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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 March 2017) | Viewed by 89412

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Dongsheng Wen

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Guest Editor

School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
Interests: nanotechnology; enhanced oil recovery; solar energy; multiphase flow; multiscale modelling

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleauges,

The global demand of energy is expected to increase by as much as 50% in the next 20 years, and the demand for oil and gas will also increase. The era of finding “easy oil” is coming to an end, and future supply will become more reliant on fossil fuels produced from non-conventional reservoirs and from enhanced oil recovery process, which calls for new technologies. Nanotechnology may offer an alternative promising solution.

The potentiality of applying nanotechnology in oil and gas sectors is enormous, which ranges from reservoir characterisation, drilling operation, exploration and production, to flow assurance. Research and development of novel nanotechnologies has received intensive attention in the last decade, including the development of contrast-agent type of nanoparticles, controlled delivery of chemicals, and nanoparticles enabled oil recovery. Following an explosion of hype and speculation, it is beginning to see some advances. A sizable community has now formed, which starts to generate a critical mass in the area. However, it has to be admitted that the research in this field is just at the beginning, and that most of the studies are still at the laboratory scale.

This Special Issue will act as a timely platform to advance the nanotechnology applications in oil and gas sectors, including but not limited to reservoir characterisation, enhanced oil recovery, surface processing and flow assurance, and promote researchers of various areas of nanotechnology to disseminate their most recent findings and define the frontier of nanotechnology in oil and gas applications.

Prof. Dr. Dongsheng Wen
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Nanotechnology
nanoparticle
enhanced oil recovery
flow assurance

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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4494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transport and Deposition of Carbon Nanoparticles in Saturated Porous Media

by Zhongliang Hu, Jin Zhao, Hui Gao, Ehsan Nourafkan and Dongsheng Wen

Energies 2017, 10(8), 1151; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10081151 - 5 Aug 2017

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5779 | Correction

Abstract

Carbon nanoparticles (CNPs) are becoming promising candidates for oil/gas applications due to their biocompatibility and size-dependent optical and electronic properties. Their applications, however, are always associated with the flow of nanoparticles inside a reservoir, i.e., a porous medium, where insufficient studies have been conducted. In this work, we synthesized CNPs with two different size categories in 200 nm carbon balls (CNP-200) and 5 nm carbon dots (CNP-5), via a hydrothermal carbonation process. Comprehensive experiments in packed glass bead columns, as well as mathematical simulations, were conducted to understand the transport and deposition of CNPs under various ionic strength, particle sizes and concentration conditions. Our results show that the retention of CNP-200 is highly sensitive to the salinity and particle concentrations, while both of them are unaffected in the transport of small CNP-5. Supplemented with Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory, the clean bed filtration theory with blocking effect can successfully fit the experimental breakthrough curves of CNP-200. However, the high breakthrough ability for CNP-5 regardless of ionic strength change is in conflict with the energy interactions predicted by traditional DLVO theory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology for Oil and Gas Applications)

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14171 KiB

Open AccessArticle

2D Numerical Simulation of Improving Wellbore Stability in Shale Using Nanoparticles Based Drilling Fluid

by Jiwei Song, Ye Yuan, Sui Gu, Xianyu Yang, Ye Yue, Jihua Cai and Guosheng Jiang

Energies 2017, 10(5), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10050651 - 9 May 2017

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5778

Abstract

The past decade has seen increased focus on nanoparticle (NP) based drilling fluid to promote wellbore stability in shales. With the plugging of NP into shale pores, the fluid pressure transmission can be retarded and wellbore stability can be improved. For better understanding of the interaction between shale and NP based drilling fluid based on previous pressure transmission tests (PTTs) on Atoka shale samples, this paper reports the numerical simulation findings of wellbore stability in the presence of NP based drilling fluid, using the 2D fluid-solid coupling model in FLAC3D™ software. The results of previous PTT are discussed first, where the steps of numerical simulation, the simulation on pore fluid pressure transmission, the distribution of stress and the deformation of surrounding rock are presented. The mechanisms of NP in reducing permeability and stabilizing shale are also discussed. Results showed that fluid filtrate from water-based drilling fluid had a strong tendency to invade the shale matrix and increase the likelihood of wellbore instability in shales. However, the pore fluid pressure near wellbore areas could be minimized by plugging silica NP into the nanoscale pores of shales, which is consistent with previous PTT. Pore pressure transmission boundaries could also be restricted with silica NP. Furthermore, the stress differential and shear stress of surrounding rock near the wellbore was reduced in the presence of NP. The plastic yield zone was minimized to improve wellbore stability. The plugging mechanism of NP may be attributed to the electrostatic and electrodynamic interactions between NP and shale surfaces that are governed by Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) forces, which allowed NP to approach shale surfaces and adhere to them. We also found that discretization of the simulation model was beneficial in distinguishing the yield zone distribution of the surrounding rock in shales. The combination of PTT and the 2D numerical simulation offers a better understanding of how NP-based drilling fluid can be developed to address wellbore stability issues in shales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology for Oil and Gas Applications)

