JIM7 and JIM5 antibodies are abundant in the primary cell walls of various cell types ( Figure 9E,F). The extensin epitope (JIM11) is abundantly present in intercellular spaces of parenchyma cells, which surround the vascular bundle, and also in cells of the vascular bundle ( Figure 9G,H). The AGPs recognized by the JIM8 are detected in barrier cells of trichomes and in algae which grow on the organ surface ( Figure 9I). In anchor stolons, the pectic epitope recognized by the JIM5 and JIM7 antibodies are abundant in primary cell walls of various cell types: epidermis, parenchyma, phloem ( Figure 8A-C). They are present in the intercellular matrices (primary cell walls) between sclerenchyma fibers and absent from the fiber secondary cell walls ( Figure 8B). The JIM5 epitope is detected in the interior of fiber cells ( Figure 8B). Both JIM5 and JIM7 epitopes also occur in vacuolar material in epidermal cells ( Figure  8A-C). Extensin epitope (JIM11) is in the intercellular matrices (primary cell walls) between sclerenchyma fibers and the fiber secondary cell walls and is also detected in cell walls of vessels ( Figure 8D,E). It occurs in cell walls of barrier cells of trichomes ( Figure 8E). AGPs recognized by JIM8 are detected inside sclerenchyma fiber cells and inside trichome cells ( Figure 8F). In the basal portion of inflorescence stalks, the occurrence of pectic epitopes recognized by the JIM5 ( Figure 9A) and JIM7 antibodies ( Figure 9B), the extensin epitope (JIM11) ( Figure 9C) and the arabinogalactan protein (AGP, JIM8) ( Figure 9D) is similar to that in anchor stolons. In filamentous leaf-like shoots, pectic epitopes recognized by the JIM7 and JIM5 antibodies are abundant in the primary cell walls of various cell types ( Figure 9E,F). The extensin epitope (JIM11) is abundantly present in intercellular spaces of parenchyma cells, which surround the vascular bundle, and also in cells of the vascular bundle ( Figure 9G,H). The AGPs recognized by the JIM8 are detected in barrier cells of trichomes and in algae which grow on the organ surface ( Figure 9I).

Shoots
The small pith is surrounded by a large aerenchymatic cortex and an epidermis ( Figure 10A); the pith (cylinder) is ectophloic. The vessel is located almost centrally and is surrounded by large parenchyma cells with thick cell walls ( Figure 10B). The pectic epitope recognized by the JIM5 antibody is abundantly present in the walls of various cell types ( Figure 10C-E) and the occurrence of pectic epitope recognized by the JIM7 antibody is similar to that by the JIM5. A closer inspection of the pith revealed that a larger amount of this epitope was found in thick cell walls of parenchyma cells ( Figure 10G) in comparison to the JIM5 ( Figure 10E). The extensin epitope (JIM11) is abundantly present in intercellular spaces of parenchyma cells and in phloem cells ( Figure 10H).

Shoots
The small pith is surrounded by a large aerenchymatic cortex and an epidermis ( Figure 10A); the pith (cylinder) is ectophloic. The vessel is located almost centrally and is surrounded by large parenchyma cells with thick cell walls ( Figure 10B). The pectic epitope recognized by the JIM5 antibody is abundantly present in the walls of various cell types ( Figure 10C-E) and the occurrence of pectic epitope recognized by the JIM7 antibody is similar to that by the JIM5. A closer inspection of the pith revealed that a larger amount of this epitope was found in thick cell walls of parenchyma cells ( Figure 10G) in comparison to the JIM5 ( Figure 10E). The extensin epitope (JIM11) is abundantly present in intercellular spaces of parenchyma cells and in phloem cells ( Figure 10H).

Leaf-Like Shoots
These have a very simple structure. The single vascular bundle is surrounded by a one-layered aerenchyma and an epidermis ( Figure 10I). The occurrence of pectic epitopes recognized by the JIM5 and JIM7 antibodes ( Figure 10I) is similar to that in the main shoot.

Discussion
In U. neottioides, two shoot systems can be distinguished: organs (stolons, inflorescence stalk), which possess sclerenchyma and so are resistant to water current, and organs without sclerenchyma (leaf-like shoots), which are submissive to the movement of water. In contrast with typical aquatic Utricularia species from the section Utricularia, which grow in standing or very slowly streaming waters, the morphology and anatomy of U. neottioides are highly specialized. In U. reflexa (our results), U. vulgaris L. [15], U. stygia Thor [16,17], U. bremii Heer, U. intermedia Hayne, U. minor L., U. ochroleuca Hartm., [16] and U. breviscapa Wright ex Griseb. [17], submerged shoots have very well-developed aerenchyma, however, there is a lack of sclerenchyma. These organs also have a symmetric structure. Utricularia neottioides stolons (anchor and running) are asymmetric (dorsiventral asymmetry, but also show asymmetry in cell size), have only small intercellular spaces, but have sclerenchyma. Luetzelburg [18] also observed sclerenchyma ("Steinzellen") in the stolons ("rhizomastes"; his Figure  34) of U. neottioides, however, our results show another distribution of the sclerenchyma cells and variations in their occurrence. Sclerenchyma in anchor stolons may have a protective function against mechanical injury by the water current and by material transported by water but may also protect these organs against grazing by animals. Generally, sclerenchyma enables plant organs to withstand various mechanical strains, which may result from stretching, bending, weight and pressure [19]. We

