Journal Description
Minerals
Minerals
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of natural mineral systems, mineral resources, mining, and mineral processing. Minerals is published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), GeoRef, CaPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, Astrophysics Data System, AGRIS, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Mining & Mineral Processing) / CiteScore - Q2 (Geology)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journal: Mining
Impact Factor:
2.5 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.7 (2022)
Latest Articles
Influencing Factors, Risk Assessment, and Source Identification of Heavy Metals in Purple Soil in the Eastern Region of Guang’an City, Sichuan Province, China
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050495 (registering DOI) - 07 May 2024
Abstract
Soil heavy metal contamination poses a significant threat to both environmental health and ecological safety. To investigate the influencing factors, ecological hazards, and sources analysis of heavy metals in purple soil, 27 sets of soil samples were collected from varying genetic horizons within
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Soil heavy metal contamination poses a significant threat to both environmental health and ecological safety. To investigate the influencing factors, ecological hazards, and sources analysis of heavy metals in purple soil, 27 sets of soil samples were collected from varying genetic horizons within Guang’an City, and the contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn were analyzed. The results indicated higher concentrations of heavy metals in soil A horizon, compared to that of C horizon. The relevance analysis indicated that the soil’s heavy metals were strongly correlated with the soil’s physicochemical properties. The enrichment factor, pollution load index, and potential risk index highlighted slightly to severely polluted levels of soil Cd and Hg, which significantly contribute to the ecological hazards posed by soil heavy metals. The potential source of heavy metals analyzed using the APCS-MLR model identified both anthropogenic inputs and natural sources as primary contributors to heavy metal presence in soils. The Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn contents in the samples from different genetic horizons were chiefly influenced by natural sources, such as soil matrix erosion and weathering, while the concentrations of Cd and Hg were largely affected by anthropogenic activities, specifically coal combustion and agriculture. Conversely, the As content was found to be influenced by a combination of both factors. Anthropogenic activities greatly impacted soil heavy metals at various depths within the study area, thereby underscoring the importance of monitoring these heavy metals. The findings gained from this research can give a scientific basis for the potential utilization of purple soil.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metal and Rare Earth Element Pollution in Soil and Water: Sources, Geochemical Behaviors and Ecological Effects)
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Open AccessEditorial
Editorial for Special Issue “Genesis and Evolution of Pb-Zn-Ag Polymetallic Deposits”
by
Yitian Wang and Changqing Zhang
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050494 - 07 May 2024
Abstract
Pb-Zn-Ag polymetallic deposits are complex and diverse [...]
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genesis and Evolution of Pb-Zn-Ag Polymetallic Deposits)
Open AccessArticle
Evaluation of Ni-Cu Ore from Zapolyarnoe Based on Mineralogical and Physical Properties before and after Comminution
by
Arturo H. Bravo, Holger Lieberwirth and Oleg Popov
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050493 - 07 May 2024
Abstract
For the effective comminution and subsequent enrichment of mineral ores, comprehensive knowledge of their mineralogical and physical properties is required. Using an integrated methodology, this study evaluated samples of polymetallic Ni-Cu ore from Zapolyarnoe, Russia. Several analytical techniques were utilised, including optical microscopy,
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For the effective comminution and subsequent enrichment of mineral ores, comprehensive knowledge of their mineralogical and physical properties is required. Using an integrated methodology, this study evaluated samples of polymetallic Ni-Cu ore from Zapolyarnoe, Russia. Several analytical techniques were utilised, including optical microscopy, microindentation with Vickers geometry, the Point Load Test, and Mineral Liberation Analysis (MLA). The purpose of this study was to determine mineral associations, physical features, and enrichment during jaw crusher comminution. The acquired properties included the Point Load Strength Index, Vickers Hardness Number, and fracture toughness. The MLA method characterised seven fractions in terms of particle size distribution, degree of liberation, association, and modal mineralogy. Magnetite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite were calculated in terms of wt% and their textural features. The enrichment of each ore phase in fractions with particle sizes smaller than 400 µm was determined. The influence of this enrichment was discovered to be correlated with various textural and structural parameters, such as intergrowth, grain size, and crack morphologies after indentations. In addition, the chromium content of magnetite contributed to an increase in the fracture toughness values. Despite the complexities involved, even limited samples of materials provide valuable insights into processing behaviour, emphasising the importance of considering mineralogical parameters in comminution studies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Comminution and Comminution Circuits Optimisation: 3rd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Exploration Vectors and Indicators Extracted by Factor Analysis and Association Rule Algorithms at the Lintan Carlin-Type Gold Deposit, Youjiang Basin, China
by
Xiaolong Wang, Shengtao Cao, Qinping Tan, Zhuojun Xie, Yong Xia, Lujing Zheng, Jianzhong Liu, Kelin Zhou, Jingdan Xiao and Tingxian Ren
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050492 - 07 May 2024
Abstract
The Youjiang Basin in China is the world’s second-largest concentrated area of Carlin-type Au deposits after Nevada, USA, boasting cumulative Au reserves nearing 1000 t. This study examined the recently unearthed Lintan Carlin-type Au deposit within the Youjiang Basin. Factor analysis and association
