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Open AccessArticle Measuring Tree Properties and Responses Using Low-Cost Accelerometers

by Tim van Emmerik, Susan Steele-Dunne, Rolf Hut, Pierre Gentine, Marceau Guerin, Rafael S. Oliveira, Jim Wagner, John Selker and Nick van de Giesen

Sensors 2017, 17(5), 1098; doi:10.3390/s17051098

Received: 9 March 2017 / Revised: 24 April 2017 / Accepted: 9 May 2017 / Published: 11 May 2017

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Abstract

Trees play a crucial role in the water, carbon and nitrogen cycle on local, regional and global scales. Understanding the exchange of momentum, heat, water, and CO

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between trees and the atmosphere is important to assess the impact of drought, deforestation and

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Trees play a crucial role in the water, carbon and nitrogen cycle on local, regional and global scales. Understanding the exchange of momentum, heat, water, and CO

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between trees and the atmosphere is important to assess the impact of drought, deforestation and climate change. Unfortunately, ground measurements of tree properties such as mass and canopy interception of precipitation are often expensive or difficult due to challenging environments. This paper aims to demonstrate the concept of using robust and affordable accelerometers to measure tree properties and responses. Tree sway is dependent on mass, canopy structure, drag coefficient, and wind forcing. By measuring tree acceleration, we can relate the tree motion to external forcing (e.g., wind, precipitation and related canopy interception) and tree physical properties (e.g., mass, elasticity). Using five months of acceleration data of 19 trees in the Brazilian Amazon, we show that the frequency spectrum of tree sway is related to mass, canopy interception of precipitation, and canopy–atmosphere turbulent exchange. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Open AccessArticle Stakeholder Participation in REDD+ Readiness Activities for Three Collaborative Projects in Lao PDR

by Saykham Boutthavong, Kimihiko Hyakumura and Makoto Ehara

Forests 2017, 8(5), 150; doi:10.3390/f8050150

Received: 22 January 2017 / Revised: 27 March 2017 / Accepted: 27 April 2017 / Published: 29 April 2017

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Abstract

A key challenge for reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries is to balance the power of various stakeholders in decision making. This study explores the forms of stakeholder participation in the implementation of three pilot projects in Laos,

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A key challenge for reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries is to balance the power of various stakeholders in decision making. This study explores the forms of stakeholder participation in the implementation of three pilot projects in Laos, with a focus on who actually makes decisions on project activities. We found that stakeholder roles in making decisions were imbalanced. The central government and development partner organizations were the ones who actually fulfill the roles of decision-makers in most project activities. Although local communities were not the key stakeholders in decision making in most activities, their roles seem to have increased in the activities where participatory approaches were applied. Participation of the private sector, non-governmental organizations, academic and research institutes and mass organizations was limited. Opportunities to reach decision-makers regarding project activities came through service contract agreements. Our findings suggest that an understanding of who fulfills the key roles will support a decentralization of decision making by balancing power and redistributing the roles from dominant to weaker stakeholders. In addition, the private sector’s participation may enhance opportunities to harmonize their investments for supporting REDD+ development and reduce the negative impacts on the forests and the environment. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Examining Spatial Distribution and Dynamic Change of Urban Land Covers in the Brazilian Amazon Using Multitemporal Multisensor High Spatial Resolution Satellite Imagery

by Yunyun Feng, Dengsheng Lu, Emilio F. Moran, Luciano Vieira Dutra, Miquéias Freitas Calvi and Maria Antonia Falcão de Oliveira

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(4), 381; doi:10.3390/rs9040381

Received: 5 February 2017 / Revised: 9 April 2017 / Accepted: 17 April 2017 / Published: 19 April 2017

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Abstract

The construction of the Belo Monte hydroelectric dam began in 2011, resulting in rapidly increased population from less than 80,000 persons before 2010 to more than 150,000 persons in 2012 in Altamira, Pará State, Brazil. This rapid urbanization has produced many problems in

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The construction of the Belo Monte hydroelectric dam began in 2011, resulting in rapidly increased population from less than 80,000 persons before 2010 to more than 150,000 persons in 2012 in Altamira, Pará State, Brazil. This rapid urbanization has produced many problems in urban planning and management, as well as challenging environmental conditions, requiring monitoring of urban land-cover change at high temporal and spatial resolutions. However, the frequent cloud cover in the moist tropical region is a big problem, impeding the acquisition of cloud-free optical sensor data. Thanks to the availability of different kinds of high spatial resolution satellite images in recent decades, RapidEye imagery in 2011 and 2012, Pleiades imagery in 2013 and 2014, SPOT 6 imagery in 2015, and CBERS imagery in 2016 with spatial resolutions from 0.5 m to 10 m were collected for this research. Because of the difference in spectral and spatial resolutions among these satellite images, directly conducting urban land-cover change using conventional change detection techniques, such as image differencing and principal component analysis, was not feasible. Therefore, a hybrid approach was proposed based on integration of spectral and spatial features to classify the high spatial resolution satellite images into six land-cover classes: impervious surface area (ISA), bare soil, building demolition, water, pasture, and forest/plantation. A post-classification comparison approach was then used to detect urban land-cover change annually for the periods between 2011 and 2016. The focus was on the analysis of ISA expansion, the dynamic change between pasture and bare soil, and the changes in forest/plantation. This study indicates that the hybrid approach can effectively extract six land-cover types with overall accuracy of over 90%. ISA increased continuously through conversion from pasture and bare soil. The Belo Monte dam construction resulted in building demolition in 2015 in low-lying areas along the rivers and an increase in water bodies in 2016. Because of the dam construction, forest/plantation and pasture decreased much faster, while ISA and water increased much faster in 2011–2016 than they had between 1991 and 2011. About 50% of the increased annual deforestation area can be attributed to the dam construction between 2011 and 2016. The spatial patterns of annual urban land-cover distribution and rates of dynamic change provided important data sources for making better decisions for urban management and planning in this city and others experiencing such explosive demographic change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Urban Ecology)

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Open AccessArticle Assessment of Land-Use/Land-Cover Change and Forest Fragmentation in the Garhwal Himalayan Region of India

by Amit Kumar Batar, Teiji Watanabe and Ajay Kumar

Environments 2017, 4(2), 34; doi:10.3390/environments4020034

Received: 10 March 2017 / Revised: 12 April 2017 / Accepted: 17 April 2017 / Published: 19 April 2017

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Abstract

The Garhwal Himalaya has experienced extensive deforestation and forest fragmentation, but data and documentation detailing this transformation of the Himalaya are limited. The aim of this study is to analyse the observed changes in land cover and forest fragmentation that occurred between 1976

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The Garhwal Himalaya has experienced extensive deforestation and forest fragmentation, but data and documentation detailing this transformation of the Himalaya are limited. The aim of this study is to analyse the observed changes in land cover and forest fragmentation that occurred between 1976 and 2014 in the Garhwal Himalayan region in India. Three images from Landsat 2 Multispectral Scanner System (MSS), Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM), and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) were used to extract the land cover maps. A cross-tabulation detection method in the geographic information system (GIS) module was used to detect land cover changes during the 1st period (1976–1998) and 2nd period (1998–2014). The landscape fragmentation tool LFT v2.0 was used to construct a forest fragmentation map and analyse the forest fragmentation pattern and change during the 1st period (1976–1998) and 2nd period (1998–2014). The overall annual rate of change in the forest cover was observed to be 0.22% and 0.27% in the 1st period (1976–1998) and 2nd period (1998–2014), respectively. The forest fragmentation analysis shows that a large core forest has decreased throughout the study period. The total area of forest patches also increased from 1976 to 2014, which are completely degraded forests. The results indicate that anthropogenic activities are the main causes of the loss of forest cover and forest fragmentation, but that natural factors also contributed. An increase in the area of scrub and barren land also contributed to the accumulation of wasteland or non-forest land in this region. Determining the trend and the rate of land cover conversion is necessary for development planners to establish a rational land use policy. Full article

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Open AccessReview Sustainable Ecosystem Services Framework for Tropical Catchment Management: A Review

by N. Zafirah, N. A. Nurin, M. S. Samsurijan, M. H. Zuknik, M. Rafatullah and M. I. Syakir

Sustainability 2017, 9(4), 546; doi:10.3390/su9040546

Received: 6 February 2017 / Revised: 24 March 2017 / Accepted: 28 March 2017 / Published: 4 April 2017

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Abstract

The monsoon season is a natural phenomenon that occurs over the Asian continent, bringing extra precipitation which causes significant impact on most tropical watersheds. The tropical region’s countries are rich with natural rainforests and the economies of the countries situated within the region

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The monsoon season is a natural phenomenon that occurs over the Asian continent, bringing extra precipitation which causes significant impact on most tropical watersheds. The tropical region’s countries are rich with natural rainforests and the economies of the countries situated within the region are mainly driven by the agricultural industry. In order to fulfill the agricultural demand, land clearing has worsened the situation by degrading the land surface areas. Rampant land use activities have led to land degradation and soil erosion, resulting in implications on water quality and sedimentation of the river networks. This affects the ecosystem services, especially the hydrological cycles. Intensification of the sedimentation process has resulted in shallower river systems, thus increasing their vulnerability to natural hazards (i.e., climate change, floods). Tropical forests which are essential in servicing their benefits have been depleted due to the increase in human exploitation. This paper provides an overview of the impact of land erosion caused by land use activities within tropical rainforest catchments, which lead to massive sedimentation in tropical rivers, as well as the effects of monsoon on fragile watersheds which can result in catastrophic floods. Forest ecosystems are very important in giving services to regional biogeochemical processes. Balanced ecosystems therefore, play a significant role in servicing humanity and ultimately, may create a new way of environmental management in a cost-effective manner. Essentially, such an understanding will help stakeholders to come up with better strategies in restoring the ecosystem services of tropical watersheds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable River Basin Management)

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Open AccessArticle Do Community-Managed Forests Work? A Biodiversity Perspective

by John Terborgh and Carlos A. Peres

Land 2017, 6(2), 22; doi:10.3390/land6020022

Received: 3 January 2017 / Revised: 10 March 2017 / Accepted: 17 March 2017 / Published: 27 March 2017

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Abstract

Community-managed reserves (CMRs) comprise the fastest-growing category of protected areas throughout the tropics. CMRs represent a compromise between advocates of nature conservation and advocates of human development. We ask whether CMRs succeed in achieving the goals of either. A fixed reserve area can

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Community-managed reserves (CMRs) comprise the fastest-growing category of protected areas throughout the tropics. CMRs represent a compromise between advocates of nature conservation and advocates of human development. We ask whether CMRs succeed in achieving the goals of either. A fixed reserve area can produce only a finite resource supply, whereas human populations exploiting them tend to expand rapidly while adopting high-impact technologies to satisfy rising aspirations. Intentions behind the establishment of CMRs may be admirable, but represent an ideal rarely achieved. People tied to the natural forest subsist on income levels that are among the lowest in the Amazon. Limits of sustainable harvesting are often low and rarely known prior to reserve creation or respected thereafter, and resource exhaustion predictably follows. Unintended consequences typically emerge, such as overhunting of the seed dispersers, pollinators, and other animals that provide services essential to perpetuating the forest. CMRs are a low priority for governments, so mostly operate without enforcement, a laxity that encourages illegal forest conversion. Finally, the pull of markets can alter the “business plan” of a reserve overnight, as inhabitants switch to new activities. The reality is that we live in a hyperdynamic world of accelerating change in which past assumptions must continually be re-evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity in Locally Managed Lands) Printed Edition available

Open AccessArticle Mercury Levels in Human Hair and Farmed Fish near Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Communities in the Madre de Dios River Basin, Peru

by Aubrey L. Langeland, Rebecca D. Hardin and Richard L. Neitzel

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14(3), 302; doi:10.3390/ijerph14030302

Received: 22 November 2016 / Revised: 24 February 2017 / Accepted: 10 March 2017 / Published: 14 March 2017