Leaf-Like Shoots
These have a very simple structure. The single vascular bundle is surrounded by a one-layered aerenchyma and an epidermis ( Figure 10I). The occurrence of pectic epitopes recognized by the JIM5 and JIM7 antibodes ( Figure 10I) is similar to that in the main shoot.

Discussion
In U. neottioides, two shoot systems can be distinguished: organs (stolons, inflorescence stalk), which possess sclerenchyma and so are resistant to water current, and organs without sclerenchyma (leaf-like shoots), which are submissive to the movement of water. In contrast with typical aquatic Utricularia species from the section Utricularia, which grow in standing or very slowly streaming waters, the morphology and anatomy of U. neottioides are highly specialized. In U. reflexa (our results), U. vulgaris L. [15], U. stygia Thor [16,17], U. bremii Heer, U. intermedia Hayne, U. minor L., U. ochroleuca Hartm., [16] and U. breviscapa Wright ex Griseb. [17], submerged shoots have very well-developed aerenchyma, however, there is a lack of sclerenchyma. These organs also have a symmetric structure. Utricularia neottioides stolons (anchor and running) are asymmetric (dorsiventral asymmetry, but also show asymmetry in cell size), have only small intercellular spaces, but have sclerenchyma. Luetzelburg [18] also observed sclerenchyma ("Steinzellen") in the stolons ("rhizomastes"; his Figure 34) of U. neottioides, however, our results show another distribution of the sclerenchyma cells and variations in their occurrence. Sclerenchyma in anchor stolons may have a protective function against mechanical injury by the water current and by material transported by water but may also protect these organs against grazing by animals. Generally, sclerenchyma enables plant organs to withstand various mechanical strains, which may result from stretching, bending, weight and pressure [19]. We showed that sclerenchyma cells in U. neottioides organs retained their protoplasts up to maturity, so their cell walls may continue to be modified in response to external stress factors.
In Podostemaceae, which occur in similar habitats to U. neottioides, silica bodies are present in long-lived parts such as roots and stems. These may perform a similar function to the sclerenchyma in U. neottioides stolons [20,21]. According to these authors, silica bodies may also prevent the plant from collapsing during short periods of drought. Anchor stolons in U. neottioides have a thick cuticle in the epidermal cells and the cell walls of some epidermal cells show lignification: both characteristics strengthen the structure of these organs. Lloyd [22] found similarities between U. rigida, U. neottioides and Podostemaceae. Van Steenis [7] classified rheophytic Utricularia and Podostemaceae, which both grow in turbulent waters, to the same group-lepidorhephytes. Rutishauser [23] compared anchor stolons of rheophytic Utricularia to the holdfasts in Podostemaceae, Hydrostachyaceae and seagrasses (see section on Saxicolella amicorum root, Figure 4 in Ameka et al. [24], which resembles the anatomy of the anchor stolon of U. neottioides). Adhesive trichomes along the lower (ventral) side of anchoring organs occur both in rheophytic Utricularia and Podostemaceae as a functional convergence.
Adhesive trichomes were described in Podostemaceae [23]; these trichomes are reported to secrete superglue-like substance, which affixes plants to the rock surface. However, some authors noted that sticky extracellular polymeric substances produced by cyanobacteria are essential for anchoring of these plants [25]. We noted that secretion produced by adhesive trichomes of U. neottioides stain positively with MB/AII. Additionally, microorganisms are attached to this secretion. The role of cyanobacteria biofilms for U. neottioides anchoring requires further testing, as does the composition of the adhesive trichome secretions. The adhesive plant secretion may have lipid or pectic character. For example, in parasitic plants, an adhesive epithelium occurs and secretes a lipidic glue (Viscum) or pectin-rich polysaccharides (Cuscuta, Cassytha) to hold the parasite and host together [26].
The shape of the U. neottioides anchor stolon system could be compared with anchoring holdfasts of some crinoids (see e.g., [27][28][29]). However, this is only analogy with the anchoring system between a specialized carnivorous plant and specialized animals. We found that U. neottioides anchor stolons store nutrients (starch) and mucilage. Stolon cells possess chloroplasts, so these organs perform photosynthesis and can support the leaf-like shoots in this respect. Running stolons produce new rosettes, which can give rise to new plants (vegetative reproduction); it should then be considered that plants growing on one rock may be one clone. Thus, in addition to anchoring, the stolon system of U. neottioides can perform multiple other functions.