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The Youjiang Basin in China is the world’s second-largest concentrated area of Carlin-type Au deposits after Nevada, USA, boasting cumulative Au reserves nearing 1000 t. This study examined the recently unearthed Lintan Carlin-type Au deposit within the Youjiang Basin. Factor analysis and association rule algorithms were used to identify exploration vectors and indicators essential for navigating this promising geological territory. In the Lintan mining area, the geological strata encompass the Triassic Bianyang, Niluo, and Xuman formations comprised clastic rocks, followed by the deeper Permian Wujiaping Formation with massive carbonate rocks. The orebodies are restricted to the F14 inverse fault, cutting through the Xuman Formation, with an additional F7 fault between the Wujiaping and Xuman formations. A total of 125 rock samples from the F14 fault and a representative cross-section were analyzed for 15 elements (Au, Ag, As, Bi, Cd, Co, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Tl, W, and Zn). The elements were divided into four groups based on cluster and factor analysis. Group 1 (Co, Cu, Zn, Ni, Tl, W, and Bi) was mainly enriched in the Xuman, Niluo, and Bianyang formations controlled by sedimentary diagenesis. Group 2 (Au, As, Hg, and Sb) was concentrated in the F14 and F7 faults, representing Au mineralization. Group 3 (Pb, Ag, and Mo) was mostly enriched near the F14 and F7 faults, displaying a peripheral halo of Au mineralization, and was probability controlled by ore-forming hydrothermal activities. Group 4 (Cd and Mo) exhibited extreme enrichment along the periphery of the F7 fault. This pattern indicates the presence of a substantial hydrothermal alteration zone surrounding the fault, likely influenced by ore-forming hydrothermal processes. Additionally, Pb, Ag, Cd, Mo, and W are considered essential indicators for ore formation besides Au, As, Sb, Hg, and Tl. Twelve effective association rules were derived using the association rule algorithm, which can aid in discriminating Au mineralization. The spatial distributions of the 15 elements indicated that the F14 fault is the main ore-bearing fracture zone, while the F7 fault serves as the ore-conducting structure, channeling ore-forming fluids into the F14 fault. Faults between the Wujiaping and Xuman formations, along with their associated reverse faults, present potential prospecting targets both within and outside the Lintan Au deposit in the Youjiang Basin. Exploration geochemical data can be fully utilized by combining factor analysis and association rule algorithms, offering key guidance for prospecting Carlin-type gold and similar deposits.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemical Exploration for Critical Mineral Resources)
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Open AccessArticle
Recovery of Rare Earth Elements from Ion-Adsorption Deposits Using Electrokinetic Technology: The Soil Conductivity Mechanism Study
by
Shichang Kang, Bowen Ling, Xiaoliang Liang, Gaofeng Wang, Jie Xu, Yongjin Xu, Runliang Zhu, Jingming Wei, Jianxi Zhu and Hongping He
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050491 - 07 May 2024
Abstract
Rare earth elements (REEs) are essential raw materials for modern industries but mining them has caused severe environmental issues, particularly the recovery of heavy REEs (HREEs) from ion-adsorption deposits (IADs). Very recently, an emerging technology, electrokinetic mining (EKM), has been proposed for the
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Rare earth elements (REEs) are essential raw materials for modern industries but mining them has caused severe environmental issues, particularly the recovery of heavy REEs (HREEs) from ion-adsorption deposits (IADs). Very recently, an emerging technology, electrokinetic mining (EKM), has been proposed for the green and efficient recovery of REEs from IADs. However, the conduction mechanism of the weathering crust soil, which is also a prerequisite for EKM, remains unclear, making the EKM process unpredictable. Here, we systematically investigated the conductivity of weathering crust soil in the presence of light REEs (LREEs, i.e., La3+ and Sm3+) and HREEs (Er3+ and Y3+), respectively. Results suggested that the voltage was dynamically and spatially redistributed by the movement of REEs and water during EKM, and the conventional assumption of the linear distribution of voltage leads to an inaccurate description of soil voltage. We proposed an improved Archie’s equation by coupling the mechanisms of liquid phase and solid-liquid interface conduction, which can predict soil conductivity more precisely. Moreover, the extended Archie’s equation is able to recalculate the voltage distribution at distinct times and spaces well during EKM. More importantly, the water content in field-scale weathered-crust soils can be retrieved by the newly proposed Archie’s equation, which helps optimize the leaching wells and improve the recovery rate of REE. This study focuses on the conduction mechanism of weathering crust soil, which provides a theoretical basis for better use of the EKM technology and promotes mining efficiency fundamentally.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)
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Open AccessArticle
Potential Utilization of Loess in Grouting Materials: Effects of Grinding Time and Calcination Temperature
by
Hao Bai, Kai Wang, Xiaoqiang Zhang, Yulong Jiang and Shiyu Zhang
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050490 - 06 May 2024
Abstract
There is a huge reservation of loess in the Shanxi mining area in China, which has great potential for preparing supplementary cementitious materials. Loess was modified via mechanical and thermal activation, and the pozzolanic activity was evaluated using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical
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There is a huge reservation of loess in the Shanxi mining area in China, which has great potential for preparing supplementary cementitious materials. Loess was modified via mechanical and thermal activation, and the pozzolanic activity was evaluated using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES). Moreover, the workability of grouting materials prepared using modified loess was assessed. The experimental results revealed that the number of ultrafine particles gradually increased with the grinding time, enhancing the grouting performance. The coordination number of Al decreased upon the breakage of the Al–O–Si bond post-calcination at 400 °C, 550 °C, 700 °C, and 850 °C. Moreover, the breaking of the Si–O covalent bond produced Si-phases, and the pozzolanic activity of loess increased. Furthermore, the modified loess was hydrated with different cement proportions. With increasing grinding time, the overall setting time increased until the longest time of 14.5 h and the fluidity of the slurry decreased until the lowest fluidity of 9.7 cm. However, the fluidity and setting time decreased with increasing calcination temperature. The lowest values were 12.03 cm and 10.05 h. With the increase in pozzolanic activity, more ettringite was produced via hydration, which enhanced the mechanical properties. The maximum strength of the hydrated loess after grinding for 20 min reached 16.5 MPa. The strength of the hydrated loess calcined at 850 °C reached 21 MPa. These experimental findings provide theoretical support for the practical application of loess in grouting.