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Abstract

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has been an important source of income for communities in the Madre de Dios River Basin in Peru for hundreds of years. However, in recent decades, the scale of ASGM activities in the region has increased dramatically,

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Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has been an important source of income for communities in the Madre de Dios River Basin in Peru for hundreds of years. However, in recent decades, the scale of ASGM activities in the region has increased dramatically, and exposures to a variety of occupational and environmental hazards related to ASGM, including mercury, are becoming more widespread. The aims of our study were to: (1) examine patterns in the total hair mercury level of human participants in several communities in the region and compare these results to the 2.2 µg/g total hair mercury level equivalent to the World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee of Food Additives (JECFA)’s Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI); and (2), to measure the mercury levels of paco (Piaractus brachypomus) fish raised in local aquaculture ponds, in order to compare these levels to the EPA Fish Tissue Residue Criterion of 0.3 µg Hg/g fish (wet weight). We collected hair samples from 80 participants in four communities (one control and three where ASGM activities occurred) in the region, and collected 111 samples from fish raised in 24 local aquaculture farms. We then analyzed the samples for total mercury. Total mercury levels in hair were statistically significantly higher in the mining communities than in the control community, and increased with increasing geodesic distance from the Madre de Dios headwaters, did not differ by sex, and frequently exceeded the reference level. Regression analyses indicated that higher hair mercury levels were associated with residence in ASGM communities. The analysis of paco fish samples found no samples that exceeded the EPA tissue residue criterion. Collectively, these results align with other recent studies showing that ASGM activities are associated with elevated human mercury exposure. The fish farmed through the relatively new process of aquaculture in ASGM areas appeared to have little potential to contribute to human mercury exposure. More research is needed on human health risks associated with ASGM to discern occupational, residential, and nutritional exposure, especially through tracking temporal changes in mercury levels as fish ponds age, and assessing levels in different farmed fish species. Additionally, research is needed to definitively determine that elevated mercury levels in humans and fish result from the elemental mercury from mining, rather than from a different source, such as the mercury released from soil erosion during deforestation events from mining or other activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mercury and Health: Current Perspectives and Future Directions)

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Open AccessArticle REDD+ in West Africa: Politics of Design and Implementation in Ghana and Nigeria

by Adeniyi P. Asiyanbi, Albert A. Arhin and Usman Isyaku

Forests 2017, 8(3), 78; doi:10.3390/f8030078

Received: 2 November 2016 / Revised: 2 March 2017 / Accepted: 7 March 2017 / Published: 11 March 2017

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Abstract

This paper analyses the design and implementation of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation, conserving and enhancing forest carbon stocks, and sustainably managing forests (REDD+) in the West African region, an important global biodiversity area. Drawing on in-depth interviews, analysis of policy documents

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This paper analyses the design and implementation of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation, conserving and enhancing forest carbon stocks, and sustainably managing forests (REDD+) in the West African region, an important global biodiversity area. Drawing on in-depth interviews, analysis of policy documents and observation of everyday activities, we sought to understand how REDD+ has been designed and implemented in Nigeria and Ghana. We draw on political ecology to examine how, and why REDD+ takes the form it does in these countries. We structure our discussion around three key dimensions that emerged as strong areas of common emphasis in our case studies—capacity building, carbon visibility, and property rights. First, we show that while REDD+ design generally foregrounds an ostensible inclusionary politics, its implementation is driven through various forms of exclusion. This contradictory inclusion–exclusion politics, which is partly emblematic of the neoliberal provenance of the REDD+ policy, is also a contingent reality and a strategy for navigating complexities and pursuing certain interests. Second, we show that though the emergent foci of REDD+ implementation in our case studies align with global REDD+ expectations, they still manifest as historically and geographically contingent processes that reflect negotiated and contested relations among actors that constitute the specific national circumstance of each country. We conclude by reflecting on the importance of our findings for understanding REDD+ projects in other tropical countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue REDD+: Politics, Interplays and Impacts)

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Open AccessArticle Structure from Motion (SfM) Photogrammetry with Drone Data: A Low Cost Method for Monitoring Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Forests in Developing Countries

by Reason Mlambo, Iain H. Woodhouse, France Gerard and Karen Anderson

Forests 2017, 8(3), 68; doi:10.3390/f8030068

Received: 21 December 2016 / Revised: 17 February 2017 / Accepted: 22 February 2017 / Published: 3 March 2017

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Abstract

Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry applied to photographs captured from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) platforms is increasingly being utilised for a wide range of applications including structural characterisation of forests. The aim of this study was to undertake a first evaluation of whether

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Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry applied to photographs captured from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) platforms is increasingly being utilised for a wide range of applications including structural characterisation of forests. The aim of this study was to undertake a first evaluation of whether SfM from UAVs has potential as a low cost method for forest monitoring within developing countries in the context of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+). The project evaluated SfM horizontal and vertical accuracy for measuring the height of individual trees. Aerial image data were collected for two test sites; Meshaw (Devon, UK) and Dryden (Scotland, UK) using a Quest QPOD fixed wing UAV and DJI Phantom 2 quadcopter UAV, respectively. Comparisons were made between SfM and airborne LiDAR point clouds and surface models at the Meshaw site, while at Dryden, SfM tree heights were compared to ground measured tree heights. Results obtained showed a strong correlation between SfM and LiDAR digital surface models (R² = 0.89) and canopy height models (R² = 0.75). However, at Dryden, a poor correlation was observed between SfM tree heights and ground measured heights (R² = 0.19). The poor results at Dryden were explained by the fact that the forest plot had a closed canopy structure such that SfM failed to generate enough below-canopy ground points. Finally, an evaluation of UAV surveying methods was also undertaken to determine their usefulness and cost-effectiveness for plot-level forest monitoring. The study concluded that although SfM from UAVs performs poorly in closed canopies, it can still provide a low cost solution in those developing countries where forests have sparse canopy cover (<50%) with individual tree crowns and ground surfaces well-captured by SfM photogrammetry. Since more than half of the forest covered areas of the world have canopy cover <50%, we can conclude that SfM has enormous potential for forest mapping in developing countries. Full article

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Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle Interest of Integrating Spaceborne LiDAR Data to Improve the Estimation of Biomass in High Biomass Forested Areas

by Mohammad El Hajj, Nicolas Baghdadi, Ibrahim Fayad, Ghislain Vieilledent, Jean-Stéphane Bailly and Dinh Ho Tong Minh

Remote Sens. 2017, 9(3), 213; doi:10.3390/rs9030213

Received: 21 October 2016 / Revised: 8 February 2017 / Accepted: 22 February 2017 / Published: 25 February 2017

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Abstract

Mapping forest AGB (Above Ground Biomass) is of crucial importance to estimate the carbon emissions associated with tropical deforestation. This study proposes a method to overcome the saturation at high AGB values of existing AGB map (Vieilledent’s AGB map) by using a map

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Mapping forest AGB (Above Ground Biomass) is of crucial importance to estimate the carbon emissions associated with tropical deforestation. This study proposes a method to overcome the saturation at high AGB values of existing AGB map (Vieilledent’s AGB map) by using a map of correction factors generated from GLAS (Geoscience Laser Altimeter System) spaceborne LiDAR data. The Vieilledent’s AGB map of Madagascar was established using optical images, with parameters calculated from the SRTM Digital Elevation Model, climatic variables, and field inventories. In the present study, first, GLAS LiDAR data were used to obtain a spatially distributed (GLAS footprints geolocation) estimation of AGB (GLAS AGB) covering Madagascar forested areas, with a density of 0.52 footprint/km². Second, the difference between the AGB from the Vieilledent’s AGB map and GLAS AGB at each GLAS footprint location was calculated, and additional spatially distributed correction factors were obtained. Third, an ordinary kriging interpolation was thus performed by taking into account the spatial structure of these additional correction factors to provide a continuous correction factor map. Finally, the existing and the correction factor maps were summed to improve the Vieilledent’s AGB map. The results showed that the integration of GLAS data improves the precision of Vieilledent’s AGB map by approximately 7 t/ha. By integrating GLAS data, the RMSE on AGB estimates decreases from 81 t/ha (R² = 0.62) to 74.1 t/ha (R² = 0.71). Most importantly, we showed that this approach using LiDAR data avoids underestimating high biomass values (new maximum AGB of 650 t/ha compared to 550 t/ha with the first approach). Full article

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Open AccessArticle Framing REDD+ at National Level: Actors and Discourse around Nepal’s Policy Debate

by Rishi R. Bastakoti and Conny Davidsen

Forests 2017, 8(3), 57; doi:10.3390/f8030057

Received: 10 December 2016 / Revised: 15 February 2017 / Accepted: 22 February 2017 / Published: 25 February 2017

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Abstract

Forests and carbon sequestration have become fundamental themes in climate change mitigation. The idea of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) has generated significant interest in forest governance from United Nations (UN) climate strategies over the past decade. REDD+ was initially

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Forests and carbon sequestration have become fundamental themes in climate change mitigation. The idea of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) has generated significant interest in forest governance from United Nations (UN) climate strategies over the past decade. REDD+ was initially hailed as a smart and cost-effective way to mitigate climate change. As it is rolling out, ambiguities and controversies are increasingly surfacing to the stakeholders at different levels. Examining the forest governance of Nepal in detail, this research examines how relationships between national and local forest actors have changed, and how REDD+ discourses have evolved among them at the interface between global interests in carbon commodification on one hand, and local realities of community forestry on the other hand. To better understand these competing positions, the study uses a post-structural political ecology perspective with elements of discourse analysis. Using data from interviews with policy actors and members of three local community forest user groups, focus group discussions, policy event observations, and document reviews, this paper highlights how global forest carbon commodification has been affecting community forestry governance. It also illustrates different storylines that actors employ to influence policy discourse and REDD+ debates, indicating a considerable range of problem definitions and policy solutions of climate change among the actors. The analysis highlights the connection between power relationships and the evolution of discourses surrounding REDD+, and how an external discourse can reinforce or challenge local governance and the centralization of forest authority. As such, the research also offers a new application of discursive storylines to climate change discourse analysis across national and local scales. The findings emphasize the importance of a more open and transparent dialogue across Nepal’s forest governance and management levels to ensure actual benefits for healthy forests, strong communities, and effective climate change mitigation. Nepal's findings also suggest highly relevant lessons to other developing countries with significant community forest governance, and a strong planned focus on REDD+. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Revitalizing REDD+ Policy Processes in Vietnam: The Roles of State and Non-State Actors

by Thu Ba Huynh and Rodney J. Keenan

Forests 2017, 8(3), 53; doi:10.3390/f8030053

Received: 31 October 2016 / Revised: 27 January 2017 / Accepted: 14 February 2017 / Published: 24 February 2017

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Abstract

Vietnam was one of the first countries to introduce the National REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) Action Program in 2012. The country has recently revised the Program to aim for a more inclusive 2016–2020 strategy and a vision to 2030.