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16730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flow Behavior and Displacement Mechanisms of Nanoparticle Stabilized Foam Flooding for Enhanced Heavy Oil Recovery

by Teng Lu, Zhaomin Li and Yan Zhou

Energies 2017, 10(4), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040560 - 20 Apr 2017

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6215

Abstract

In this study, nanoparticle stabilized foam experiments were performed in bulk tests, micromodels, and sandpacks at elevated temperatures and pressures to investigate the flow behavior and displacement mechanisms for enhanced heavy oil recovery. The results from the bulk tests showed that the stability of the foam and oil in water (O/W) emulsion improved when silica nanoparticles (SiO₂) were added, compared with the anionic surfactant alone. Also, the SiO₂ nanoparticles increased the dilatational viscoelasticity of the gas-water interface, which is an important fluid property and mechanism for improving heavy oil recovery. The micromodel studies demonstrated that several gas bubbles and oil droplets were stably dispersed during the nanoparticle stabilized foam flooding. The gas bubbles and oil droplets plug pores through capture-plugging and bridge-plugging, thereby increasing the sweep efficiency. The trapped residual oil is gradually pushed to the pores by the elastic forces of bubbles. Subsequently, the residual oil is pulled into oil threads by the flowing gas bubbles. Then, a greater improvement in displacement efficiency is obtained. The sandpack tests showed that the tertiary oil recovery of nanoparticle stabilized foam flooding can reach about 27% using 0.5 wt % SiO₂ nanoparticles. The foam slug size of 0.3 pore volume (PV) and the gas liquid ratio (GLR) of 3:1 were found to be the optimum conditions in terms of heavy oil recovery by nanoparticle stabilized foam flooding in this study. A continuous nanoparticle dispersion and N₂ could be more effective compared with the cyclic injection pattern. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology for Oil and Gas Applications)

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4100 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

CO₂ Foam Stability Improvement Using Polyelectrolyte Complex Nanoparticles Prepared in Produced Water

by Negar Nazari, Jyun-Syung Tsau and Reza Barati

Energies 2017, 10(4), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040516 - 11 Apr 2017

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4899

Abstract

Despite the increasing interest in CO₂ foam flooding for enhanced oil recovery applications, it is challenging to have a successful field operation as the performance of the surfactant is often affected by the presence of crude oil and salinity of the water. It is also challenging to dispose of huge amounts of water associated with the field operation. Due to the incompatibility of the produced water with chemicals used in the foam system, the produced water cannot be used as an injecting fluid. The objective of this project is to design a chemical system compatible with produced water which may fully utilize the oil field produced water as an injecting fluid and make the foam injection economically viable and environmentally friendly. In this study, we investigate the performance of a foam system with a surfactant and the addition of polyelectrolyte and polyelectrolyte complex nanoparticles (PECNP) in various salinities of produced water. A recipe is developed to prepare a nanoparticle solution that is sustainable in high salinity produced water. The rheological property of the foam, the stability, and durability of the foam with and without the presence of crude oil are measured and compared as the water salinity is changed. It is found that foam stability and durability deteriorated when water salinity increased. However, by the addition of polyelectrolyte and PECNP in the system, the foam stability and durability was improved even in high salinity water with or without the presence of crude oil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology for Oil and Gas Applications)

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4844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Nanoparticles on Spontaneous Imbibition of Water into Ultraconfined Reservoir Capillary by Molecular Dynamics Simulation

by Xiao Wang, Senbo Xiao, Zhiliang Zhang and Jianying He

Energies 2017, 10(4), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040506 - 8 Apr 2017