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(This article belongs to the Collection Clays and Other Industrial Mineral Materials)
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3D Modelling Approach to Enhance the Characterization of a Bronze Age Nuragic Site
by
Stefano Cara, Paolo Valera and Carlo Matzuzzi
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050489 - 06 May 2024
Abstract
Megalithism in Sardinia (Italy) had its highest expression during the Bronze Age with the creation of monumental complexes known as Nuraghes. These unique monuments have recently been the subject of in-depth investigations for their potential to be recognized as World Heritage Sites (by
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Megalithism in Sardinia (Italy) had its highest expression during the Bronze Age with the creation of monumental complexes known as Nuraghes. These unique monuments have recently been the subject of in-depth investigations for their potential to be recognized as World Heritage Sites (by UNESCO). The main purpose of our research was to make a contribution to obtain a more in-depth characterization of these monuments by testing a 3D model of a complex Nuraghe, integrated with an analysis of the geolithological context. This work first focused on the geological and typological investigation of the materials used in its construction, which was then compared with the geolithological characteristics of the region. A survey of the outcropping remains was carried out by means of Structure-from-Motion Multi-View Stereo (SfM-MVS) photogrammetry with UAV ground and aerial acquisition using APS-C photo sensors, georeferenced with an RTK-GNSS ground survey. The level of accuracy of our digital models shows the potential of the proposed method, giving accurate and geometrically consistent 3D reconstructions in terms of georeferencing error, shape and surface. The survey method allows for the virtualization of the current state of conservation of the Nuraghe, giving a solid basis to set up further (future) archaeological excavations and to contribute to knowledge on the architecture of the structures. This study also provides useful information on the nature and origin of the construction materials and proposes a hypothesis on the original dimensions of the monument, which is often a topic of debate in the world of archaeology.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multidisciplinary Research for the Monitoring and Preventive Conservation of Cultural Heritage)
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Open AccessArticle
Mineralogical Constraints on the Pressure–Temperature Evolution of Granulites in the Bunger Hills, East Antarctica
by
Ilnur A. Abdrakhmanov, Yuri L. Gulbin, Sergey G. Skublov and Olga L. Galankina
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 488; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050488 - 04 May 2024
Abstract
Spinel- and orthopyroxene-bearing metapelitic granulites exposed in the Bunger Hills, East Antarctica, have been intensively studied in recent years because they are supposed to record evidence for UHT metamorphism. Detailed petrographic observations, as well as whole rock and mineral chemistry, together with SIMS
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Spinel- and orthopyroxene-bearing metapelitic granulites exposed in the Bunger Hills, East Antarctica, have been intensively studied in recent years because they are supposed to record evidence for UHT metamorphism. Detailed petrographic observations, as well as whole rock and mineral chemistry, together with SIMS trace element data on quartz, garnet, and orthopyroxene, are presented for these rocks. Mineral thermobarometry, including Al-in-orthopyroxene, ternary feldspar, Ti-in-quartz, and Fe-Ti oxide solvus, has been used to quantify the UHT conditions. Based on phase equilibrium modeling, a tight clockwise P-T path has been deduced, which involves near-isobaric heating at 6–7 kbar to ~950 °C followed by near-isobaric to slightly up-pressure cooling at 5–6 kbar to ~750 °C. It is concluded that the outlined metamorphic history is characteristic of an extensional crustal regime which is also evidenced by the correlation of prograde and retrograde metamorphism with the extensional and compressional phases of major ductile deformations recognized in the region. In order to constrain the tectonic setting of the granulites, this result is discussed in the context of current views on the Mesoproterozoic evolution of the Albany-Fraser Orogen, the westernmost part of which the Bunger Hills are considered to be.