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Vietnam was one of the first countries to introduce the National REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) Action Program in 2012. The country has recently revised the Program to aim for a more inclusive 2016–2020 strategy and a vision to 2030. This study explores how Vietnam policy actors view REDD+ policy development and their influence in these processes. The results can contribute to the discussion on how policy actors can effectively influence policy processes in the evolving context of REDD+ and in the types of political arrangements represented in Vietnam. We examined the influence of state and non-state actors on the 2012 National REDD+ Action Program (NRAP) processes, and explored factors that may have shaped this influence, using a combination of document analysis and semi-structured interviews with 81 policy actors. It was found that non-state actors in REDD+ are still on the periphery of decision making, occupying “safe” positions, and have not taken either full advantage of their capacities, or of recent significant changes in the contemporary policy environment, to exert stronger influence on policy. We suggest that REDD+ policy processes in Vietnam need to be revitalized with key actors engaging collectively to promote the possibilities of REDD+ within a broader view of social change that reaches beyond the forestry sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue REDD+: Politics, Interplays and Impacts)

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Open AccessArticle Modeling Rainfall-Runoff Response to Land Use and Land Cover Change in Rwanda (1990–2016)

by Fidele Karamage, Chi Zhang, Xia Fang, Tong Liu, Felix Ndayisaba, Lamek Nahayo, Alphonse Kayiranga and Jean Baptiste Nsengiyumva

Water 2017, 9(2), 147; doi:10.3390/w9020147

Received: 29 December 2016 / Revised: 7 February 2017 / Accepted: 14 February 2017 / Published: 22 February 2017

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Abstract

Stormwater runoff poses serious environmental problems and public health issues in Rwanda, a tropical country that is increasingly suffering from severe floods, landslides, soil erosion and water pollution. Using the WetSpa Extension model, this study assessed the changes in rainfall runoff depth in

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Stormwater runoff poses serious environmental problems and public health issues in Rwanda, a tropical country that is increasingly suffering from severe floods, landslides, soil erosion and water pollution. Using the WetSpa Extension model, this study assessed the changes in rainfall runoff depth in Rwanda from 1990 to 2016 in response to precipitation and land use changes. Our results show that Rwanda has experienced a significant conversion of natural forest and grassland to cropland and built-up areas. During the period 1990–2016, 7090.02 km² (64.5%) and 1715.26 km² (32.1%) of forest and grassland covers were lost, respectively, while the cropland and built-up areas increased by 135.3% (8503.75 km²) and 304.3% (355.02 km²), respectively. According to our estimates, the land use change effect resulted in a national mean runoff depth increase of 2.33 mm/year (0.38%). Although precipitation change affected the inter-annual fluctuation of runoff, the long-term trend of runoff was dominated by land use change. The top five districts that experienced the annual runoff depth increase (all >3.8 mm/year) are Rubavu, Nyabihu, Ngororero, Gakenke, and Musanze. Their annual runoff depths increased at a rate of >3.8 mm/year during the past 27 years, due to severe deforestation (ranging from 62% to 85%) and cropland expansion (ranging from 123% to 293%). These areas require high priority in runoff control using terracing in croplands and rainwater harvesting systems such as dam/reservoirs, percolation tanks, storage tanks, etc. The wet season runoff was three times higher than the dry season runoff in Rwanda; appropriate rainwater management and reservation could provide valuable irrigation water for the dry season or drought years (late rainfall onsets or early rainfall cessations). It was estimated that a reservation of 30.5% (3.99 km³) of the runoff in the wet season could meet the cropland irrigation water gap during the dry season in 2016. Full article

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Open AccessReview Bat Astroviruses: Towards Understanding the Transmission Dynamics of a Neglected Virus Family

by Kerstin Fischer, Vinícius Pinho dos Reis and Anne Balkema-Buschmann

Viruses 2017, 9(2), 34; doi:10.3390/v9020034

Received: 2 January 2017 / Revised: 14 February 2017 / Accepted: 16 February 2017 / Published: 21 February 2017

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Abstract

Bats belong to the order Chiroptera that represents the second largest order of mammals with more than 1200 species and an almost global distribution. Environmental changes and deforestation have severely influenced many ecosystems, intensifying the contact between wildlife and humans. In recent years,

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Bats belong to the order Chiroptera that represents the second largest order of mammals with more than 1200 species and an almost global distribution. Environmental changes and deforestation have severely influenced many ecosystems, intensifying the contact between wildlife and humans. In recent years, bats have been found to harbor a number of different viruses with zoonotic potential, as well as a great diversity of astroviruses, for which the question of zoonotic potential remains unanswered to date. Human astroviruses have been identified as the causative agent for diarrhea in children and immunocompromised patients. For a long time, astroviruses have been considered to be strictly species-specific. However, a great genetic diversity has recently been discovered among animal and human astroviruses that might indicate the potential of these viruses to cross species barriers. Furthermore, our knowledge about the tissue tropism of astroviruses has been expanded to some neurotropic strains that have recently been shown to be responsible for encephalitis in humans and livestock. This review gives an overview on what is known about astroviruses in bats, humans and livestock, especially bovines and pigs. Future research activities are suggested to unravel astrovirus infection dynamics in bat populations to further assess the zoonotic potential of these viruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Astroviruses)

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Open AccessArticle Using Fractal Analysis in Modeling the Dynamics of Forest Areas and Economic Impact Assessment: Maramureș County, Romania, as a Case Study

by Radu-Daniel Pintilii, Ion Andronache, Daniel Constantin Diaconu, Răzvan Cătălin Dobrea, Martina Zeleňáková, Rasmus Fensholt, Daniel Peptenatu, Cristian-Constantin Drăghici and Ana-Maria Ciobotaru

Forests 2017, 8(1), 25; doi:10.3390/f8010025

Received: 5 October 2016 / Revised: 10 January 2017 / Accepted: 10 January 2017 / Published: 14 January 2017

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Abstract

This study uses fractal analysis to quantify the spatial changes of forest resources caused by an increase of deforested areas. The method introduced contributes to the evaluation of forest resources being under significant pressure from anthropogenic activities. The pressure on the forest resources

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This study uses fractal analysis to quantify the spatial changes of forest resources caused by an increase of deforested areas. The method introduced contributes to the evaluation of forest resources being under significant pressure from anthropogenic activities. The pressure on the forest resources has been analyzed for Maramureș County, one of the most deforested counties in Romania. In order to evaluate this, the deforested areas were calculated for the period of 2001–2014, by using the Global Forest Change 2000–2014 database. The Fractal Fragmentation Index (FFI) and Fixed Grid 2D Lacunarity (FG2DL) were used to quantify the degree of fragmentation and dispersion of the forested areas, and thereby the extent to which a forest area is affected by deforestation. The process of quantifying the pressure on forested areas included the creation of a database for the period of 2000–2014 containing economic activities (turnover) related to woody recourses, important indicators of forest exploitation. Taken together, the results obtained indicate a dramatic increase in deforested areas (over 19,122 ha in total for the period of analysis), in Maramureș County. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Evolving Protected-Area Impacts in Mexico: Political Shifts as Suggested by Impact Evaluations

by Alexander Pfaff, Francisco Santiago-Ávila and Lucas Joppa

Forests 2017, 8(1), 17; doi:10.3390/f8010017

Received: 8 October 2016 / Revised: 15 December 2016 / Accepted: 22 December 2016 / Published: 29 December 2016

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Abstract

For protected areas (PAs), variation in forest impacts over space—including types of PA—are increasingly well documented, while shifts in impacts over time receive less attention. For Mexico, in the 1990s, PAs effectively were ‘paper parks’. Thus, achieving impacts on the forest would require

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For protected areas (PAs), variation in forest impacts over space—including types of PA—are increasingly well documented, while shifts in impacts over time receive less attention. For Mexico, in the 1990s, PAs effectively were ‘paper parks’. Thus, achieving impacts on the forest would require shifts over time in the politics of PA siting and PA implementation. We rigorously analyze the impacts of Mexican PAs on 2000–2005 loss of natural land cover, using matching to reduce location bias caused by typical land-use economics and politics. We find a 3.2% lower loss, on average, due to PAs. Since politics often vary by type of PA, we also show that in Mexico stricter PAs are closer to cities and have greater impact than mixed-use PAs. These shifts in impacts suggest some potential for PAs to conserve forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue REDD+: Politics, Interplays and Impacts)

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Open AccessArticle Does the ‘One Map Initiative’ Represent a New Path for Forest Mapping in Indonesia? Assessing the Contribution of the REDD+ Initiative in Effecting Forest Governance Reform

by Mari Mulyani and Paul Jepson

Forests 2017, 8(1), 14; doi:10.3390/f8010014

Received: 9 October 2016 / Revised: 15 December 2016 / Accepted: 20 December 2016 / Published: 27 December 2016

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Abstract

This study investigates one notable result that the REDD+ (‘Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation, and enhancing forest carbon stocks and conservation’) initiative effected within Indonesia’s forest institutions. It argues that during its interplay with existing National forest institutions REDD+ produced a

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This study investigates one notable result that the REDD+ (‘Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation, and enhancing forest carbon stocks and conservation’) initiative effected within Indonesia’s forest institutions. It argues that during its interplay with existing National forest institutions REDD+ produced a significant benefit; namely, the ‘one map initiative’ (OMI) being the government’s response to the call for greater transparency and enabling of REDD+ implementation. It asks: “Does the ‘One Map Initiative’ signify a switch to a new path of map-making, or is it just another innovation within an existing path dependence of forest governance?” Through eighty semi-structured interviews with ‘REDD+ policy actors’ and the deployment of ‘path dependence’ theory, this study seeks to determine the extent to which the REDD+ initiative created a ‘critical juncture’ (i.e., momentum for institutions to move to a new path). This study maps the institutional path dependence within forest-mapping as a means for the state to gain control of forest resources. In its development process the OMI has shown its ability to break the old path-dependence of map-making (e.g., lack of transparency, low level of public participation, and poor coordination amongst ministries). Moreover, this paper identified several historical events (i.e., ‘critical junctures’) that preceded the REDD+ initiative as contributing factors to the relative success of REDD+ in effecting forest governance reform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue REDD+: Politics, Interplays and Impacts)

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Open AccessArticle Investigating the Role of the Local Community as Co-Managers of the Mount Cameroon National Park Conservation Project

by Nvenakeng Suzanne Awung and Rob Marchant

Environments 2016, 3(4), 36; doi:10.3390/environments3040036

Received: 17 October 2016 / Revised: 7 December 2016 / Accepted: 8 December 2016 / Published: 16 December 2016

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Abstract

Local forest management is essential for enhancing the sustainability of both communities’ livelihoods and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Land Degradation (REDD+) projects. However, few studies have examined the impact of forest ownership and control on community engagement and the functioning of communities

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Local forest management is essential for enhancing the sustainability of both communities’ livelihoods and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Land Degradation (REDD+) projects. However, few studies have examined the impact of forest ownership and control on community engagement and the functioning of communities in a co-managing conservation initiative. This paper examines the influence of forest management on local participation and identifies the roles/functions of local communities in the Mount Cameroon National Park REDD+ conservation project. Cluster multi-stage random sampling was used to collect data from 259 respondents that were analysed using the chi-square, Mann–Whitney, t-test, Kruskal–Wallis, Jonckheere–Terpstra tests and NVivo. Results show that local communities have been involved in forest management practices before the establishment of the park. Communities support the establishment of a strict conservation zone and hope to promote local participation with a high expectation of benefits. Insecure tenure reduces project support and local engagement. Though communities massively support the initiative, engagement is low, and participants are not carrying out any tangible roles. They function mainly as manual labourers or mere committee members who only enforce rules/regulations within communities. Community-based natural resource management and integrated conservation and development projects have often not realised local expectations due to problems of application and impracticable legislation. Projects’ failure may be avoided by involving communities in tangible roles/functions and developing an effective co-management approach or establishing community-owned and -managed forest projects. This paper examines the progress of REDD+ from an early stage to help inform proponents in adapting strategies that are geared towards appropriate satisfactory outcomes, especially for local communities, to prevent the early failure of the initiative. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Consideration of Ecosystem Services and Function for Sustainable Water Use)

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Open AccessArticle Large-Scale Mapping of Tree-Community Composition as a Surrogate of Forest Degradation in Bornean Tropical Rain Forests

by Shogoro Fujiki, Ryota Aoyagi, Atsushi Tanaka, Nobuo Imai, Arif Data Kusma, Yuyun Kurniawan, Ying Fah Lee, John Baptist Sugau, Joan T. Pereira, Hiromitsu Samejima and Kanehiro Kitayama

Land 2016, 5(4), 45; doi:10.3390/land5040045

Received: 27 July 2016 / Revised: 1 December 2016 / Accepted: 6 December 2016 / Published: 11 December 2016

Abstract

Assessment of the progress of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets set by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the safeguarding of ecosystems from the perverse negative impacts caused by Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Plus (REDD+) requires the development of spatiotemporally