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7067

Abstract

Imbibition is one of the key phenomena underlying processes such as oil recovery and others. In this paper, the influence of nanoparticles on spontaneous water imbibition into ultraconfined channels is investigated by molecular dynamics simulation. By combining the dynamic process of imbibition, the water contact angle in the capillary and the relationship of displacement (l) and time (t), a competitive mechanism of nanoparticle effects on spontaneous imbibition is proposed. The results indicate that the addition of nanoparticles decreases the displacement of fluids into the capillary dramatically, and the relationship between displacement and time can be described by l(t) ~ t^1/2. Based on the analysis of the dynamic contact angle and motion behavior of nanoparticles, for water containing hydrophobic nanoparticles, the displacement decreases with the decrease of hydrophobicity, and the properties of fluids, such as viscosity and surface tension, play a major role. While for hydrophilic nanoparticles, the displacement of fluids increases slightly with the increase of hydrophilicity in the water-wet capillary and simulation time, which can be ascribed to disjoining pressure induced by “sticking nanoparticles”. This study provides new insights into the complex interactions between nanoparticles and other components in nanofluids in the spontaneous imbibition, which is crucially important to enhanced oil recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology for Oil and Gas Applications)

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3134 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Alkaline Earth Element Adsorption onto PAA-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles

by Qing Wang, Valentina Prigiobbe, Chun Huh and Steven L. Bryant

Energies 2017, 10(2), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10020223 - 14 Feb 2017

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4518

Abstract

In this paper, we present a study on the adsorption of calcium (Ca²⁺) onto polyacrylic acid-functionalized iron-oxide magnetic nanoparticles (PAA-MNPs) to gain an insight into the adsorption behavior of alkaline earth elements at conditions typical of produced water from hydraulic fracturing. An aqueous co-precipitation method was employed to fabricate iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles, whose surface was first coated with amine and then by PAA. To evaluate the Ca²⁺ adsorption capacity by PAA-MNPs, the Ca²⁺ adsorption isotherm was measured in batch as a function of pH and sodium chlorite (electrolyte) concentration. A surface complexation model accounting for the coulombic forces in the diffuse double layer was developed to describe the competitive adsorption of protons (H⁺) and Ca²⁺ onto the anionic carboxyl ligands of the PAA-MNPs. Measurements show that Ca²⁺ adsorption is significant above pH 5 and decreases with the electrolyte concentration. Upon adsorption, the nanoparticle suspension destabilizes and creates large clusters, which favor an efficient magnetic separation of the PAA-MNPs, therefore, helping their recovery and recycle. The model agrees well with the experiments and predicts that the maximum adsorption capacity can be achieved within the pH range of the produced water, although that maximum declines with the electrolyte concentration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology for Oil and Gas Applications)

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12419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Flooding in Heavy-Oil Reservoirs: From Technical Investigation to Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology

by Si Le Van and Bo Hyun Chon

Energies 2016, 9(9), 711; https://doi.org/10.3390/en9090711 - 5 Sep 2016

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6452

Abstract

Heavy-oil resources represent a large percentage of global oil and gas reserves, however, owing to the high viscosity, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques are critical issues for extracting this type of crude oil from the reservoir. According to the survey data in Oil & Gas Journal, thermal methods are the most widely utilized in EOR projects in heavy oil fields in the US and Canada, and there are not many successful chemical flooding projects for heavy oil reported elsewhere in the world. However, thermal methods such as steam injection might be restricted in cases of thin formations, overlying permafrost, or reservoir depths over 4500 ft, for which chemical flooding becomes a better option for recovering crude oil. Moreover, owing to the considerable fluctuations in the oil price, chemical injection plans should be employed consistently in terms of either technical or economic viewpoints. The numerical studies in this work aim to clarify the predominant chemical injection schemes among the various combinations of chemical agents involving alkali (A), surfactant (S) and polymer (P) for specific heavy-oil reservoir conditions. The feasibilities of all potential injection sequences are evaluated in the pre-evaluation stage in order to select the most efficient injection scheme according to the variation in the oil price which is based on practical market values. Finally, optimization procedures in the post-evaluation stage are carried out for the most economic injection plan by an effective mathematic tool with the purpose of gaining highest Net Present Value (NPV) of the project. In technical terms, the numerical studies confirm the predominant performances of sequences in which alkali-surfactant-polymer (ASP) solution is injected after the first preflushing water whereby the recovery factor can be higher than 47%. In particular, the oil production performances are improved by injecting a buffering viscous fluid right after the first chemical slug rather than using a water slug in between. The results of the pre-evaluation show that two sequences of the ASP group have the highest NPV corresponding to the dissimilar applied oil prices. In the post-evaluation, the successful use of response surface methodology (RSM) in the estimation and optimization procedures with coefficients of determination R² greater than 0.97 shows that the project can possibly gain 4.47 $MM at a mean oil price of 46.5 $/bbl with the field scale of a quarter five-spot pattern. Further, with the novel assumption of normal distribution for the oil price variation, the chemical flooding sequence of concurrent alkali-surfactant-polymer injection with a buffering polymer solution is evaluated as the most feasible scheme owing to the achievement of the highest NPV at the highly possible oil price of 40–55 $/bbl compared to the other scheme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology for Oil and Gas Applications)