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(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Deposits)
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Study on Ultra-Long-Distance Transportable Concentration Gradient of Coal Gangue Slurry with Different Gradations
by
Shi Wang, Haigen Yu, Rui Wu, Mingkun Tang, Yaohua Liu, Long Liu and Xuepeng Song
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050487 - 03 May 2024
Abstract
Coal gangue, the primary solid waste generated during the coal mining process, is typically disposed of on the surface, where it gradually accumulates to form gangue piles that significantly contaminate the surrounding environment. Filling technology has been widely employed for the safe and
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Coal gangue, the primary solid waste generated during the coal mining process, is typically disposed of on the surface, where it gradually accumulates to form gangue piles that significantly contaminate the surrounding environment. Filling technology has been widely employed for the safe and efficient disposal of coal gangue due to its sustainability, safety, and efficiency. However, there is still a lack of theoretical research on the concentration of gangue slurry in long-distance filling pipeline transportation. Therefore, a calculation model of the ultra-long-distance transportable concentration of coal gangue slurry with different grades was constructed based on the static anti-segregation performance and Bingham model. In addition, the relevant parameters of the calculation model of the ultra-long-distance transportable concentration of coal gangue slurry in this mine were determined using the 8 km pipeline transport of coal gangue slurry in one mine as the technical background. It was subsequently demonstrated that the yield stress, plastic viscosity, and mass concentration of the various grades of gangue slurry in this mine exhibit an increasing exponential function, while the slurry density and mass concentration exhibit an increasing linear function, and the mass concentration and actual flow rate correspond to a quadratic polynomial increment. Finally, the minimum and maximum concentrations for different grades of gangue slurry that can be transported over long distances in this mine were determined. This work provides theoretical and practical guidance on how to select the concentration of gangue slurry for long-distance pipeline transport.
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(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Mineralogy and Biogeochemistry)
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Are Clay Minerals Systematically the Products of Aqueous Alteration in Cosmic Bodies?
by
Abderrazak El Albani, Ibtissam Chraiki, Hasnaa Chennaoui Aoudjehane, Mohamed Ghnahalla, Fatima Abdelfadel, Ahmed Abd Elmola, Olabode Bankole, Julie Ngwal’ghoubou Ikouanga, Anna El Khoury, Claude Fontaine, El Hafid Bouougri, France Westall and Alain Meunier
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050486 - 03 May 2024
Abstract
The formation of chondrite materials represents one of the earliest mineralogical processes in the solar system. Phyllosilicates are encountered at various stages of the chondrule formation, from the initial stages (IDP agglomerates) to the final steps (chondrule internal alteration). While typically linked to
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The formation of chondrite materials represents one of the earliest mineralogical processes in the solar system. Phyllosilicates are encountered at various stages of the chondrule formation, from the initial stages (IDP agglomerates) to the final steps (chondrule internal alteration). While typically linked to aqueous alteration, recent studies reveal that phyllosilicates could precipitate directly from residual fluids in post-magmatic or deuteric conditions and under a wide range of temperatures, pressures, water/rock ratios, and H2/H2O ratio conditions. This study re-examined the formation of hydrated phyllosilicates in chondrules and associated fine-grained rims (FGRs) using published petrographical, mineralogical, and chemical data on carbonaceous chondrites. Given that chondrules originate from the melting of interplanetary dust particles, the water liberated by the devolatilization of primary phyllosilicates, including clay minerals or ice melting, reduces the melting temperature and leads to water dissolution into the silicate melt. Anhydrous minerals (e.g., olivine and diopside) form first, while volatile and incompatible components are concentrated in the residual liquid, diffusing into the matrix and forming less porous FGRs. Serpentine and cronstedtite are the products of thermal metamorphic-like mineral reactions. The mesostasis in some lobated chondrules is composed of anhydrous and hydrous minerals, i.e., diopside and serpentine. The latter is probably not the alteration product of a glassy precursor but rather a symplectite component (concomitant crystallization of diopside and serpentine). If so, the symplectite has been formed at the end of the cooling process (eutectic-like petrographical features). Water trapped inside chondrule porosity can lead to the local replacement of olivine by serpentine without external water input (auto-alteration). In the absence of water, hydrated phyllosilicates do not crystallize, forming a different mineral assemblage.