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Assessment of the progress of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets set by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the safeguarding of ecosystems from the perverse negative impacts caused by Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Plus (REDD+) requires the development of spatiotemporally robust and sensitive indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem health. Recently, it has been proposed that tree-community composition based on count-plot surveys could serve as a robust, sensitive, and cost-effective indicator for forest intactness in Bornean logged-over rain forests. In this study, we developed an algorithm to map tree-community composition across the entire landscape based on Landsat imagery. We targeted six forest management units (FMUs), each of which ranged from 50,000 to 100,000 ha in area, covering a broad geographic range spanning the most area of Borneo. Approximately fifty 20 m-radius circular plots were established in each FMU, and the differences in tree-community composition at a genus level among plots were examined for trees with diameter at breast height ≥10 cm using an ordination with non-metric multidimensional scaling (nMDS). Subsequently, we developed a linear regression model based on Landsat metrics (e.g., reflectance value, vegetation indices and textures) to explain the nMDS axis-1 scores of the plots, and extrapolated the model to the landscape to establish a tree-community composition map in each FMU. The adjusted R² values based on a cross-validation approach between the predicted and observed nMDS axis-1 scores indicated a close correlation, ranging from 0.54 to 0.69. Histograms of the frequency distributions of extrapolated nMDS axis-1 scores were derived from each map and used to quantitatively diagnose the forest intactness of the FMUs. Our study indicated that tree-community composition, which was reported as a robust indicator of forest intactness, could be mapped at a landscape level to quantitatively assess the spatial patterns of intactness in Bornean rain forests. Our approach can be used for large-scale assessments of tree diversity and forest intactness to monitor both the progress of Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the effectiveness of REDD+ biodiversity safeguards in production forests in the tropics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity in Locally Managed Lands) Printed Edition available

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Open AccessArticle A Dominant Voice amidst Not Enough People: Analysing the Legitimacy of Mexico’s REDD+ Readiness Process

by Jovanka Špirić, Esteve Corbera, Victoria Reyes-García and Luciana Porter-Bolland

Forests 2016, 7(12), 313; doi:10.3390/f7120313

Received: 28 September 2016 / Revised: 11 November 2016 / Accepted: 30 November 2016 / Published: 10 December 2016

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Abstract

In the development of national governance systems for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+), countries struggle with ensuring that decision-making processes include a variety of actors (i.e., input legitimacy) and represent their diverse views in REDD+ policy documents (i.e., output legitimacy).

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In the development of national governance systems for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+), countries struggle with ensuring that decision-making processes include a variety of actors (i.e., input legitimacy) and represent their diverse views in REDD+ policy documents (i.e., output legitimacy). We examine these two dimensions of legitimacy using Mexico’s REDD+ readiness process during a four-year period (2011–2014) as a case study. To identify REDD+ actors and how they participate in decision-making we used a stakeholder analysis; to assess actors’ views and the extent to which these views are included in the country’s official REDD+ documents we conducted a discourse analysis. We found low level of input legitimacy in so far as that the federal government environment agencies concentrate most decision-making power and key land-use sectors and local people’s representatives are absent in decision-making forums. We also observed that the REDD+ discourse held by government agencies and both multilateral and international conservation organisations is dominant in policy documents, while the other two identified discourses, predominantly supported by national and civil society organisations and the academia, are partly, or not at all, reflected in such documents. We argue that Mexico’s REDD+ readiness process should become more inclusive, decentralised, and better coordinated to allow for the deliberation and institutionalisation of different actors’ ideas in REDD+ design. Our analysis and recommendations are relevant to other countries in the global South embarking on REDD+ design and implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue REDD+: Politics, Interplays and Impacts)

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Open AccessArticle Integration of ALOS PALSAR and Landsat Data for Land Cover and Forest Mapping in Northern Tanzania

by Dorothea Deus

Land 2016, 5(4), 43; doi:10.3390/land5040043

Received: 31 May 2016 / Revised: 24 October 2016 / Accepted: 1 December 2016 / Published: 8 December 2016

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Abstract

Land cover and forest mapping supports decision makers in the course of making informed decisions for implementation of sustainable conservation and management plans of the forest resources and environmental monitoring. This research examines the value of integrating of ALOS PALSAR and Landsat data

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Land cover and forest mapping supports decision makers in the course of making informed decisions for implementation of sustainable conservation and management plans of the forest resources and environmental monitoring. This research examines the value of integrating of ALOS PALSAR and Landsat data for improved forest and land cover mapping in Northern Tanzania. A separate and joint processing of surface reflectance, backscattering and derivatives (i.e., Normalized Different Vegetation Index (NDVI), Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Radar Forest Deforestation Index (RFDI), quotient bands, polarimetric features and Grey Level Co-Occurrence Matrix (GLCM) textures) were executed using Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier. The classification accuracy was assessed using a confusion matrix, where Overall classification Accuracy (OA), Kappa Coefficient (KC), Producer’s Accuracy (PA), User’s Accuracy (UA) and F₁ score index were computed. A two sample t-statistics was utilized to evaluate the influence of different data categories on the classification accuracy. Landsat surface reflectance and derivatives show an overall classification accuracy (OA = 86%). ALOS PALSAR backscattering could not differentiate the land cover classes efficiently (OA = 59%). However, combination of backscattering, and derivatives could differentiate the land cover classes properly (OA = 71%). The attained results suggest that integration of backscattering and derivative has potential of utilization for mapping of land cover in tropical environment. Integration of backscattering, surface reflectance and their derivative increase the accuracy (OA = 97%). Therefore it can be concluded that integration of ALOS PALSAR and optical data improve the accuracies of land cover and forest mapping and hence suitable for environmental monitoring. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Tropical Peatland Burn Depth and Combustion Heterogeneity Assessed Using UAV Photogrammetry and Airborne LiDAR

by Jake E. Simpson, Martin J. Wooster, Thomas E. L. Smith, Mandar Trivedi, Ronald R. E. Vernimmen, Rahman Dedi, Mulya Shakti and Yoan Dinata

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(12), 1000; doi:10.3390/rs8121000

Received: 4 October 2016 / Revised: 14 November 2016 / Accepted: 29 November 2016 / Published: 6 December 2016

Abstract

We provide the first assessment of tropical peatland depth of burn (DoB) using structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry, applied to imagery collected using a low-cost, low-altitude unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) system operated over a 5.2 ha tropical peatland in Jambi Province on Sumatra,

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We provide the first assessment of tropical peatland depth of burn (DoB) using structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry, applied to imagery collected using a low-cost, low-altitude unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) system operated over a 5.2 ha tropical peatland in Jambi Province on Sumatra, Indonesia. Tropical peat soils are the result of thousands of years of dead biomass accumulation, and when burned are globally significant net sources of carbon emissions. The El Niño year of 2015 saw huge areas of Indonesia affected by tropical peatland fires, more so than any year since 1997. However, the Depth of Burn (DoB) of these 2015 fires has not been assessed, and indeed has only previously been assessed in few tropical peatland burns in Kalimantan. Therefore, DoB remains arguably the largest uncertainty when undertaking fire emissions calculations in these tropical peatland environments. We apply a SfM photogrammetric methodology to map this DoB metric, and also investigate combustion heterogeneity using orthomosaic photography collected using the UAV system. We supplement this information with pre-burn airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data, reducing uncertainty by estimating pre-burn soil height more accurately than from interpolation of adjacent unburned areas alone. Our pre-and post-fire Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) show accuracies of 0.04 and 0.05 m (root-mean-square error, RMSE) respectively, compared to ground-based global navigation satellite system (GNSS) surveys. Our final DoB map of a 5.2 ha degraded peat swamp forest area neighboring Berbak National Park (Sumatra, Indonesia) shows burn depths extending from close to zero to over 1 m, with a mean (±1σ) DoB of 0.23 ± 0.19 m. This lies well within the range found by the few other studies available (on Kalimantan; none are available on Sumatra). Our combustion heterogeneity analysis suggests the deepest burns, which extend to ~1.3 m, occur around tree roots. We use these DoB data within the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) default equation for fire emissions to estimate mean carbon emissions as 134 ± 29 t·C∙ha⁻¹ for this peatland fire, which is in an area that had not had a recorded fire previously. This is amongst the highest per unit area fuel consumption anywhere in the world for landscape fires. Our approach provides significant uncertainty reductions in such emissions calculations via the reduction in DoB uncertainty, and by using the UAV SfM approach this is accomplished at a fraction of the cost of airborne LiDAR—albeit over limited sized areas at present. Deploying this approach at locations across Indonesia, sampling a variety of fire-affected landscapes, would provide new and important DoB statistics for producing optimized carbon and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions estimates from peatland fires. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mapping, Monitoring and Impact Assessment of Land Cover/Land Use Changes in South and South East Asia)

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Open AccessArticle Allocating Group-Level Payments for Ecosystem Services: Experiences from a REDD+ Pilot in Tanzania

by Elizabeth J. Z. Robinson, H. Jo Albers, Razack Lokina and Charles Meshack

Resources 2016, 5(4), 43; doi:10.3390/resources5040043

Received: 14 September 2016 / Revised: 24 November 2016 / Accepted: 28 November 2016 / Published: 6 December 2016

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Abstract

Payments for ecosystem services (PES) typically reward landowners for managing their land to provide ecosystem services that would not otherwise be provided. REDD+—Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation—is a form of PES aimed at decreasing carbon emissions from forest conversion and extraction

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Payments for ecosystem services (PES) typically reward landowners for managing their land to provide ecosystem services that would not otherwise be provided. REDD+—Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation—is a form of PES aimed at decreasing carbon emissions from forest conversion and extraction in lower-income countries. A key challenge for REDD+ occurs when it is implemented at a group, rather than an individual landowner, level. Whilst achieving a group-level reduction relies on individuals changing their interaction with the forest, incentives are not aligned explicitly at the individual level. Rather, payments are made to a defined group as a single entity in exchange for verified reduced forest loss, as per a PES scheme. In this paper, we explore how REDD+ has been implemented in one multiple-village pilot in Tanzania with the village defining the group. Our findings suggest that considerable attention has been paid towards monitoring, reporting, verification (MRV), and equity. No explicit mechanism ensures individual compliance with the village-level PES, and few villages allocate funds for explicit enforcement efforts to protect the forest from illegal activities undertaken by individual group members or by outsiders. However, the development of village-level institutions, “social fencing,” and a shared future through equal REDD+ payments, factor into decisions that influence the level of compliance at the village level that the program will eventually achieve. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Transforming Justice in REDD+ through a Politics of Difference Approach

by Kimberly R. Marion Suiseeya

Forests 2016, 7(12), 300; doi:10.3390/f7120300

Received: 30 September 2016 / Revised: 7 November 2016 / Accepted: 22 November 2016 / Published: 30 November 2016

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Abstract

Since Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation “Plus” (REDD+) starting gaining traction in the UN climate negotiations in 2007, its architects and scholars have grappled with its community-level justice implications. On the one hand, supporters argue that REDD+ will help the environment and

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Since Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation “Plus” (REDD+) starting gaining traction in the UN climate negotiations in 2007, its architects and scholars have grappled with its community-level justice implications. On the one hand, supporters argue that REDD+ will help the environment and forest-dependent communities by generating payments for forest carbon services from industrialized countries seeking lower cost emissions reductions. Critics, by contrast, increasingly argue that REDD+ is a new form of colonization through capitalism, producing injustice by stripping forest communities of their rights, denying them capabilities for wellbeing, and rendering forest peoples voiceless in forest governance. This paper argues that current REDD+ debates are too focused on relatively simple visions of either distributive or procedural justice, and pay too little attention to the core recognitional justice concerns of REDD+ critics, namely questions of what values, worldviews, rights, and identities are privileged or displaced in the emergence, design, and implementation of REDD+ and with what effects. This paper examines the tensions that emerge when designing institutions to promote multi-scalar, multivalent justice in REDD+ to ask: what are the justice demands that REDD+ architects face when designing REDD+ institutions? Complexifying the concepts of justice as deployed in the debates on REDD+ can illuminate the possibilities for a diversity of alternative perspectives to generate new institutional design ideas for REDD+. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue REDD+: Politics, Interplays and Impacts)

