Isolation, Chemical Profile and Antimalarial Activities of Bioactive Compounds from Rauvolfia caffra Sond

In this study, the chemical profile of a crude methanol extract of Rauvolfia caffra Sond was determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). Column chromatography and preparative thin layer chromatography were used to isolate three indole alkaloids (raucaffricine, N-methylsarpagine and spegatrine) and one triterpenoid (lupeol). The antiplasmodial activity was determined using the parasite lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) assay. The UPLC-MS profile of the crude extract reveals that the major constituents of R. caffra are raucaffricine (m/z 513.2) and spegatrine (m/z 352.2). Fraction 3 displayed the highest antiplasmodial activity with an IC50 of 6.533 μg/mL. However, raucaffricine, isolated from the active fraction did not display any activity. The study identifies the major constituents of R. caffra and also demonstrates that the major constituents do not contribute to the antiplasmodial activity of R. caffra.


Introduction
In many countries worldwide medicinal plants remain the dominant form of medicine for the treatment and prevention of a wide range of diseases.Medicinal plants used as alternative drugs are indicative of the vital role that plants play in many developing countries, and are also sources of novel plant-derived constituents that could be leads for treatment of malaria and other diseases.Malaria is a major public health problem in the world, responsible for the death of millions, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa [1,2].Today, the control of malaria has become gradually more complex due to the spread of drug-resistant parasites [3,4].The WHO estimated that globally, about 80% of people with malaria live in rural areas [5].In Africa, 22 million new cases of malaria are reported every year and about 8.6% deaths occur in the region due to malaria [2,6].
Treatment, management, and control of malaria are still a challenge to the medical community and safer, cheaper and more accessible alternatives are needed to efficiently limit the problem of this ailment [7].Furthermore, the use of natural products for the treatment of malaria is becoming well-known due to the lesser side effects, accessibility and cost efficiency in comparison with conservative synthetic drugs.However, the number of plants with potential anti-malarial activities is limited and many of the purported anti-malarial properties have not been proven scientifically.Moreover, modes of action and active principles from most of these natural products are still unknown [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16].
Rauvolfia caffra Sond is a plant species belonging to the family Apocynaceae [17].R. caffra has been used widely for treatment of various conditions such as fever, swellings, abscesses, hepatitis, pneumonia, measles, skin lesions or itching rashes, cough, toothaches, sexually transmitted diseases, swollen legs, severe abdominal pains, abdominal disorders and wounds [18][19][20][21].However, to the best of our knowledge, no in vivo or in vitro studies of potential applications of R. caffra in the treatment of these diseases have been reported.More generally, Rauvolfia species are commonly used in the treatment of malaria, diabetes, coughs, gastrointestinal disturbances, skin infections, hypertension, diarrhoea, dysentery, scabies, worm infections, parasitic and microbial infections.The ethnomedicinal uses make it one of the most important medicinal plants used in the suppression of skin diseases and opportunistic infections in HIV/AIDS patients in South Africa [22][23][24][25][26]. R. caffra Sond is rich in indole alkaloids, many of which have been isolated and identified [27,28].The roots and stem bark extract possess high concentrations of reserpine, ajmaline and ajmalicine, which are known as antihypertensive and anti-inflammatory agents [29,30].Furthermore, the extracts and derived alkaloids possess high antimicrobial activity due to the inhibition of certain redox pathways and other chemical processes in the bacterium cell [31].These alkaloids also possess biological activities, such as antimalarial, antitumor and antidiabetic activity [29,30].
R. caffra also contains saponins, which have a wide range of biological actions, including antimicrobial, antiviral, antioxidant and cytotoxic properties [32].Rauvolfia caffra has been reported to contain secondary metabolites that have medicinal and economic value.However, not much is known about the biological activities of the isolated compounds from R. caffra.Moreover, many of the reports on the biological activities have been limited to crude extracts.Against this backdrop, we decided to isolate compounds from the stem bark and evaluate their antimalarial activity.The UPLC-MS profile indicated that raucaffricine is the major compound, but it was not active despite good activity of the fraction from which it was isolated.This means that the major compound does not contribute to the antiplasmodial activity.Our results confirm the reported antiplasmodial activity of the crude methanol extracts from Rauvolfia caffra [29].However, isolated compounds from this plant have not yet been studied for their antiplasmodial activity.Therefore, this study is the first survey to detect significant antiplasmodial activity of R. caffra.