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(This article belongs to the Section Clays and Engineered Mineral Materials)
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A Late Jurassic Epithermal Pb-Zn Deposit: Insights from Rb-Sr Dating of Quartz-Hosted Fluid Inclusions and Sphalerite Chemical Composition
by
Zheng Xia, Zengxia Zhao, Xiang Zou and Lei Liu
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050485 - 02 May 2024
Abstract
The Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit, situated within the Shuikoushan polymetallic ore field in Changning, Hunan Province, China, is a large-scale Pb-Zn deposit unearthed in 1976. Based on detailed geological field investigations, this study presents the results of the Rb-Sr isotopic dating, electron probe microanalyses
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The Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit, situated within the Shuikoushan polymetallic ore field in Changning, Hunan Province, China, is a large-scale Pb-Zn deposit unearthed in 1976. Based on detailed geological field investigations, this study presents the results of the Rb-Sr isotopic dating, electron probe microanalyses (EPMAs), and LA-ICP-MS analyses of the Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit in order to determine the ore-forming age and the occurrence of trace elements in sphalerite and thereby constrain the genesis of the deposit. The Rb-Sr dating of quartz-hosted fluid inclusions yielded an Rb-Sr isochron age of 150 ± 4 Ma, with an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.71101 ± 0.00008 (MSWD = 1.1), suggesting that the Pb-Zn mineralization of the Kangjiawan deposit took place during the Late Jurassic, coeval with the magmatic activities within the ore field. EPMA and LA-ICP-MS analyses showed that Fe, Mn, and Cd were primarily incorporated into the sphalerite lattice through isomorphous substitution. Specifically, Fe and Mn substituted for Zn, whereas Cd replaced both Fe and Zn. Other elements such as Cu, Sb, and Sn occurred within the sphalerite lattice through mineral micro-inclusions or isomorphic substitution. EPMAs and LA-ICP-MS results showed that the FeS contents in sphalerite were less than 14.33%, with corresponding ore-forming temperatures below 259 °C. The LA-ICP-MS results showed that sphalerites from the Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit had relatively high Ga/In ratios ranging from 0.01 to 144, providing further support for medium-to-low-temperature mineralization. The trace element compositions of sphalerites from the Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit exhibit skarn-type characteristics, suggesting a potential association with contemporary magmatic activities within the Shuikoushan ore field. During the Late Jurassic, extensive granitic magmatic activities occurred in the study area. At the late stage of magma crystallization, hydrothermal fluid containing Pb and Zn precipitated at medium-to-low temperatures and generated the Kangjiawan Pb-Zn deposit.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ag-Pb-Zn Deposits: Geology and Geochemistry)
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A New Insight into the Genesis of Graphite Deposits in Madagascar Using U‒Pb Zircon Dating and Electron Microprobe Analysis
by
Ming-Jian Yang, Yong-Jun Di, Da Zhang, Da-Tian Wu, Ye Fang and Xin-Ming Zhang
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050484 - 02 May 2024
Abstract
Madagascar is globally recognized as an important producer of high-quality flaky graphite. However, current research on graphite deposits in Madagascar remains insufficient. Previous studies have linked the genesis of Madagascan graphite deposits to the metamorphism of sedimentary organic matter. Here, we provide a
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Madagascar is globally recognized as an important producer of high-quality flaky graphite. However, current research on graphite deposits in Madagascar remains insufficient. Previous studies have linked the genesis of Madagascan graphite deposits to the metamorphism of sedimentary organic matter. Here, we provide a case study of graphite deposits in Madagascar, combining new data from the Ambahita graphite deposit (AMG) in southern Madagascar with data from the Antanisoa graphite deposit (ANG) in central Madagascar and the Vohitasara graphite deposit (VOG) on the east coast of Madagascar. We note that the mineral assemblages of graphite-bearing rocks in the AMG, ANG, and VOG are not typical of metamorphic mineral assemblages but rather the results of filling and metasomatism by mantle-derived fluids that occurred after peak metamorphism. Electron microprobe analysis indicates that the graphite of the AMG, VOG, and ANG is usually associated with phlogopite or Mg-biotite; the phlogopite shares a common genesis with other widespread phlogopite deposits across Madagascar. We reveal that the distribution of graphite deposits in Madagascar is primarily controlled by ductile shear zones between blocks. Ductile shear zones that extend deep into the mantle can provide an ideal migration channel and architecture for the emplacement of mantle-derived fluids. The graphite mineralization formed no earlier than the peak metamorphism (490 Ma) and no later than the intrusion of pegmatite veins (389 ± 5 Ma). The distribution of graphite deposits, graphite orebody morphologies, mineral associations, and geochemical data suggest that the genesis of graphite deposits in Madagascar is linked to mantle-derived fluid filling rather than the metamorphism of sediments, as previously suggested. These findings have important implications for similar deposits in Madagascar and potentially globally.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbeam Analysis Characterization in Petrogenesis and Ore Deposit)
Open AccessArticle
New Insights into the Role of Thiol Collectors in Malachite Flotation
by
Congren Yang, Siying Chen, Haodong Li and Wenqing Qin
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050483 - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
Malachite is one of the most important copper-bearing oxide minerals; however, it shows poor floatability prior to sulfidization under the thiol collector system. This study investigated the reasons for the low recovery of malachite flotation without sulfidization. The results of adsorption capacity and