Open AccessArticle The Biodiversity Benefits and Opportunity Costs of Plantation Forest Management: A Modelling Case Study of Pinus radiata in New Zealand

by Nhung Nghiem and Hop Tran

Forests 2016, 7(12), 297; doi:10.3390/f7120297

Received: 18 September 2016 / Revised: 11 November 2016 / Accepted: 21 November 2016 / Published: 28 November 2016

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Abstract

This study modelled the potential biodiversity benefits and the opportunity costs of a patch-clear-cutting strategy over a clear-cutting strategy for Pinus radiata in New Zealand. Patch-clear cutting is a special case of clear cutting involving the removal of all the trees from strips

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This study modelled the potential biodiversity benefits and the opportunity costs of a patch-clear-cutting strategy over a clear-cutting strategy for Pinus radiata in New Zealand. Patch-clear cutting is a special case of clear cutting involving the removal of all the trees from strips or patches within a stand, leaving the remainder uncut or clear cutting a series of strips or patches. A forest-level optimisation model was extended to include uncertainty in timber growth, plant diversity, and cutting costs. Using a species-area relationship and economies of cutting scale, the net present value and optimal rotation age under alternative management strategies were calculated. Results suggested that the optimal rotation ages were similar (24 and 25 years) for the two cutting strategies. Patch-clear cutting provided higher biodiversity benefits (i.e., 59 vs. 11 understorey plant species) with an opportunity cost of 27 NZD (18 USD) per extra plant species or 1250 NZD (820 USD) ha⁻¹. However, the true benefits of patch-clear cutting would be even greater if other benefits of stand retention are included. Our research can potentially inform local decision making and inform international systems of payment for environmental services, such as the REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) program, to conserve biodiversity in developing countries with plantation forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intensity of Forest Management—Selected Papers from FowiTa German Forest Sciences Conference (Sessions 10–14))

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Open AccessArticle Critical Review of the Millennium Project in Nepal

by Ashma Vaidya and Audrey L. Mayer

Sustainability 2016, 8(10), 1043; doi:10.3390/su8101043

Received: 8 August 2016 / Revised: 8 October 2016 / Accepted: 13 October 2016 / Published: 18 October 2016

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Abstract

“Our Common Future” harmonized development policies around a new sustainable development (SD) paradigm, and experts also emphasize the importance of a democratic and equitable approach to define and achieve sustainable development. However, SD targets and indicators are often defined by a suite of

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“Our Common Future” harmonized development policies around a new sustainable development (SD) paradigm, and experts also emphasize the importance of a democratic and equitable approach to define and achieve sustainable development. However, SD targets and indicators are often defined by a suite of experts or a few stakeholder groups, far removed from on-the-ground conditions. The most common expert-led development framework, the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), promoted one set of targets and indicators for all developing countries. While progress towards these targets was routinely reported at the national scale, these targets may not reflect context-specific sustainable development. We evaluated the relevance and comprehensiveness of MDG 7 (environmental sustainability) for Nepal. Although Nepal has met most of the MDG 7 (e.g., forest cover, protected areas coverage, water and sanitation), on closer inspection these indicators do not provide adequate context for ensuring that these targets provide the intended levels of development. Simple forest cover and protected area indicators belie the dearth of ecological conservation on the ground, and water and sanitation indicators do not reflect the inequality of access based on poverty and regions. While the Millennium Development Goals align with broad sustainability concerns in Nepal, these indicators do not reveal its true development conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Education and Approaches)

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Open AccessReview Drivers of Households’ Land-Use Decisions: A Critical Review of Micro-Level Studies in Tropical Regions

by Elisabeth Hettig, Jann Lay and Kacana Sipangule

Land 2016, 5(4), 32; doi:10.3390/land5040032

Received: 16 June 2016 / Revised: 30 September 2016 / Accepted: 1 October 2016 / Published: 13 October 2016

Abstract

This paper reviews 91 recent empirical and theoretical studies that analyzed land-use change at the farm-household level. The review builds on a conceptual framework of land-use change drivers and conducts a meta-analysis. Results show that the conversion of forests into cultivated land or

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This paper reviews 91 recent empirical and theoretical studies that analyzed land-use change at the farm-household level. The review builds on a conceptual framework of land-use change drivers and conducts a meta-analysis. Results show that the conversion of forests into cultivated land or grassland, mainly used for agriculture or ranching, are most frequently analyzed. Only a small number of studies consider the transition of wetlands for agriculture and few cases deal with the conversion from agriculture into protected zones. Moreover, interactions between drivers add to the complexity of land-use change processes. These interrelationships are conditioned by institutions and policies. In particular, the market-oriented reforms adopted by many developing countries in the 1980s and 1990s seem to have had an important role in altering land use, while impacts of more recent policies need to be better explored. Many studies rely on small samples and face problems of internal validity. Despite these weaknesses, the literature points at micro-level economic growth, for example in income and capital endowments, as a strong catalyst of human induced land-use change. However, the review suggests that—across the different studies and cases—there is considerable heterogeneity in the relationship between these factors and land-use change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding the Patterns, Drivers and Consequences of Agricultural Land Use Change and Land-Use Intensity)

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Open AccessArticle An Integrated Software Framework to Support Semantic Modeling and Reasoning of Spatiotemporal Change of Geographical Objects: A Use Case of Land Use and Land Cover Change Study

by Wenwen Li, Xiran Zhou and Sheng Wu

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5(10), 179; doi:10.3390/ijgi5100179

Received: 23 June 2016 / Revised: 14 September 2016 / Accepted: 20 September 2016 / Published: 30 September 2016

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Abstract

Evolving Earth observation and change detection techniques enable the automatic identification of Land Use and Land Cover Change (LULCC) over a large extent from massive amounts of remote sensing data. It at the same time poses a major challenge in effective organization, representation

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Evolving Earth observation and change detection techniques enable the automatic identification of Land Use and Land Cover Change (LULCC) over a large extent from massive amounts of remote sensing data. It at the same time poses a major challenge in effective organization, representation and modeling of such information. This study proposes and implements an integrated computational framework to support the modeling, semantic and spatial reasoning of change information with regard to space, time and topology. We first proposed a conceptual model to formally represent the spatiotemporal variation of change data, which is essential knowledge to support various environmental and social studies, such as deforestation and urbanization studies. Then, a spatial ontology was created to encode these semantic spatiotemporal data in a machine-understandable format. Based on the knowledge defined in the ontology and related reasoning rules, a semantic platform was developed to support the semantic query and change trajectory reasoning of areas with LULCC. This semantic platform is innovative, as it integrates semantic and spatial reasoning into a coherent computational and operational software framework to support automated semantic analysis of time series data that can go beyond LULC datasets. In addition, this system scales well as the amount of data increases, validated by a number of experimental results. This work contributes significantly to both the geospatial Semantic Web and GIScience communities in terms of the establishment of the (web-based) semantic platform for collaborative question answering and decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geospatial Semantics and Semantic Web)

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Open AccessArticle Forest Management Influences Aboveground Carbon and Tree Species Diversity in Myanmar’s Mixed Deciduous Forests

by Kyaw Sein Win Tun, Julian Di Stefano and Liubov Volkova

Forests 2016, 7(10), 217; doi:10.3390/f7100217

Received: 19 August 2016 / Revised: 17 September 2016 / Accepted: 23 September 2016 / Published: 29 September 2016

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Abstract

Declines in the global extent and condition of tropical forests have reduced carbon storage potential and caused biodiversity loss. However, the magnitude of these problems within individual countries may depend on the extent of the reserved forest estate, and the particular rules put

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Declines in the global extent and condition of tropical forests have reduced carbon storage potential and caused biodiversity loss. However, the magnitude of these problems within individual countries may depend on the extent of the reserved forest estate, and the particular rules put in place to manage resource use in these areas. To test this hypothesis, aboveground carbon stocks and indices of tree diversity were derived for two reserved (highly regulated) sites and a protected public (less regulated) site in the mixed deciduous forests of Myanmar. Aboveground tree carbon stocks were around three times higher in the reserved forests than in the public forest, a difference driven by the near absence of trees >40 cm DBH at the public forest site. The species composition of large (≥20 cm DBH) trees differed substantially between all three sites. In contrast, the species composition of small (<20 cm DBH) trees differed between the reserved and public forest in the case of one reserved site but not the other. Both species richness and diversity of large (≥20 cm DBH) trees was about five times higher in the reserved forest than in the public forest. This was not the case for small (<20 cm DBH) trees, where estimates of both richness and diversity were similar at all three sites. These findings suggest that both carbon storage potential and large-tree diversity are influenced by forest protection status. This has important implications for national carbon storage estimates as forest protection status is not currently considered as part of the standard carbon accounting procedure. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Vegetation Structure and Carbon Stocks of Two Protected Areas within the South-Sudanian Savannas of Burkina Faso

by Mohammad Qasim, Stefan Porembski, Dietmar Sattler, Katharina Stein, Adjima Thiombiano and André Lindner

Environments 2016, 3(4), 25; doi:10.3390/environments3040025

Received: 14 August 2016 / Revised: 19 September 2016 / Accepted: 21 September 2016 / Published: 29 September 2016

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Abstract

Savannas and adjacent vegetation types like gallery forests are highly valuable ecosystems contributing to several ecosystem services including carbon budgeting. Financial mechanisms such as REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) can provide an opportunity for developing countries to alleviate poverty through

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Savannas and adjacent vegetation types like gallery forests are highly valuable ecosystems contributing to several ecosystem services including carbon budgeting. Financial mechanisms such as REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) can provide an opportunity for developing countries to alleviate poverty through conservation of its forestry resources. However, for availing such opportunities carbon stock assessments are essential. Therefore, a research study for this purpose was conducted at two protected areas (Nazinga Game Ranch and Bontioli Nature Reserve) in Burkina Faso. Similarly, analysis of various vegetation parameters was also conducted to understand the overall vegetation structure of these two protected areas. For estimating above ground biomass, existing allometric equations for dry tropical woody vegetation types were used. Compositional structure was described by applying tree species and family importance indices. The results show that both sites collectively contain a mean carbon stock of 3.41 ± 4.98 Mg·C·ha⁻¹. Among different savanna vegetation types, gallery forests recorded the highest mean carbon stock of 9.38 ± 6.90 Mg·C·ha⁻¹. This study was an attempt at addressing the knowledge gap particularly on carbon stocks of protected savannas—it can serve as a baseline for carbon stocks for future initiatives such as REDD+ within these areas. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Does REDD+ Ensure Sectoral Coordination and Stakeholder Participation? A Comparative Analysis of REDD+ National Governance Structures in Countries of Asia-Pacific Region

by Taiji Fujisaki, Kimihiko Hyakumura, Henry Scheyvens and Tim Cadman

Forests 2016, 7(9), 195; doi:10.3390/f7090195

Received: 22 June 2016 / Revised: 9 August 2016 / Accepted: 27 August 2016 / Published: 31 August 2016

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Abstract

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD+) requires harmonizing different policy sectors and interests that have impacts on forests. However, these elements have not been well-operationalized in environmental policy-making processes of most developing countries. Drawing on five cases—Cambodia, Indonesia,

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Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD+) requires harmonizing different policy sectors and interests that have impacts on forests. However, these elements have not been well-operationalized in environmental policy-making processes of most developing countries. Drawing on five cases—Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Papua New Guinea, and Vietnam, this article aims to determine whether emerging governance arrangements help REDD+ development by delivering participatory mechanisms for policy coordination. Building upon literature on environmental governance and stakeholder participation, the article examines national governance structures for REDD+ and identifies who participates where, and what decision-making powers they have. Despite structural differences between the countries, our analysis illustrates that REDD+ potentially encourages a new form of environmental governance promoting a cross-sectoral approach and stakeholder participation. Cohesiveness of the structures within a broader governance system is key to defining the capacity of REDD+ governance. The result also poses a question as to the inclusiveness of the state actors involved in order to tackle the different pressure on forests. Considering structural inequalities, the analysis further suggests a need of policy support for those who are affected by REDD+ to ensure that their voices could be heard in decision-making processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue REDD+: Politics, Interplays and Impacts)