Chemical Profile
The chemical profile (Figure S1) of the crude extract was obtained by ultra-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS).Two major peaks with molecular ions m/z 513.2 (5.21) and m/z 301.1 were observed in the crude extract.The peak with the molecular ion m/z 513.2 was identified as raucaffricine, whereas the molecular ion m/z 301.1 was not identified due to the fact that the compound was lost during column fractionation.The chromatogram illustrates that raucaffricine is a major constituent of R. caffra stem bark.The chemical profile of fraction F 3 (Figure S2) revealed three major constituents with the molecular ions m/z 327.2, m/z 513.2 and m/z 349.2, where raucaffricine, with the molecular ion m/z 513.2 (5.18) was found to be the major constituent of Fraction F 3 .The compounds with molecular ions m/z 327.2 and m/z 349.2 could not be isolated from Fraction F 3 .Furthermore, the chemical profile of Fraction F 5 (Figure S3) revealed two major constituents, with the molecular ions m/z 325.2 and m/z 335.1, respectively, where the molecular ion m/z 325.2 was identified as that of spegatrine, whereas the compound with molecular ion m/z 335.1 was not isolated.Spegatrine with molecular ion m/z 325.2 was identified as a major constituent of fraction F 5 but not a major constituent of the crude extract.

Isolation and Purification of Compounds
The crude methanol extract was subjected to column chromatography using silica gel to obtain five fractions (F 1-5 ).Lupeol (1, Figure 1) was isolated as a white powder from a polar fraction (F 1 ) by repeated silica gel and reversed phase chromatography.A combination of nuclear magnetic resonance (1D-and 2D-NMR), infrared spectroscopy (IR) and high resolution mass spectrometric (HRMS) analysis was used for the structural elucidation of isolated compounds.Lupeol has the potential to act as an anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-microbial, anti-poliferative and anti-protozoal [33].Raucaffricine (2) was isolated as a brown amorphous solid from Fraction F 3 (0.5 g) after purification by semi-preparative HPLC.Fraction F 4 was subjected to preparative TLC (reversed phase) to yield N-methylsarpagine (3), a brown amorphous solid, and Fraction F 5 was purified using semi-preparative HPLC to yield spegatrine (4), a brown amorphous solid.According to a literature survey, the biological activities of raucaffricine, N-methylsarpagine and spegatrine have never been evaluated.Therefore, that makes our study the first to test their biological activities.  1C-NMR spectrum, including six quaternary carbons, fifteen methines, four methylenes and two methyl groups at δ 21.32 (Q, C-23) and 13.28 (Q, C-18), respectively.The 1 H-NMR spectrum showed an ortho-disubstituted aromatic ring with δ H 7.57 to 7.2 ppm, which included two sets of doublets at δ H 7.55 and 7.49 ppm corresponding to protons at positions 9 and 12, a doublet of doublets at δ H 7.39 ppm corresponding to a proton at position 10 and another doublet of doublets at δ H 7.23 ppm corresponding to a proton at position 11.The spectrum also showed the existence of an ethylidene group with a doublet at δ H 1.67 ppm assigned to position 18 and a quartet at δ H 5.65 ppm assigned to a proton at position 19.The 1 H-NMR also revealed several other important features, including one methyl signal at δ H 2.16 (s) corresponding to OCOCH 3 and three methylene signals at δ H 4.42 ppm, δ H 1.87 and δ H 1.77 ppm, and δ H 2.68 and δ H 1.45 ppm, corresponding to 6 -H, 14-H (α and β), and 6-H (β and α), respectively.Moreover, a glucopyranosyl moiety was indicated by the signal of the anomeric proton at δ H 5.03 (1H, d, J = 4.4 Hz, 1 -H) and in agreement with carbon signals at δ C 99.32 (CH, C-1 ), 77.48 (CH, C-3 , C-5 ), 74.26 (CH, C-2 ), 70.58 (CH, C-4 ) and 61.56 (CH 2 , C-6 ).The complete assignment of the 1 H-NMR and 13 C-NMR chemical shifts was done using 2D-NMR (COSY, HSQC and HMBC) spectroscopic techniques.These results enabled us to confirm the 1 H-NMR and 13 C-NMR chemical attributions of raucaffricine as previously reported [34].
The 13 C-NMR of N-methylsarpagine (3) showed 21 non-equivalent carbon signals.The 1 H-NMR showed the presence of signals of three aromatic protons which included a doublet at δ H 7.11 ppm (1H, d, J = 8.6 Hz), corresponding to a proton at position 12, another doublet at δ H 6.77 ppm (1H, d, J = 2.0 Hz) corresponding to a proton at position 9 and a doublet of doublets at δ H 6.68 ppm (1H, dd, J = 22.Hz and J = 8.9 Hz) corresponding to a proton at position 11.The 1 H-NMR also showed the existence of an ethylidene group with a doublet at δ H 1.63 ppm assigned to position 18 and a quartet at δ H 5.59 ppm assigned to a proton at position 19.The 1 H-NMR also displayed an exchangeable hydroxyl proton at δ H 1.82 ppm, attached to C-10 (δ C 150.91) and two methyl groups corresponding to N 1 -Me at δ H 3.  Total assignment was done by a close examination of the 1D-NMR ( 1 H-NMR and 13 C-NMR), 2D-NMR (COSY, HSQC and HMBC), UPLC-MS and literature data.

