A nanoemulsion (NE) is a surfactant-based, oil-in-water, nanoscale, high-energy emulsion with a mean droplet diameter of 400–600 nm. When mixed with antigen and applied nasally, a NE acts as a mucosal adjuvant and induces mucosal immune responses. One possible mechanism for the adjuvant effect of this material is that it augments antigen uptake and distribution to lymphoid tissues, where the immune response is generated. Biocompatible iron oxide nanoparticles have been used as a unique imaging approach to study the dynamics of cells or molecular migration. To study the uptake of NEs and track them in vivo, iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesized and dispersed in soybean oil to make iron oxide-modified NEs. Our results show that iron oxide nanoparticles can be stabilized in the oil phase of the nanoemulsion at a concentration of 30 µg/μL and the iron oxide-modified NEs have a mean diameter of 521 nm. In vitro experiments demonstrated that iron oxide-modified NEs can affect uptake by TC-1 cells (a murine epithelial cell line) and reduce the intensity of magnetic resonance (MR) images by shortening the T2 time. Most importantly, in vivo studies demonstrated that iron oxide-modified NE could be detected in mouse nasal septum by both transmission electron microscopy and MR imaging. Altogether these experiments demonstrate that iron oxide-modified NE is a unique tool that can be used to study uptake and distribution of NEs after nasal application. Full article

The glutamatergic system may be involved in the effects of neuroprotectant therapies. Echinacoside, a phenylethanoid glycoside extracted from the medicinal Chinese herb Herba Cistanche, has neuroprotective effects. This study investigated the effects of echinacoside on 4-aminopyridine-evoked glutamate release in rat cerebrocortical nerve terminals (synaptosomes). Echinacoside inhibited Ca²⁺-dependent, but not Ca²⁺-independent, 4-aminopyridine-evoked glutamate release in a concentration-dependent manner. Echinacoside also reduced the 4-aminopyridine-evoked increase in cytoplasmic free Ca²⁺ concentration but did not alter the synaptosomal membrane potential. The inhibitory effect of echinacoside on 4-aminopyridine-evoked glutamate release was prevented by ω-conotoxin MVIIC, a wide-spectrum blocker of Cav2.2 (N-type) and Cav2.1 (P/Q-type) channels, but was insensitive to the intracellular Ca²⁺ release-inhibitors dantrolene and 7-chloro-5-(2-chloropheny)-1,5-dihydro-4,1-benzothiazepin-2(3H)-one (CGP37157). Furthermore, echinacoside decreased the 4-aminopyridine-induced phosphorylation of protein kinase C, and protein kinase C inhibitors abolished the effect of echinacoside on glutamate release. According to these results, we suggest that the inhibitory effect of echinacoside on evoked glutamate release is associated with reduced voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ entry and subsequent suppression of protein kinase C activity. Full article

In a randomized trial of two interventions on employer health benefit decision-making, 156 employers in the evidence-based (EB) condition attended a two hour presentation reviewing scientific evidence demonstrating depression products that increase high quality treatment of depression in the workforce provide the employer a return on investment. One-hundred sixty-nine employers participating in the usual care (UC) condition attended a similar length presentation reviewing scientific evidence supporting healthcare effectiveness data and information set (HEDIS) monitoring. This study described the decision-making process in 264 (81.2%) employers completing 12 month follow-up. The EB intervention did not increase the proportion of employers who discussed depression products with others in the company (29.2% versus 32.1%, p > 0.10), but it did significantly influence the content of the discussions that occurred. Discussion in EB companies promoted the capacity of a depression product to realize a return on investment (18.4% versus 4.7%, p = 0.05) and to improve productivity (47.4% versus 25.6%, p = 0.06) more often than discussions in UC companies. Almost half of EB and UC employers reported that return on investment has a large impact on health benefit decision-making. These results demonstrate the difficulty of influencing employer decisions about health benefits using group presentations. Full article