Stănescu and Toma [15] could not distinguish the phloem elements from the xylem ones in the submerged shoots of U. vulgaris. They noted that the central cylinder consisted of a homogeneous mass of polygonal cells with cellulose cell walls. This contrasted with Schweingruber et al. [16], who noted that in submerged shoots of aquatic Utricularia, the xylem and phloem within the central cylinder were difficult to distinguish. These authors observed a circularly arranged, solitary unlignified vessel in U. vulgaris. In other species, there were few to one (U. intermedia) isolated unlignified vessels. In contrast, we did not have any problem distinguishing the xylem and phloem in the stolons of both U. reflexa and U. neottioides. Their vessels have lignified cell walls. In U. neottioides, vessel diameters are smaller than those observed in aquatic species from the section Utricularia [16].
The basal portion of the inflorescence stalk ([1] used the term peduncle for this organ) of U. neottioides has a lignified fiber ring; a similar sclerenchyma ring was observed in the flower stalks of various Utricularia species, e.g., [16,30]. Schweingruber et al. [16] noted that in the flower stalks of aquatic Utricularia, there was a cortex with well-developed aerenchymatic intercellulars. This is in contrast with U. neottioides, where the aerenchyma is lacking in the cortex. This trait possibly provides a more compact and rigid structure for the stalk, which experiences rapid water currents.
The leaf-like shoots of U. neottioides have a very simple anatomy, similar to that of U. reflexa (our results), U. aurea [31], U. gibba [32] and U. stygia [17], but without forming aerenchyma. These organs of aquatic Utricularia species are anatomically simpler when compared to both the large "leaves" of giant-leaved Utricularia species such as U. humboldtii with bifacial blade and palisade parenchyma [33], and also the small-leaved terrestrial species such as U. dichotoma [34], U. uniflora, and U. paulineae [17]. We observe some differences in the immunodetection of cell wall components between U. reflexa and U. neottioides. In both species, the pectic epitopes recognized by the JIM5 and JIM7 antibodies are abundant in primary cell walls of various cell types. However, in U. reflexa, accumulation of these epitopes occurs in the pith; this is associated with the occurrence of thick-walled parenchyma cells, which are missing in pith of U. neottioides. Some differences found are associated with the occurrence of sclerenchyma in the stolons of U. neottioides. Epitopes recognized by the JIM5 and JIM7 are absent from the sclerenchyma secondary cell walls. In both species, extensin epitope (JIM11) is connected with pith and vascular tissues, however, besides in U. neottioides this epitope occurs also in cell walls of sclerenchyma cells.
The shoots of aquatic Utricularia from the sect. Utricularia are covered by small epidermal trichomes, which also occur on short, modified shoots in turions [35]. Trichomes of U. neottioides shoots have a similar architecture but their terminal cell is strongly elongated. These trichomes, which were noted incorrectly as unicellular [4], could significantly increase gas exchange surfaces. In line with the adaptation for living in strong currents and with the high density of elongated trichomes found in U. neottioides, remarkable ecophysiological characteristics were estimated in this species [4]. The high CO 2 compensation point of photosynthesis of leaf-like shoots (17.1 µM CO 2 ) indicates invariably a ca. 2.5-5 times lower CO 2 affinity than is usual in other aquatic Utricularia species. On the contrary, the aerobic dark respiration rate was extremely high, around 8-12 times higher than is usual in other aquatic Utricularia species. Such a high respiration rate might cause plant sensitivity to oxygen shortage in the ambient water and, moreover, it must be counterbalanced by a very high net photosynthetic rate, which requires a very high CO 2 concentration in the water. Alternatively, the plant may be partly dependent on the uptake of organic substances from the water (by the trichomes) or on the extensive uptake of organic substances from carnivory (by traps). Further research should specify the relative importance of elongated trichomes and carnivory for nutrient uptake.
Although some authors [4,36] had doubts regarding the trap occurrence in U. neottioides, traps were recorded by several researchers in the past: Luetzelburg (as U. Herzogii, his figures: 37-39 [18]) and [1,22]. We have observed them in plants from populations from Minas Gerais as well. Traps were also recorded in populations in Sao Paulo, Goias, and Rio de Janeiro States (S. Silva, V. Miranda, unpublished data).