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Open AccessArticle Mapping Decadal Land Cover Changes in the Woodlands of North Eastern Namibia from 1975 to 2014 Using the Landsat Satellite Archived Data

by Vladimir R. Wingate, Stuart R. Phinn, Nikolaus Kuhn, Lena Bloemertz and Kiran L. Dhanjal-Adams

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(8), 681; doi:10.3390/rs8080681

Received: 11 June 2016 / Revised: 11 August 2016 / Accepted: 15 August 2016 / Published: 20 August 2016

Abstract

Woodlands and savannahs provide essential ecosystem functions and services to communities. On the African continent, they are widely utilized and converted to subsistence and intensive agriculture or urbanized. This study investigates changes in land cover over four administrative regions of North Eastern Namibia

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Woodlands and savannahs provide essential ecosystem functions and services to communities. On the African continent, they are widely utilized and converted to subsistence and intensive agriculture or urbanized. This study investigates changes in land cover over four administrative regions of North Eastern Namibia within the Kalahari woodland savannah biome, covering a total of 107,994 km². Land cover is mapped using multi-sensor Landsat imagery at decadal intervals from 1975 to 2014, with a post-classification change detection method. The dominant change observed was a reduction in the area of woodland savannah due to the expansion of agriculture, primarily in the form of small-scale cereal and pastoral production. More specifically, woodland savannah area decreased from 90% of the study area in 1975 to 83% in 2004, and then increased to 86% in 2014, while agricultural land increased from 6% to 12% between 1975 and 2014. We assess land cover changes in relation to towns, villages, rivers and roads and find most changes occurred in proximity to these. In addition, we find that most land cover changes occur within land designated as communally held, followed by state protected land. With widespread changes occurring across the African continent, this study provides important data for understanding drivers of change in the region and their impacts on the distribution of woodland savannahs. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Assessing Global Forest Land-Use Change by Object-Based Image Analysis

by Erik J. Lindquist and Rémi D’Annunzio

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(8), 678; doi:10.3390/rs8080678

Received: 4 March 2016 / Revised: 12 August 2016 / Accepted: 15 August 2016 / Published: 20 August 2016

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Abstract

Consistent estimates of forest land-use and change over time are important for understanding and managing human activities on the Earth’s surface, parameterizing models used for global and regional climate change analyses and a critical component of reporting requirements faced by countries as part

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Consistent estimates of forest land-use and change over time are important for understanding and managing human activities on the Earth’s surface, parameterizing models used for global and regional climate change analyses and a critical component of reporting requirements faced by countries as part of the international effort to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD). In this study, object-based image analysis methods were applied to a global sample of Landsat imagery from years 1990, 2000 and 2005 to produce a land cover classification suitable for expert human review, revision and translation into forest and non-forest land use classes. We describe and analyse here the derivation and application of an automated, multi-date image segmentation, neural network classification method and independent, automated change detection procedure to all sample sites. The automated results were compared against expert human interpretation and found to have an overall agreement of ~76% for a 5-class land cover classification and ~88% agreement for change/no-change assessment. The establishment of a 5 ha minimum mapping unit affected the ability of the segmentation methods to detect small or irregularly-shaped land cover change and, combined with aggregation rules that favour forest, added bias to the automated results. However, the OBIA methods provided an efficient means of processing over 11,000 sample sites, 33,000 Landsat 20 × 20 km sample tiles and more than 6.5 million individual polygons over three epochs and adequately facilitated human expert review, revision and conversion to a global forest land-use product. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Mapping Clearances in Tropical Dry Forests Using Breakpoints, Trend, and Seasonal Components from MODIS Time Series: Does Forest Type Matter?

by Kenneth Grogan, Dirk Pflugmacher, Patrick Hostert, Jan Verbesselt and Rasmus Fensholt

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(8), 657; doi:10.3390/rs8080657

Received: 12 May 2016 / Revised: 2 August 2016 / Accepted: 8 August 2016 / Published: 15 August 2016

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Abstract

Tropical environments present a unique challenge for optical time series analysis, primarily owing to fragmented data availability, persistent cloud cover and atmospheric aerosols. Additionally, little is known of whether the performance of time series change detection is affected by diverse forest types found

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Tropical environments present a unique challenge for optical time series analysis, primarily owing to fragmented data availability, persistent cloud cover and atmospheric aerosols. Additionally, little is known of whether the performance of time series change detection is affected by diverse forest types found in tropical dry regions. In this paper, we develop a methodology for mapping forest clearing in Southeast Asia using a study region characterised by heterogeneous forest types. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) time series are decomposed using Breaks For Additive Season and Trend (BFAST) and breakpoints, trend, and seasonal components are combined in a binomial probability model to distinguish between cleared and stable forest. We found that the addition of seasonality and trend information improves the change model performance compared to using breakpoints alone. We also demonstrate the value of considering forest type in disturbance mapping in comparison to the more common approach that combines all forest types into a single generalised forest class. By taking a generalised forest approach, there is less control over the error distribution in each forest type. Dry-deciduous and evergreen forests are especially sensitive to error imbalances using a generalised forest model i.e., clearances were underestimated in evergreen forest, and overestimated in dry-deciduous forest. This suggests that forest type needs to be considered in time series change mapping, especially in heterogeneous forest regions. Our approach builds towards improving large-area monitoring of forest-diverse regions such as Southeast Asia. The findings of this study should also be transferable across optical sensors and are therefore relevant for the future availability of dense time series for the tropics at higher spatial resolutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mapping, Monitoring and Impact Assessment of Land Cover/Land Use Changes in South and South East Asia)

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Open AccessArticle Improved Multi-Sensor Satellite-Based Aboveground Biomass Estimation by Selecting Temporally Stable Forest Inventory Plots Using NDVI Time Series

by Mikhail Urbazaev, Christian Thiel, Mirco Migliavacca, Markus Reichstein, Pedro Rodriguez-Veiga and Christiane Schmullius

Forests 2016, 7(8), 169; doi:10.3390/f7080169

Received: 20 May 2016 / Revised: 25 July 2016 / Accepted: 27 July 2016 / Published: 4 August 2016

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Abstract

Accurate estimates of aboveground biomass (AGB) are crucial to assess terrestrial C-stocks and C-emissions as well as to develop sustainable forest management strategies. In this study we used Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data acquired at L-band and the Landsat tree cover product together

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Accurate estimates of aboveground biomass (AGB) are crucial to assess terrestrial C-stocks and C-emissions as well as to develop sustainable forest management strategies. In this study we used Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data acquired at L-band and the Landsat tree cover product together with Moderate Resolution Image Spectroradiometer (MODIS) normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) time series data to improve AGB estimations over two study areas in southern Mexico. We used Mexican National Forest Inventory (INFyS) data collected between 2005 and 2011 to calibrate AGB models as well as to validate the derived AGB products. We applied MODIS NDVI time series data analysis to exclude field plots in which abrupt changes were detected. For this, we used Breaks For Additive Seasonal and Trend analysis (BFAST). We modelled AGB using an original field dataset and BFAST-filtered data. The results show higher accuracies of AGB estimations using BFAST-filtered data than using original field data in terms of R² and root mean square error (RMSE) for both dry and humid tropical forests of southern Mexico. The best results were found in areas with high deforestation rates where the AGB models based on the BFAST-filtered data substantially outperformed those based on original field data (R²_BFAST = 0.62 vs. R²_orig = 0.45; RMSE_BFAST = 28.4 t/ha vs. RMSE_orig = 33.8 t/ha). We conclude that the presented method shows great potential to improve AGB estimations and can be easily and automatically implemented over large areas. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Rapid Assessments of Amazon Forest Structure and Biomass Using Small Unmanned Aerial Systems

by Max Messinger, Gregory P. Asner and Miles Silman

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(8), 615; doi:10.3390/rs8080615

Received: 14 May 2016 / Revised: 15 July 2016 / Accepted: 21 July 2016 / Published: 25 July 2016

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Abstract

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can provide new ways to measure forests and supplement expensive or labor-intensive inventory methods. Forest carbon, a key uncertainty in the global carbon cycle and also important for carbon conservation programs, is typically monitored using manned aircraft or extensive

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Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can provide new ways to measure forests and supplement expensive or labor-intensive inventory methods. Forest carbon, a key uncertainty in the global carbon cycle and also important for carbon conservation programs, is typically monitored using manned aircraft or extensive forest plot networks to estimate aboveground carbon density (ACD). Manned aircraft are only cost-effective when applied to large areas (>100,000 ha), while plot networks are most effective for total C stock estimation across large areas, not for quantifying spatially-explicit variation. We sought to develop an effective method for frequent and accurate ACD estimation at intermediate scales (100–100,000 ha) that would be sensitive to small-scale disturbance. Using small UAVs, we collected imagery of 516 ha of lowland forest in the Peruvian Amazon. We then used a structure-from-motion (SFM) approach to create a 3D model of forest canopy. Comparing SFM- and airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)-derived estimates of canopy height and ACD, we found that SFM estimates of top-of-canopy height (TCH) and ACD were highly correlated with previous LiDAR estimates (r = 0.86–0.93 and r = 0.73–0.94 for TCH and ACD, respectively, at 0.1–4 ha grain sizes), with r = 0.92 for ACD determination at the 1 ha scale, despite SFM and LiDAR measurements being separated by two years in a dynamic forest. SFM and LiDAR estimates of mean TCH and mean ACD were highly similar, differing by only 0.4% and 0.04%, respectively, within mature forest. The technique allows inexpensive, near-real-time monitoring of ACD for ecological studies, payment for ecosystem services (PES) ventures, such as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+), forestry enterprises, and governance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Structure and Dynamics)

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Open AccessArticle Mapping Forest Cover and Forest Cover Change with Airborne S-Band Radar

by Ramesh K. Ningthoujam, Kevin Tansey, Heiko Balzter, Keith Morrison, Sarah C. M. Johnson, France Gerard, Charles George, Geoff Burbidge, Sam Doody, Nick Veck, Gary M. Llewellyn and Thomas Blythe

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(7), 577; doi:10.3390/rs8070577

Received: 11 April 2016 / Revised: 29 June 2016 / Accepted: 4 July 2016 / Published: 8 July 2016

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Abstract

Assessments of forest cover, forest carbon stocks and carbon emissions from deforestation and degradation are increasingly important components of sustainable resource management, for combating biodiversity loss and in climate mitigation policies. Satellite remote sensing provides the only means for mapping global forest cover

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Assessments of forest cover, forest carbon stocks and carbon emissions from deforestation and degradation are increasingly important components of sustainable resource management, for combating biodiversity loss and in climate mitigation policies. Satellite remote sensing provides the only means for mapping global forest cover regularly. However, forest classification with optical data is limited by its insensitivity to three-dimensional canopy structure and cloud cover obscuring many forest regions. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensors are increasingly being used to mitigate these problems, mainly in the L-, C- and X-band domains of the electromagnetic spectrum. S-band has not been systematically studied for this purpose. In anticipation of the British built NovaSAR-S satellite mission, this study evaluates the benefits of polarimetric S-band SAR for forest characterisation. The Michigan Microwave Canopy Scattering (MIMICS-I) radiative transfer model is utilised to understand the scattering mechanisms in forest canopies at S-band. The MIMICS-I model reveals strong S-band backscatter sensitivity to the forest canopy in comparison to soil characteristics across all polarisations and incidence angles. Airborne S-band SAR imagery over the temperate mixed forest of Savernake Forest in southern England is analysed for its information content. Based on the modelling results, S-band HH- and VV-polarisation radar backscatter and the Radar Forest Degradation Index (RFDI) are used in a forest/non-forest Maximum Likelihood classification at a spatial resolution of 6 m (70% overall accuracy, κ = 0.41) and 20 m (63% overall accuracy, κ = 0.27). The conclusion is that S-band SAR such as from NovaSAR-S is likely to be suitable for monitoring forest cover and its changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Vegetation Structure and Dynamics)