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Review

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8779 KiB

Open AccessReview

Nano-Based Drilling Fluids: A Review

by Zisis Vryzas and Vassilios C. Kelessidis

Energies 2017, 10(4), 540; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040540 - 15 Apr 2017

Cited by 179 | Viewed by 16706

Abstract

Nanomaterials are engineered materials with at least one dimension in the range of 1–100 nm. Nanofluids—nanoscale colloidal suspensions containing various nanomaterials—have distinctive properties and offer unprecedented potential for various sectors such as the energy, cosmetic, aerospace and biomedical industries. Due to their unique physico-chemical properties, nanoparticles are considered as very good candidates for smart drilling fluid formulation, i.e., fluids with tailor-made rheological and filtration properties. However, due to the great risk of adapting new technologies, their application in oil and gas industry is not, to date, fully implemented. Over the last few years, several researchers have examined the use of various nanoparticles, from commercial to custom made particles, to formulate drilling fluids with enhanced properties that can withstand extreme downhole environments, particularly at high pressure and high temperature (HP/HT) conditions. This article summarizes the recent progress made on the use of nanoparticles as additives in drilling fluids in order to give such fluids optimal rheological and filtration characteristics, increase shale stability and achieve wellbore strengthening. Type, size and shape of nanoparticles, volumetric concentration, addition of different surfactants and application of an external magnetic field are factors that are critically evaluated and are discussed in this article. The results obtained from various studies show that nanoparticles have a great potential to be used as drilling fluid additives in order to overcome stern drilling problems. However, there are still challenges that should be addressed in order to take full advantage of the capabilities of such particles. Finally the paper identifies and discusses opportunities for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology for Oil and Gas Applications)

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7189 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application of Nanoparticles in Enhanced Oil Recovery: A Critical Review of Recent Progress

by Xiaofei Sun, Yanyu Zhang, Guangpeng Chen and Zhiyong Gai

Energies 2017, 10(3), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/en10030345 - 11 Mar 2017

Cited by 441 | Viewed by 28081

Abstract

The injected fluids in secondary processes supplement the natural energy present in the reservoir to displace oil. The recovery efficiency mainly depends on the mechanism of pressure maintenance. However, the injected fluids in tertiary or enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes interact with the reservoir rock/oil system. Thus, EOR techniques are receiving substantial attention worldwide as the available oil resources are declining. However, some challenges, such as low sweep efficiency, high costs and potential formation damage, still hinder the further application of these EOR technologies. Current studies on nanoparticles are seen as potential solutions to most of the challenges associated with these traditional EOR techniques. This paper provides an overview of the latest studies about the use of nanoparticles to enhance oil recovery and paves the way for researchers who are interested in the integration of these progresses. The first part of this paper addresses studies about the major EOR mechanisms of nanoparticles used in the forms of nanofluids, nanoemulsions and nanocatalysts, including disjoining pressure, viscosity increase of injection fluids, preventing asphaltene precipitation, wettability alteration and interfacial tension reduction. This part is followed by a review of the most important research regarding various novel nano-assisted EOR methods where nanoparticles are used to target various existing thermal, chemical and gas methods. Finally, this review identifies the challenges and opportunities for future study regarding application of nanoparticles in EOR processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotechnology for Oil and Gas Applications)

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