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Malachite is one of the most important copper-bearing oxide minerals; however, it shows poor floatability prior to sulfidization under the thiol collector system. This study investigated the reasons for the low recovery of malachite flotation without sulfidization. The results of adsorption capacity and contact angle test indicated that the malachite surface could adsorb a sufficient amount of the collector, obviously increasing the hydrophobicity of the malachite surface under static conditions. By measuring the amount of inorganic carbon in the flotation solution, it was found that the amount of inorganic carbon in the solution increased significantly when the thiol collectors were added into pulp, which could be attributed to the induced dissolution of the malachite surface by thiol collectors. Solubility tests further demonstrated that the copper ions released from the natural dissolution of malachite proved difficult in regard to reactions with thiol collector to form precipitates; however, the thiol collector induced the dissolution of malachite surface, and so the hydrophobic complexes’ copper-collector could not firmly adsorb on the mineral surface. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis revealed that thiol collectors do not adsorb stably on malachite surfaces. This was considered to be a substantial reason for the poor performance of malachite flotation without sulfidization.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)
Open AccessArticle
Fluorescence-Based Image Analysis of Seepage Behavior in Drip Irrigation: Exploring Varied Fractal Grading in Media Permeability
by
Xiaolong Wang, Junjie Huang, Xiang Li, Wenbin Yuan, Hongchang Liu, Min Gan, Jun Wang and Yansheng Zhang
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050482 - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
In the recycling of low-value metallic elements, heap leaching is commonly employed. The particle size distribution is a crucial parameter in heap leaching implementation, and the percolation behavior of a heap has always been a focal point in heap leaching technology. This paper
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In the recycling of low-value metallic elements, heap leaching is commonly employed. The particle size distribution is a crucial parameter in heap leaching implementation, and the percolation behavior of a heap has always been a focal point in heap leaching technology. This paper utilizes a novel form of ultraviolet fluorescence image acquisition and fluorescence image analysis to investigate the percolation process with different fractal dimension particle size distributions, where the maximum particle diameter is 10 mm. The ore used was low-grade copper ore. The results indicate that the new fluorescence image analysis method can reveal different percolation regions during the heap leaching process, aiding in a better understanding of heap leaching behavior. The combined study found that under irrigation conditions of 10 mL/min, seepage was more uniform under the heap structure formed by a particle gradation with a fractal dimension of 2.2.
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(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy)
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Characterization of a Metamorphosed Volcanic Stratigraphy and VMS Alteration Halos Using Rock Chip Petrography and Lithogeochemistry: A Case Study from King North, Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia
by
Jamie Kelly, Steven P. Hollis, Cendi D.P. Dana, Allan Kneeshaw, Darryl Podmore, Megan James, Riquan Azri, Conal Rodgers and Stephen Roberts
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050481 - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
Despite countless advances in recent years, exploration for volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits remains challenging. This is particularly the case in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia, where outcrop is limited, weathering is deep and extensive, and metamorphism is variable. At Erayinia in
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Despite countless advances in recent years, exploration for volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits remains challenging. This is particularly the case in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia, where outcrop is limited, weathering is deep and extensive, and metamorphism is variable. At Erayinia in the southern Kurnalpi terrane, intercepts of VMS-style mineralization occur along ~35 km strike length of stratigraphy, and a small Zn (-Cu) deposit has been defined at King (2.15 Mt at 3.47% Zn). An extensive aircore and reverse circulation drilling campaign on the regional stratigraphy identified additional VMS targets, including the King North prospect. Through a combination of detailed rock chip logging, petrography (inc. SEM imaging), and lithogeochemistry, we have reconstructed the volcanic stratigraphy and alteration halos associated with the King North prospect. Hydrothermal alteration assemblages and geochemical characteristics at King North (Mg-Si-K enrichment, Na depletion, and high Sb, Tl, Eu/Eu*, alteration index, CCPI, and normative corundum abundance values) are consistent with an overturned VMS system. The overturned footwall stratigraphy at King North is dominated by metamorphosed volcanic rocks, namely the following: garnet amphibolite (tholeiitic, basaltic), biotite amphibolite (andesitic, calc-alkaline), chlorite–quartz schist (dacitic), and narrow horizons of muscovite–quartz schist (dacitic to rhyolitic, HFSE-enriched). The hanging-wall to the Zn-bearing sequence is characterized by quartz–albite schists (metasedimentary rocks) and thick sequences of amphibolite (calc-alkaline, basaltic andesite). An iron-rich unit (>25% Fe2O3) of chlorite–actinolite–quartz schist, interpreted as a meta-exhalite, is associated with significant Cu-Au mineralization, adjacent to a likely syn-volcanic fault. Extensive Mg metasomatism of the immediate felsic footwall is represented by muscovite–chlorite schist. Diamond drilling into the deep hanging-wall stratigraphy at both King North and King has also revealed the potential for additional, stacked VMS prospective horizons in the greenstone belt stratigraphy. The discovery of HFSE-enriched rhyolites, zones of muscovite–chlorite schist, presence of abundant sulfide-rich argillaceous metasedimentary rocks, and a second upper meta-exhalite horizon further expand the exploration potential of the King–King North region. Our combined petrographic and lithogeochemical approach demonstrates that complex volcanic lithologies and VMS alteration signatures can be established across variably metamorphosed greenstone belts. This has wider implications for more cost-effective exploration across the Yilgarn Craton, utilizing RC drilling to reconstruct the local geology and identify proximal halos, and limiting more costly diamond drilling to key areas of complex geology and deeper EM targets.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralization and Geochemistry of VMS Deposits)
Open AccessArticle
A Study on the Production of Anhydrous Neodymium Chloride through the Chlorination Reaction of Neodymium Oxide and Ammonium Chloride