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Open AccessReview Ten Years of REDD+: A Critical Review of the Impact of REDD+ on Forest-Dependent Communities

by Mucahid Mustafa Bayrak and Lawal Mohammed Marafa

Sustainability 2016, 8(7), 620; doi:10.3390/su8070620

Received: 26 April 2016 / Revised: 16 June 2016 / Accepted: 24 June 2016 / Published: 2 July 2016

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Abstract

The Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation program, or REDD+, has been the international community’s first real attempt to create a global forest governance system which would impact countries on national, regional and even local scales. This paper provides an in-depth analysis

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The Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation program, or REDD+, has been the international community’s first real attempt to create a global forest governance system which would impact countries on national, regional and even local scales. This paper provides an in-depth analysis on the impact of REDD+ on forest-dependent communities. The dimensions which are included in this review are institutions and governance, livelihoods, socio-cultural aspects, and the environment. Many studies confirm that forest-dependent communities are not sufficiently involved in current REDD+ projects. Furthermore, current and potential impacts of REDD+ on communities often disrupt local peoples’ livelihoods and strategies, institutions and socio-cultural systems in various ways, such as unequal benefit sharing, food insecurity, introduction of new powerful stakeholders, illegal land acquisition, unfair free prior and informed consent, and the introduction of monoculture plantations. REDD+ is also perceived as a neoliberal mechanism which renegotiates peoples’ relationship with the natural environment by monetizing nature. The paper concludes with a framework which addresses the potential drivers and threats of REDD+ concerning forest-dependent communities based on the literature review. This framework suggests a holistic approach to REDD+ implementation, which incorporates forest-dependent communities’ often complex relationship with the natural environment, such as incorporation of traditional forest management systems and provision of viable alternatives to loss of agricultural land. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Use of the Environment and Resources)

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Open AccessArticle Small Scale Farmers’ Indigenous Agricultural Adaptation Options in the Face of Declining or Stagnant Crop Yields in the Fako and Meme Divisions of Cameroon

by Terence Epule Epule and Christopher Robin Bryant

Agriculture 2016, 6(2), 22; doi:10.3390/agriculture6020022

Received: 27 February 2016 / Revised: 12 May 2016 / Accepted: 18 May 2016 / Published: 24 May 2016

Abstract

Research has proven that, at a national scale in Cameroon, arable crop production is either declining or stagnant. In the face of these trends, governments, local and international organizations, communities and peasant farmers have developed adaptation options to sustain arable production and reduce

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Research has proven that, at a national scale in Cameroon, arable crop production is either declining or stagnant. In the face of these trends, governments, local and international organizations, communities and peasant farmers have developed adaptation options to sustain arable production and reduce poverty. Given this general context, and based on population perceptions and four study sites in the Southwest region of Cameroon, this study aims at verifying current trends in arable production and farmers’ adaptation options based on their indigenous knowledge. These analyses are based on the administration of 200 questionnaires and two focus group discussions (FGDs). The data were analysed using SPSS version 20 in which frequencies, percentages and means were calculated. In addition, the chi-squared statistical test of goodness of fit was calculated and the stated hypothesis was validated accordingly. The FGDs were analysed through verbatim transcriptions and with the aid of the context analysis software, Wordstat 7. The results show that current yields (2010–2014) in all the study sites are declining due to deforestation, poor governance, inadequate access to farm inputs such as fertilizers, increased economic opportunities elsewhere and a breakdown of cultural practices, while 10 years (2000–2010) previously, they had been increasing. It has also been found that the main adaptation options/coping mechanisms reported by the respondents in order of highest frquencies are: expansion of farm size, help from relatives and dependents that live on the farm, supplemental occupations or livelihood diversification and usage of organic fertilizers. From the chi-squared test, the alternate hypothesis that, “there is some difference between population proportions for different adaptation options or coping mechanisms” is validated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Options for Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change)

Open AccessArticle Trans-Boundary Haze Pollution in Southeast Asia: Sustainability through Plural Environmental Governance

by Md Saidul Islam, Yap Hui Pei and Shrutika Mangharam

Sustainability 2016, 8(5), 499; doi:10.3390/su8050499

Received: 29 February 2016 / Revised: 4 May 2016 / Accepted: 13 May 2016 / Published: 21 May 2016

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Abstract

Recurrent haze in Southeast Asian countries including Singapore is largely attributable to rampant forest fires in Indonesia due to, for example, extensive slash-and-burn (S & B) culture. Drawing on the “treadmill of production” and environmental governance approach, we examine causes and consequences of

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Recurrent haze in Southeast Asian countries including Singapore is largely attributable to rampant forest fires in Indonesia due to, for example, extensive slash-and-burn (S & B) culture. Drawing on the “treadmill of production” and environmental governance approach, we examine causes and consequences of this culture. We found that, despite some perceived benefits, its environmental consequences include deforestation, soil erosion and degradation, global warming, threats to biodiversity, and trans-boundary haze pollution, while the societal consequences comprise regional tension, health risks, economic and productivity losses, as well as food insecurity. We propose sustainability through a plural coexistence framework of governance for targeting S & B that incorporates strategies of incentives, education and community resource management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability through the Lens of Environmental Sociology)

Open AccessArticle What Are the Impacts of Deforestation on the Harvest of Non-Timber Forest Products in Central Africa?

by Pauline Gillet, Cédric Vermeulen, Jean-Louis Doucet, Elisabet Codina, Charlotte Lehnebach and Laurène Feintrenie

Forests 2016, 7(5), 106; doi:10.3390/f7050106

Received: 25 January 2016 / Revised: 9 May 2016 / Accepted: 10 May 2016 / Published: 12 May 2016

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Abstract

The objective of the study is to evaluate the impact of forest transition on non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting in Central Africa. We analyze the evolution of several parameters, including distance from NTFP harvest site to road, proportion of dietary intake and villagers’

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The objective of the study is to evaluate the impact of forest transition on non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting in Central Africa. We analyze the evolution of several parameters, including distance from NTFP harvest site to road, proportion of dietary intake and villagers’ incomes. The research is based on field surveys, participatory mapping and the geolocation of activities in three study sites representing different stages along the Mather’s forest transition curve: (i) intact forest; (ii) partially degraded forest; and (iii) small areas of degraded forest with plantations of useful trees. The results show that the maximum distance from harvest site to road is higher in Site 2 compared to Site 1 as a consequence of a lower availability of NTFPs; and that this distance is significantly lower in Site 3 due to a drastically smaller village territory. The diversity of bushmeat decreases as game evolves from large to small species, commensurate with the progression of forest transition. As a consequence, there is also a reduction in the proportion of these products represented both in household dietary intake and cash income. This analysis establishes a strong link between the Mather’s forest transition curve and a decline in the importance of NTFPs in village production and livelihoods. Full article

Open AccessArticle Watershed Land Cover/Land Use Mapping Using Remote Sensing and Data Mining in Gorganrood, Iran

by Masoud Minaei and Wolfgang Kainz

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2016, 5(5), 57; doi:10.3390/ijgi5050057

Received: 12 March 2016 / Revised: 13 April 2016 / Accepted: 22 April 2016 / Published: 28 April 2016

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Abstract

The Gorganrood watershed (GW) is experiencing considerable environmental change in the form of natural hazards and erosion, as well as deforestation, cultivation and development activities. As a result of this, different types of Land Cover/Land Use (LCLU) change are taking place on an

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The Gorganrood watershed (GW) is experiencing considerable environmental change in the form of natural hazards and erosion, as well as deforestation, cultivation and development activities. As a result of this, different types of Land Cover/Land Use (LCLU) change are taking place on an intensive level in the area. This research study investigates the LCLU conditions upstream of this watershed for the years 1972, 1986, 2000 and 2014, using Landsat MSS, TM, ETM+ and OLI/TIRS images. LCLU maps for 1972, 1986, and 2000 were produced using pixel-based classification methods. For the 2014 LCLU map, Geographic Object-Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA) in combination with the data-mining capabilities of Gini and J48 machine-learning algorithms were used. The accuracy of the maps was assessed using overall accuracy, quantity disagreement and allocation disagreement indexes. The overall accuracy ranged from 89% to 95%, quantity disagreement from 2.1% to 6.6%, and allocation disagreement from 2.1% for 2014 to 2.7% for 2000. The results of this study indicate that a significant amount of change has occurred in the region, and that this has as a consequence affected ecosystem services and human activity. This knowledge of the LCLU status in the area will help managers and decision makers to develop plans and programs aimed at effectively managing the watershed into the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Innovations in Land Use/Cover Mapping)

Open AccessArticle A Comparison of Mangrove Canopy Height Using Multiple Independent Measurements from Land, Air, and Space

by David Lagomasino, Temilola Fatoyinbo, SeungKuk Lee, Emanuelle Feliciano, Carl Trettin and Marc Simard

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(4), 327; doi:10.3390/rs8040327

Received: 21 January 2016 / Revised: 5 April 2016 / Accepted: 6 April 2016 / Published: 14 April 2016

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Abstract

Canopy height is one of the strongest predictors of biomass and carbon in forested ecosystems. Additionally, mangrove ecosystems represent one of the most concentrated carbon reservoirs that are rapidly degrading as a result of deforestation, development, and hydrologic manipulation. Therefore, the accuracy of

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Canopy height is one of the strongest predictors of biomass and carbon in forested ecosystems. Additionally, mangrove ecosystems represent one of the most concentrated carbon reservoirs that are rapidly degrading as a result of deforestation, development, and hydrologic manipulation. Therefore, the accuracy of Canopy Height Models (CHM) over mangrove forest can provide crucial information for monitoring and verification protocols. We compared four CHMs derived from independent remotely sensed imagery and identified potential errors and bias between measurement types. CHMs were derived from three spaceborne datasets; Very-High Resolution (VHR) stereophotogrammetry, TerraSAR-X add-on for Digital Elevation Measurement, and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (TanDEM-X), and lidar data which was acquired from an airborne platform. Each dataset exhibited different error characteristics that were related to spatial resolution, sensitivities of the sensors, and reference frames. Canopies over 10 m were accurately predicted by all CHMs while the distributions of canopy height were best predicted by the VHR CHM. Depending on the guidelines and strategies needed for monitoring and verification activities, coarse resolution CHMs could be used to track canopy height at regional and global scales with finer resolution imagery used to validate and monitor critical areas undergoing rapid changes. Full article

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Open AccessArticle Effects of New Roads on Environmental Resource Use in the Central Himalaya

by Lindy Charlery, Martin R. Nielsen, Henrik Meilby and Carsten Smith-Hall

Sustainability 2016, 8(4), 363; doi:10.3390/su8040363

Received: 13 January 2016 / Revised: 31 March 2016 / Accepted: 1 April 2016 / Published: 13 April 2016

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Abstract

Construction of roads into remote rural areas can improve livelihoods by reducing transportation costs, but may also have negative environmental impacts, such as increased deforestation. However, evidence of the effect of rural roads on household environmental income and reliance, as well as local

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Construction of roads into remote rural areas can improve livelihoods by reducing transportation costs, but may also have negative environmental impacts, such as increased deforestation. However, evidence of the effect of rural roads on household environmental income and reliance, as well as local level forest stand conservation is limited. This study, conducted in Mustang District in Nepal, contributes to answering the following questions: (i) what are the impacts of the establishment of rural roads on household environmental income and reliance; (ii) what are the determinants of environmental income and reliance, and how are they affected by road establishment; and (iii) what are the short-term impacts of the construction of a rural road on local forest conservation? Following the Poverty Environment Network (PEN) methodology, income data from 176 randomly-sampled households were collected in 2006 from two similar Himalayan villages, Lete and Lulang, and again in 2012 after a new road was constructed in 2008 in Lete. Forest strata data were collected in Lete through permanent sample plots (n = 59) measured in 2005 and 2010 and used to estimate stock change (before and after road construction), annual increment and annual wood extraction. Results show that the new road had significant positive effects on absolute household environmental income, but negative effects on reliance as other income options became available. Wood product extraction levels remained below increment levels, indicating that the road did not (yet) have negative implications for local forest conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Use of the Environment and Resources)