Antiplasmodial Activity
The highest antiplasmodial activity was found in fraction F 3 with a viability of 4.149 ± 6.979% (Figure 2) and IC 50 value of 6.533 µg/mL.The reference drug chloroquine showed an IC 50 value of 0.032 µg/mL, and was higher in activity than F 3 .The major compound raucaffricine, which was isolated from F 3 was not active.This result shows that the major constituent does not contribute to the antiplasmodial activity of R. caffra.Spegatrine also did not display any activity.
As shown in Figure 3, Fraction F 3 at a concentration 250 µg/mL decreased the viability of Plasmodium falciparum (4.149 ± 6.979%) with an IC 50 value of 6.533 µg/mL, whereas the reference drug chloroquine showed an IC 50 value of 0.032 µg/mL.

General Experimental Procedure
All chemicals used were analytical grade purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Darmstadt, Germany).Silica gel (0.063-0.2 mm) or Sephadex LH20 was used as stationary phases and solvent mixtures described below were used as mobile phase in the chromatographic separations.Thin layer chromatography plates packed with silica gel (normal or reversed phase), were used to locate major components of the fractions.

High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry
A Waters Synapt G2 Quadrupole time-of-flight (QTOF) mass spectrometer (MS) connected to a Waters Acquity ultra-performance liquid chromatograph (UPLC) (Waters, Milford, MA, USA) was used for direct injection high resolution mass spectrometric analysis.1 µL of sample was injected into a stream of 60% acetonitrile/40% 0.1% formic acid in water.This conveyed the sample directly to the QTOF mass spectrometer where data was acquired using both positive and negative electrospray ionisation.The following MS settings were used: cone voltage of 15 V, desolvation temperature of 275 • C, desolvation gas at 650 L/h, and the rest of the MS settings optimized for best resolution and sensitivity.

NMR Spectroscopy
1 H-and 13 C-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra were recorded at 400 MHz and 100 MHz, respectively, with an Avance 400 spectrometer (Bruker) using residual undeuterated solvent as the internal standard.

Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LCMS) Analysis
The instrumentation used for ultra-performance liquid chromatography MS (UPLC-MS) was identical to that described above, except for the inclusion of a Waters BEH C 18 , 2.1 × 100 mm, 1.7 µm column into the flow stream.This facilitated separation of compounds prior to data acquisition using a photodiode array detector (PDA), followed by the QTOF MS where data was acquired by scanning from m/z 150 to 1500 m/z in resolution mode as well as in MSE mode.In MSE mode two channels of MS data were acquired, one at a low collision energy (4 V) and the second using a collision energy ramp (40−100 V) to obtain fragmentation data as well.Leucine enkephalin was used as lock mass (reference mass) for accurate mass determination and the instrument was calibrated with sodium formate.An injection volume of 3 µL was used and the mobile phase consisted of 0.1% formic acid (solvent A) and acetonitrile containing 0.1% formic acid as solvent B.

Plant Collection and Preparation
The stem bark of Rauvolfia caffra Sond was collected at the University of Venda Campus (Thohoyandou, Limpopo, South Africa) in January 2016.Botanical identification was provided by Prof. Tshisikhawe, a botanist in the Department of Botany at the University of Venda, and a voucher specimen (BD 001) was deposited.The plant samples were air-dried for two months and the dry samples were ground to fine powder using an industrial blender (mill).