by
Joo-Won Yu and Jei-Pil Wang
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050480 - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
The chlorination mechanism of neodymium oxide for the production of anhydrous neodymium chloride was analyzed based on the reaction temperature and reaction ratio of ammonium chloride, considering the suppression of the generation of NdOCl, an intermediate product of the reaction process. The results
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The chlorination mechanism of neodymium oxide for the production of anhydrous neodymium chloride was analyzed based on the reaction temperature and reaction ratio of ammonium chloride, considering the suppression of the generation of NdOCl, an intermediate product of the reaction process. The results were obtained by distinguishing the shape of the produced NdCl3 (powder and bulk) and the setup of the chlorination equipment, reflecting its sensitivity to moisture and oxygen. The powdered form of NdCl3 produced at 400 °C and under argon gas flow was identified as NdCl3·6(H2O), while the bulk form of NdCl3 produced by melting at 760 °C after a chlorination process consisted of anhydrous NdCl3 and NdCl3∙n(H2O). The powdered NdCl3 produced in an argon gas environment with a controlled level of oxygen (below 16.05 ppm) and moisture (below 0.01 ppm) content was identified as single-phase anhydrous NdCl3 and showed the highest chlorination conversion rate of 98.65%. The addition of overstoichiometric ratios of NH4Cl in the chlorination process decreased the total amount of impurities (N, H, and O) in the NdCl3 product and increased the conversion rate of NdCl3.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermodynamics, Mechanism and Kinetics of Metallurgical Processes)
Open AccessArticle
Lithofacies Characteristics of Continental Lacustrine Fine-Grained Sedimentary Rocks and Their Coupling Relationship with Sedimentary Environments: Insights from the Shahejie Formation, Dongying Sag
by
Hao Guo, Juye Shi, Shaopeng Fu, Zitong Liu, Linhong Cai and Siyuan Yin
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050479 - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
Lacustrine fine-grained sedimentary rocks in the Dongying Sag of the Bohai Bay Basin in China exhibit significant potential for hydrocarbon exploration. This study investigates the lithofacies types and sedimentary evolution of the Paleogene Shahejie Formation’s lower third member (Es3l) and upper fourth member
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Lacustrine fine-grained sedimentary rocks in the Dongying Sag of the Bohai Bay Basin in China exhibit significant potential for hydrocarbon exploration. This study investigates the lithofacies types and sedimentary evolution of the Paleogene Shahejie Formation’s lower third member (Es3l) and upper fourth member (Es4u), integrating petrological and geochemical analyses to explore the relationship between lithofacies characteristics and sedimentary environments. The results show that the fine-grained sedimentary rocks in the study area can be classified into 18 lithofacies, with seven principal ones, including organic-rich laminated carbonate fine-grained mixed sedimentary rock lithofacies and organic-rich laminated limestone lithofacies. In conjunction with analyses of vertical changes in geochemical proxies such as paleoclimate (e.g., CIA, Na/Al), paleoproductivity (e.g., Ba), paleosalinity (e.g., Sr/Ba), paleo-redox conditions (e.g., V/Sc, V/V + Ni), and terrigenous detrital influx (e.g., Al, Ti), five stages are delineated from bottom to top. These stages demonstrate a general transition from an arid to humid paleoclimate, a steady increase in paleoproductivity, a gradual decrease in paleosalinity, an overall reducing water body environment, and an increasing trend of terrestrial detrital input. This study demonstrates that the abundance of organic matter is primarily influenced by paleoproductivity and paleo-redox conditions. The variations in rock components are predominantly influenced by paleoclimate, and sedimentary structures are affected by the depth of the lake basin. Special depositional events, such as storm events in Stage II, have significantly impacted the abundance of organic matter, rock components, and sedimentary structures by disturbing the water column and disrupting the reducing conditions at the lake bottom. The present study offers crucial insights into the genesis mechanisms of continental lacustrine fine-grained sedimentary rocks, facilitates the prediction of lithofacies distribution, and advances the exploration of China’s shale oil resources in lacustrine environments.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Petrography, Sedimentology, and Geochemical Signatures of Fine-Grained Sedimentary Rocks in Deep-Water Environments)
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Open AccessArticle
Nature of Perovskite Mineralization of Silicate-Carbonate Veins in the Margins of Kusinsko-Kopanskaya Layered Intrusion (South Urals, Russia)
by
Sergey Stepanov, Roman Palamarchuk, Anton Kutyrev, Elena Lepekhina, Ludmila Sharpenok, Evgeniy Shagalov and Elena Minervina
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050478 - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
This study presents the first comprehensive investigation of perovskite from its type locality (Mineral Mines of Southern Urals, Russia), where this mineral was first described by Gustav Rose in 1839. The new data includes results from precise chemical analyses (electron-probe microanalyzer, LA-ICP-MS) and
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This study presents the first comprehensive investigation of perovskite from its type locality (Mineral Mines of Southern Urals, Russia), where this mineral was first described by Gustav Rose in 1839. The new data includes results from precise chemical analyses (electron-probe microanalyzer, LA-ICP-MS) and U-Pb ages (SHRIMP-II) of perovskite. Perovskite occurs in silicate-carbonate veins that transect the marginal parts of the Middle Riphaean Kusinsko-Kopanskaya layered intrusion, previously thought to be skarns. The perovskite crystals range from micrometer-scale grains to up to 11 cm in size. Chemical investigations revealed a low content of trace elements (rare earth elements, Y, Nd, U, Th) compared to perovskites from alkaline ultramafic rocks, silica-undersaturated basic rocks, carbonatites, and kimberlites. The determined age of the perovskite, 535 ± 43 Ma, significantly differs from the 1379 ± 8 Ma age of the Kusinsko-Kopanskaya intrusion, challenging the skarn-origin hypothesis for perovskite. Instead, the findings suggest a carbonatite origin for the perovskite mineralization. This timing indicates a previously unknown stage of endogenic activity on the Western Slope of the Southern Urals.