Open AccessArticle How natural Forest Conversion Affects Insect Biodiversity in the Peruvian Amazon: Can Agroforestry Help?

by Jitka Perry, Bohdan Lojka, Lourdes G. Quinones Ruiz, Patrick Van Damme, Jakub Houška and Eloy Fernandez Cusimamani

Forests 2016, 7(4), 82; doi:10.3390/f7040082

Received: 31 August 2015 / Revised: 6 March 2016 / Accepted: 23 March 2016 / Published: 8 April 2016

Abstract

The Amazonian rainforest is a unique ecosystem that comprises habitat for thousands of animal species. Over the last decades, the ever-increasing human population has caused forest conversion to agricultural land with concomitant high biodiversity losses, mainly near a number of fast-growing cities in

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The Amazonian rainforest is a unique ecosystem that comprises habitat for thousands of animal species. Over the last decades, the ever-increasing human population has caused forest conversion to agricultural land with concomitant high biodiversity losses, mainly near a number of fast-growing cities in the Peruvian Amazon. In this research, we evaluated insect species richness and diversity in five ecosystems: natural forests, multistrata agroforests, cocoa agroforests, annual cropping monoculture and degraded grasslands. We determined the relationship between land use intensity and insect diversity changes. Collected insects were taxonomically determined to morphospecies and data evaluated using standardized biodiversity indices. The highest species richness and abundance were found in natural forests, followed by agroforestry systems. Conversely, monocultures and degraded grasslands were found to be biodiversity-poor ecosystems. Diversity indices were relatively high for all ecosystems assessed with decreasing values along the disturbance gradient. An increase in land use disturbance causes not only insect diversity decreases but also complete changes in species composition. As agroforests, especially those with cocoa, currently cover many hectares of tropical land and show a species composition similar to natural forest sites, we can consider them as biodiversity reservoirs for some of the rainforest insect species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity and Conservation in Forests)

Open AccessReview Sustainability Benefits and Challenges of Inter-Organizational Collaboration in Bio-Based Business: A Systematic Literature Review

by Gohar Nuhoff-Isakhanyan, Emiel F.M. Wubben and S.W.F. Omta

Sustainability 2016, 8(4), 307; doi:10.3390/su8040307

Received: 27 November 2015 / Revised: 4 March 2016 / Accepted: 23 March 2016 / Published: 28 March 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 860 | PDF Full-text (388 KB) | HTML Full-text | XML Full-text

Abstract

Bio-based businesses are often considered to be sustainable. However, they are also linked to sustainability challenges such as deforestation and soil erosion. Encouraged to exploit innovative solutions and enhance sustainability, organizations engaged in bio-based activities extensively explore collaboration possibilities with external partners. The

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Bio-based businesses are often considered to be sustainable. However, they are also linked to sustainability challenges such as deforestation and soil erosion. Encouraged to exploit innovative solutions and enhance sustainability, organizations engaged in bio-based activities extensively explore collaboration possibilities with external partners. The objective of this paper is to integrate the available knowledge on sustainability of inter-organisational collaborations in bio-based businesses, while considering the three aspects of sustainability: environmental, economic, and social. We collected data from three academic sources—Web of Science, Scopus, and EconLit—and conducted a systematic literature review. The results show the importance of geographical proximity and complementarity in creating sustainability benefits such as reduced emissions, reduced waste, economic synergies, and socio-economic activities. Based on the findings, we have developed a framework that illustrates sustainability benefits and challenges. Interestingly, the studies emphasize sustainability benefits more in emerging than in industrialised economies, especially relating to the social aspects of sustainability. In conclusion, although the scholars have not discussed mitigation of several sustainability challenges in bio-based businesses, such as land use conflicts, they have found evidence of vital sustainability benefits, such as energy availability, lower emissions, improved socio-economic life, and poverty reduction, which are essential in emerging economies. Full article

Open AccessArticle Forest Disturbances and Regrowth Assessment Using ALOS PALSAR Data from 2007 to 2010 in Vietnam, Cambodia and Lao PDR

by Stéphane Mermoz and Thuy Le Toan

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(3), 217; doi:10.3390/rs8030217

Received: 18 December 2015 / Revised: 31 January 2016 / Accepted: 14 February 2016 / Published: 8 March 2016

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1085 | PDF Full-text (7395 KB) | HTML Full-text | XML Full-text

Abstract

This paper aims to develop a new methodology for monitoring forest disturbances and regrowth using ALOS PALSAR data in tropical regions. In the study, forest disturbances and regrowth were assessed between 2007 and 2010 in Vietnam, Cambodia and Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The

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This paper aims to develop a new methodology for monitoring forest disturbances and regrowth using ALOS PALSAR data in tropical regions. In the study, forest disturbances and regrowth were assessed between 2007 and 2010 in Vietnam, Cambodia and Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The deforestation rate in Vietnam has been among the highest in the tropics in the last few decades, and those in Cambodia and Lao are increasing rapidly. L-band ALOS PALSAR mosaic data were used for the detection of forest disturbances and regrowth, because L-band SAR intensities are sensitive to forest aboveground biomass loss. The methodology used here combines SAR data processing, which is particularly suited for change detection, forest detection and forest disturbances and regrowth detection using expectation maximization, which is closely related to fuzzy logic. A reliable training and testing database has been derived using AVNIR-2 and Google Earth images for calibration and validation. Efforts were made to apply masking areas that are likely to show different SAR backscatter temporal behaviors from the forests considered in the study, including mangroves, inundated forests, post-flooding or irrigated croplands and water bodies, as well as sloping areas and urban areas. The resulting forest disturbances and regrowth map (25-m resolution) indicates disturbance rates of −1.07% in Vietnam, −1.22% in Cambodia and −0.94% in Lao between 2007 and 2010, with corresponding aboveground biomass losses of 60.7 Tg, 59.2 Tg and 83.8 Tg , respectively. It is expected that the method, relying on free of charge data (ALOS and ALOS2 mosaics), can be applied widely in the tropics. Full article

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Open AccessArticle How Sustainable Is Transnational Farmland Acquisition in Ethiopia? Lessons Learned from the Benishangul-Gumuz Region

by Dereje Teklemariam, Hossein Azadi, Jan Nyssen, Mitiku Haile and Frank Witlox

Sustainability 2016, 8(3), 213; doi:10.3390/su8030213

Received: 20 November 2015 / Revised: 30 January 2016 / Accepted: 17 February 2016 / Published: 29 February 2016

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 944 | PDF Full-text (1414 KB) | HTML Full-text | XML Full-text

Abstract

Due to the nature of available land as one of the main attractions for investment, land lease marketing in Sub-Saharan Africa is appearing on policy agenda. This paper describes critical land-related institutional and governmental frameworks that have shaped the contemporary land governance and

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Due to the nature of available land as one of the main attractions for investment, land lease marketing in Sub-Saharan Africa is appearing on policy agenda. This paper describes critical land-related institutional and governmental frameworks that have shaped the contemporary land governance and land lease contracts in Ethiopia. It also examines the effectiveness of the land lease process regarding economic, social, and environmental expectations from agricultural outsourcing. Both qualitative and quantitative data analyses were used and results showed that the size of the land cultivated by investors is significantly lower than the agreed-upon size in the contract. Besides, the supply of land to large-scale commercial investors in Ethiopia is made without adequate land use planning, land valuation, and risk analysis. Furthermore, limitations in monitoring systems have contributed to meager socio-economic gains and led to deforestation. Accordingly, the study concludes that supplying vast tracts of farmland to large-scale agricultural investors requires integrated land use planning, land valuation and governance, monitoring systems, and a capacity to implement the various social and environmental laws in coordination with other sectors. Improving rural infrastructure, particularly road, is also indispensable to enhance the level of performance of commercial farms. Last but most importantly, the customary land holding rights of residents should be respected and institutionally recognized. Full article

Open AccessArticle Madagascar’s Mangroves: Quantifying Nation-Wide and Ecosystem Specific Dynamics, and Detailed Contemporary Mapping of Distinct Ecosystems

by Trevor G. Jones, Leah Glass, Samir Gandhi, Lalao Ravaoarinorotsihoarana, Aude Carro, Lisa Benson, Harifidy Rakoto Ratsimba, Chandra Giri, Dannick Randriamanatena and Garth Cripps

Remote Sens. 2016, 8(2), 106; doi:10.3390/rs8020106

Received: 31 August 2015 / Revised: 21 November 2015 / Accepted: 8 January 2016 / Published: 30 January 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1756 | PDF Full-text (6333 KB) | HTML Full-text | XML Full-text

Abstract

Mangrove ecosystems help mitigate climate change, are highly biodiverse, and provide critical goods and services to coastal communities. Despite their importance, anthropogenic activities are rapidly degrading and deforesting mangroves world-wide. Madagascar contains 2% of the world’s mangroves, many of which have undergone or

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Mangrove ecosystems help mitigate climate change, are highly biodiverse, and provide critical goods and services to coastal communities. Despite their importance, anthropogenic activities are rapidly degrading and deforesting mangroves world-wide. Madagascar contains 2% of the world’s mangroves, many of which have undergone or are starting to exhibit signs of widespread degradation and deforestation. Remotely sensed data can be used to quantify mangrove loss and characterize remaining distributions, providing detailed, accurate, timely and updateable information. We use USGS maps produced from Landsat data to calculate nation-wide dynamics for Madagascar’s mangroves from 1990 to 2010, and examine change more closely by partitioning the national distribution in to primary (i.e., >1000 ha) ecosystems; with focus on four Areas of Interest (AOIs): Ambaro-Ambanja Bays (AAB), Mahajamba Bay (MHJ), Tsiribihina Manombolo Delta (TMD) and Bay des Assassins (BdA). Results indicate a nation–wide net-loss of 21% (i.e., 57,359 ha) from 1990 to 2010, with dynamics varying considerably among primary mangrove ecosystems. Given the limitations of national-level maps for certain localized applications (e.g., carbon stock inventories), building on two previous studies for AAB and MHJ, we employ Landsat data to produce detailed, contemporary mangrove maps for TMD and BdA. These contemporary, AOI-specific maps provide improved detail and accuracy over the USGS national-level maps, and are being applied to conservation and restoration initiatives through the Blue Ventures’ Blue Forests programme and WWF Madagascar West Indian Ocean Programme Office’s work in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Mangroves: Observation and Monitoring)

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Open AccessArticle Attribution Analyses of Impacts of Environmental Changes on Streamflow and Sediment Load in a Mountainous Basin, Vietnam

by Jie Wang, Ishidaira Hiroshi, Shaowei Ning, Timur Khujanazarov, Guiping Yin and Lijuan Guo

Forests 2016, 7(2), 30; doi:10.3390/f7020030

Received: 29 November 2015 / Revised: 18 January 2016 / Accepted: 21 January 2016 / Published: 29 January 2016

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Abstract

Located in the southeastern China and northern Vietnam, the Red River is an important international trans-boundary river that has experienced rapid deforestation and environmental changes over the past decades. We conducted attribution analysis of impacts of various environmental changes on streamflow and sediment

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Located in the southeastern China and northern Vietnam, the Red River is an important international trans-boundary river that has experienced rapid deforestation and environmental changes over the past decades. We conducted attribution analysis of impacts of various environmental changes on streamflow and sediment load. The contribution of reclassified environmental changes to total change of the streamflow and sediment load was separated. Land cover change based on climate-induced and human-induced indicators were defined. We found that human-induced land cover change was the main factor affecting changes of the streamflow and sediment load. Changes of the land cover were more pronounced in the dry season than in the wet season whereas sediment load changed more in the wet season than in the dry season. In addition, changes in sediment load were mainly caused by human-induced land cover change and the changes of land cover were more influential on sediment load than on streamflow in the Red River basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Management and Water Resources in the Anthropocene)

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