Plant Material
Material of Utricularia neottioides was collected from small streams near Delfinópolis, Serra da Canastra region, Minas Gerais State, Southeastern Brazil ( Figure 1A-C). The pH of the streams inhabited by U. neottioides ranged from 5.0 to 6.4 (pH meter Tri-Meter EC-983; see Table 1). Material of U. reflexa (from Okavango Swamp, Botswana) was taken from the collection at the Institute of Botany CAS at Třeboň, Czech Republic. The plants were grown in 3 L miniaquaria and sedge litter was used as substrate to create a dystrophic environment. The poorly branched plants were 20-30 cm long.

Morphological and Anatomical Studies
Material of both Utricularia species was fixed and later processed as in Lustofin et al. [37]: materials were fixed in a mixture of 2.5% or 5% glutaraldehyde with 2.5% formaldehyde in a 0.05-M cacodylate buffer (Sigma-Aldrich, Sigma-Aldrich Sp. z o.o. Poznan, Poland; pH 7.2) for several days, washed three times in a 0.1-M sodium cacodylate buffer and post-fixed in a 1% osmium tetroxide solution at room temperature for 1.5 h. Dehydration using a graded ethanol series, infiltration and embedding using an epoxy embedding medium kit (Honeywell Fluka™, Honeywell Specialty Chemicals Seelze, Seelze Germany) followed. After polymerization at 60 • C, sections for the TEM were cut at 70 nm using a Leica Ultracut UCT ultramicrotome, stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate. The stolon ultrastructure was analyzed using a Hitachi H500 transmission electron microscope (Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan), at an accelerating voltage of 75 kV and Hitachi UHR FE-SEM SU 8010 at 25 kV, which are housed at the University of Silesia in Katowice. The semi-thin sections (0.9-1.0 µm thick) prepared for the LM were stained with aqueous methylene blue/azure II (MB/AII) for 1-2 min and examined using Olympus BX60 and Nikon Eclipse E400 light microscopes. For the SEM, material was fixed (as above), later dehydrated and dried using supercritical CO 2 . They were then sputter-coated with gold and examined at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV using a Hitachi S-4700 scanning electron microscope, which is housed at the Institute of Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland. About ten replications of material samples (each organ) were studied.
Histochemical procedures with fixed material using PAS reaction (the periodic acid-Schiff reaction), ruthenium red, and Lugol's solution were performed to detect the polysaccharides, mucilage, starch grains, and proteins [38]. Sections through U. neottioides and U. reflexa stolons and shoots were analyzed using a polarized light microscope (Carl Zeiss Axio Lab.A1) in the Department of Environmental Analysis, Geological Mapping and Economic Geology; AGH University of Science and Technology. Parts of U. neottioides anchor stolons were stained with zinc iodine chloride solution to visualize lignified cell walls of the sclerenchyma according to [39].

Immunodetection of Cell Wall Components
Stolons and shoots were fixed overnight at 4 • C in 8% (w/v) paraformaldehyde (PFA) with 0.25% (v/v) glutaraldehyde (GA) in a PIPES buffer [38]. Plant material was then embedded in Steedman's wax and sectioned. Rehydrated sections were blocked with a 1% BSA in PBS buffer and incubated with primary antibodies against pectins (JIM5 and JM7), arabinogalactan (JIM8), and extensin n (JIM11) overnight at 4 • C (see [40,41] and literature cited therein; rat monoclonal antibody JIM5, JIM7, JIM8, JIM11, and JIM13 was obtained from Plant Probes, UK) and secondary antibody goat anti-rat conjugated with FITC (Abcam: Abcam plc, registered in England and Wales with Company Number 03509322, Discovery Drive, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, CB2 0AX, UK). Chromatin in the nuclei was stained with 7 µg/mL DAPI and samples cover-slipped using Mowiol medium. They were viewed with Leica DM6000 B using FITC and DAPI filter combined with DIC (Nomarski contrast). At least 2 different replications were performed for each organ and about 10-20 sections were analyzed from each organ for each antibody used. Negative controls were performed by omitting the primary antibody step, obtaining no fluorescence signal in each control frame for all slides stained (Supplementary Materials Figures S3-S5).

Conclusions
Due to life in a turbulent habitat, U. neottioides evolved specific characteristics including an anchor system with stolons, which have an asymmetric structure, sclerenchyma, and adhesive trichomes on the ventral side. This anchor stolon system performs multiple functions including photosynthesis, nutrient storage, and vegetative reproduction as well as anchorage. In contrast with typical aquatic Utricularia species from the section Utricularia, U. reflexa, which grows freely in standing or very slowly streaming waters and forms monomorphic shoots, U. neottioides has a well-developed sclerenchyma system but lacks large aerenchyma. The plants produce traps and U. neottioides should be thus treated as carnivorous plant.