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(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)
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Open AccessArticle
Measurements of Thermodynamic Data of Water in Ca-Bentonite by Relative Humidity Method
by
Kosuke Ichikawa and Haruo Sato
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050477 - 30 Apr 2024
Abstract
Buffer material (compacted bentonite), one of the engineered barrier elements in the geological disposal of a high-level radioactive waste, develops swelling stress due to groundwater penetration from the surrounding rock mass. Montmorillonite is the major clay mineral component of bentonite. Even previous studies
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Buffer material (compacted bentonite), one of the engineered barrier elements in the geological disposal of a high-level radioactive waste, develops swelling stress due to groundwater penetration from the surrounding rock mass. Montmorillonite is the major clay mineral component of bentonite. Even previous studies provide few mechanical and thermodynamic data on Ca-montmorillonite. In this study, thermodynamic data on Ca-montmorillonite were obtained as a function of water content by measuring relative humidity (RH) and temperature. The activities of water and the relative partial molar Gibbs free energies of water were determined from the experimental results, and the swelling stress of Ca-bentonite was calculated using the thermodynamic model and compared with measured data. The activities of water and the relative partial molar Gibbs free energies obtained in the experiments decreased with decreasing water content in water contents lower than about 25%. This trend was similar to that of Na-montmorillonite. The swelling stress calculated based on the thermodynamic model was approximately 200 MPa at a montmorillonite partial density of 2.0 Mg/m3 and approximately 10 MPa at a montmorillonite partial density of 1.4 Mg/m3. The swelling stresses in the high-density region (around 2.0 Mg/m3) were higher than that of Na-montmorillonite and were similar levels in the low-density region (around 1.5 Mg/m3). Comparison with measured data showed the practicality of the thermodynamic model.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Mineralogy, 2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Experimental Investigation on Gallium and Germanium Migration in Coal Gangue Combustion
by
Feitan Wu, Benjun Zhou and Chuncai Zhou
Minerals 2024, 14(5), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14050476 - 29 Apr 2024
Abstract
Gallium (Ga) and germanium (Ge) critical elements have a wide range of applications and market value. Extracting critical elements from coal gangue and combustion products can alleviate pressures on primary mining resources. Understanding the transformation behavior of Ga and Ge during coal gangue
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Gallium (Ga) and germanium (Ge) critical elements have a wide range of applications and market value. Extracting critical elements from coal gangue and combustion products can alleviate pressures on primary mining resources. Understanding the transformation behavior of Ga and Ge during coal gangue combustion processes is significant for resource utilization and environmental protection. Coal gangue from Xing’an League, Inner Mongolia, was chosen to explore how combustion temperatures (600 °C to 1000 °C) and particle sizes (50, 80, 10, 140, and 200 mesh) influence Ga and Ge migration during combustion. Techniques such as ICP-MS, XRD, XRF, SEM, TG−DSC, and sequential chemical extraction were employed to analyze the transformation of minerals and to quantify the contents and occurrence forms of Ga and Ge. Smaller gangue particle sizes were associated with higher concentrations of Ga and Ge. Approximately 99.19% of Ga and Ge in coal gangue were found in the residual, organic/sulfide-bound, and metal-oxide-bound modes. High temperatures promoted element volatilization and changed the reactions and interactions between elements and minerals. As combustion temperatures rose from 600 °C to 1000 °C, Ga and Ge contents in the products declined progressively. Under high temperatures, minerals like kaolinite, illite, and pyrite in gangue converted to silicate glass phases, mullite, and hematite. Minerals like kaolinite, calcite, and pyrite melted, leading to increased cohesion and agglomeration in the products. Over 90% of Ga and Ge in the combustion products existed in the residual, organic/sulfide-bound, and metal-oxide-bound forms. Moreover, Ga was enriched in combustion products, with its content exceeding critical extraction levels. The results may provide a useful reference for developing critical elements enrichment, extraction, and separation technologies from coal gangue.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemical Characteristics and Environmental Risks of Soils Around Coal Mining Areas)
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