Extraction of Plant Materials
About 1.7 kg ground stems of R. caffra were soaked with 2 L methanol for 48 h at room temperature.The methanol extract was filtered, and then concentrated using a rotary evaporator to obtain 49.2 g of dried extracts.The crude methanol extract (49.2 g) was subjected to column chromatography over silica gel.
The extract was eluted initially with hexane and the polarity was gradually increased with ethyl acetate and finally methanol, yielding 17 fractions.Fractions with similar TLC profile were combined and concentrated to dryness on a rotary evaporator giving a total of 8 fractions coded as F A -F H . F A was obtained with hexane/ethyl acetate (70:30); F B , F C were obtained with hexane/ethyl acetate (30:70); F D was obtained with ethyl acetate (100%); F E , F F were obtained with ethyl acetate/methanol (70:30); and F G , F H were obtained with ethyl acetate/methanol (30:70).The collected fractions were monitored on TLC plates.

Isolation and Purification of Compounds
Fractions F B , F E , F F and F G were further fractionated using column chromatography since they contained a large amount of material compared to fractions F A , F C , F D and F H .

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Isolated triterpenoid 1 and indole alkaloids 2-4.The IR spectrum of lupeol (1) had a band corresponding to hydroxyl (3000 cm −1 , O-H), and13 C-NMR results revealed the presence of 30 carbon signals.The 1 H-NMR spectrum revealed the presence of six tertiary methyl protons at δ H 0.77 ppm (3H, s), δ H 0.86 ppm (3H, s), δ H 0.97 ppm (3H, s), δ H 1.0 ppm (3H, s), δ H 1.04 ppm (3H, s) and δ H 1.70 ppm (3H, s), corresponding to protons at positions 24, 25, 27, 23, 26 and 30, respectively.A multiplet of one proton at δ H 2.38 ppm (1H, m) assigned to 19-H is characteristic of lupeol.The 3-H proton displayed a multiplet at δ H 3.18 ppm (1H, m) while a pair of broad singlets at δ H 4.7 ppm (1H, s) and δ H 4.6 ppm (1H, s) was indicative of olefinic protons at (29a-H and 29b-H).These assignments are in good agreement with the structure of lupeol (1).Raucaffricine (2) exhibited a [M] + ion peak at m/z 513.2237 which matched the molecular formula C 27 H 32 N 2 O 8 .The IR showed characteristic absorption frequencies at 3312.90, 2942.44 and 2831.65 cm −1 typical of the O-H, C-H and C-H bond vibrations, respectively.This was supported by the appearance of 27 carbon signals in its 13 C-NMR spectrum, including six quaternary carbons, fifteen methines, four methylenes and two methyl groups at δ 21.32 (Q, C-23) and 13.28 (Q, C-18), respectively.The 1 H-NMR spectrum showed an ortho-disubstituted aromatic ring with δ H 7.57 to 7.2 ppm, which included two sets of doublets at δ H 7.55 and 7.49 ppm corresponding to protons at positions 9 and 12, a doublet of doublets at δ H 7.39 ppm corresponding to a proton at position 10 and 28 ppm and N + 4 -Me at δ H 3.0 ppm.Total assignment was done by a close examination of the 1D-NMR ( 1 H-NMR and 13 C-NMR), 2D-NMR (COSY, HSQC and HMBC), UPLC-MS and literature data.Spegatrine (4) revealed a [M + H] + ion peak at m/z 325.1912 in its HRMS spectrum, suggesting the molecular formula C 20 H 25 N 2 O 2 + .The 13 C-NMR displayed 20 non-equivalent carbon signals, which was consistent with the HRMS result.The 1 H-NMR showed an active hydroxyl proton at δ 1.97 ppm, attached to C-10 (δ C 150.93).The 1 H-NMR was further characterized by a doublet at δ H 7.24 ppm (1H, d, J = 8.8 Hz), corresponding to a proton at position 12, another doublet at δ H 6.90 ppm (1H, d, J = 2.0 Hz) corresponding to a proton at position 9 and a doublet of doublets at δ H 6.78 ppm (2H, dd, J = 2 Hz and J = 2.4 Hz) corresponding to a proton at position 11.Furthermore, the