Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050133

Authors: Lauren Miller Stefano Borghi Kerrianne Watt Richard C. Franklin

Background: Queensland, Australia, is a popular tourist destination particularly for families and is renowned for its beaches, natural attractions, and exotic flora and fauna. While travelling with children can be an exciting and rewarding experience, it also exposes families to a range of injury risks associated with unfamiliar settings, recreational activities and environmental hazards. Methods: Data were extracted from Queensland Ambulance Service (QAS) records for injury-related cases involving non-Queensland residents aged ≤15 years attended between 1 January 2009 and 31 December 2018. Ambulance pick-up location coordinates were used as a proxy for injury location. Geospatial analysis was conducted, and chi-square tests examined differences between visitor groups by age, sex, and injury characteristics. Results: There were 3802 ambulance attendances for injuries in child visitors aged ≤15 years, with interstate visitors accounting for 85.8% of cases. Coastal locations were identified as common locations for injuries in children travelling in Queensland. Falls and transport incidents were the leading injury mechanisms among both visitor groups. Burns were the third leading mechanism of injury for the 0–4-year age group in interstate child visitors. Conclusion: The findings highlight opportunities for targeted injury prevention among child visitors in tourism settings, with particular attention to children aged 0–4 years. Strategies that promote parental supervision and awareness of environmental and activity-related hazards may help reduce injuries during travel.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050132

Authors: Stuart N. Riddick Mercy Mbua

Methane emissions from offshore installations are routinely monitored using gas detection systems that support safety-critical decisions during offshore operations. However, the extent to which atmospheric conditions influence the effectiveness of these systems as safety barriers remains poorly understood. This study presents a probabilistic assessment of methane detectability under representative offshore conditions, with particular focus on the implications of detection failure for operational safety. A Gaussian plume model combined with Monte Carlo simulation was used to examine the influence of atmospheric regime, emission rate, detector location, and sensor sensitivity on methane detectability. Detection probability was evaluated for representative helicopter and vessel operations under a range of offshore atmospheric conditions and emission scenarios. Results indicate that methane detectability is strongly influenced by atmospheric structure and plume geometry, in addition to emission magnitude. Under some conditions, limited vertical dispersion produces plume–sensor misalignment, resulting in false-negative detection outcomes in which substantial methane releases could remain undetected despite the presence of monitoring systems. Within the modelling framework, detectability may improve at intermediate distances as plume spreading increases plume interception, before decreasing again due to dilution. Increasing detection thresholds significantly reduces detectability, particularly under stratified marine boundary-layer conditions. The results suggest that gas detection systems should be regarded as conditional safety barriers whose effectiveness depends on atmospheric transport processes as well as sensor performance. The absence of methane detection should therefore not be interpreted as evidence that a hazardous emission is absent. The principal contribution of this study is not the derivation of operational detection thresholds, but the demonstration that physically plausible offshore atmospheric conditions can produce false-negative methane detection outcomes. The study identifies a potentially overlooked limitation of offshore methane monitoring and has implications for risk management, situational awareness, and safety-critical operational decision-making.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050131

Authors: Awad M. Aljuaid

Rapid urbanization in Taif City, Saudi Arabia, has brought high-voltage overhead and underground power lines into close proximity to residential neighborhoods and recreational areas, yet the Kingdom has no dedicated national standard for public exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields. (1) Background: This study quantified extremely low-frequency (ELF, 50 Hz) magnetic field exposure at eight sites in Taif and benchmarked it against international guidelines and comparable field studies. (2) Methods: The magnetic flux density was measured with two independently calibrated meters (MESTEK EMF01, WINTACT WT3121) at controlled distances from each source over multiple days; the data were analyzed by two-sample t-tests, log–log regression of the spatial decay, and hazard quotient benchmarking. (3) Results: The peak flux density reached 42.5 µT at 0 m from an underground cable, and decayed to below 1 µT within 10–50 m of overhead lines; the fitted decay model B(r) = 3431·r−2.94 (R2 = 0.826) was steeper than the ideal single-conductor law, consistent with three-phase cancellation. All values remained below the ICNIRP 100–200 µT reference level, but several exceeded the 3–10 µT precautionary values applied in the EU, and all exceeded, at close range, the ≈0.3–0.4 µT threshold linked to elevated childhood leukemia risk. The results agree with European (Gajšek et al.), Italian regulatory (Filosa and Lopresto), and Mexican (Ciudad Juárez) field data. All near-source readings also exceeded the EUROPAEM 2016 precautionary guidance values for sensitive populations. Repeat sampling at the overhead line site showed a reproducible diurnal load effect, with midday fields ~28% above morning values and a 1.40 ratio between the largest and smallest readings, confirming that spot measurements cannot represent the 24 h exposure. (4) Conclusions: The findings support a precautionary national exposure framework that treats the ICNIRP reference levels as a ceiling against acute effects rather than as a sufficient standard, and incorporates long-term precautionary values together with targeted engineering mitigation for Taif. Because the reported values are spot rather than 24 h measurements, the exceedances identify sites requiring continuous monitoring rather than confirming regulatory breaches; a 24 h, multi-height, harmonic-resolved campaign is planned as the necessary next step.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050130

Authors: Karen Nallely Casillas-Arias Alejandra García-Becerra Claudia Camargo-Wilson Julio César Cano-Gutiérrez Blanca Rosa García-Rivera Juan Andrés López-Barreras Juan Carlos Castillo-García Jesús Everardo Olguín-Tiznado

Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are among the leading causes of work-related disability, traditionally attributed to physical and ergonomic factors, though psychosocial and demographic factors also play a crucial role in their progression. This systematic review aimed to evaluate how these three domains are jointly analyzed and modeled in research on work-related MSDs. Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Taylor & Francis were searched for publications from 2000 through 2025, selecting 655 articles for general analysis and 36 for the systematic review; methodological quality was assessed using Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklists, and results were synthesized narratively. The lower back and neck were the body regions most affected across sectors. Job insecurity (risk factor) and job control/autonomy (protective) were the psychosocial factors most consistently associated with MSD outcomes, while workload alone was not significant when tested independently. Repetitive movements and forced postures predominated among ergonomic factors. Age and sex modified these associations consistently, whereas BMI showed a mixed direction, indicating context-dependent susceptibility rather than universal risk. A seven-category taxonomy was developed to classify the statistical relationships tested between domains; only five of the 36 studies formally tested statistical interaction (four across domains), with mixed results, while most reported independent or independent adjusted associations. This gap between the field’s theoretical assumption of synergy across domains and the limited empirical testing of it underscores the need for multidimensional assessment. The evidence is limited by predominantly cross-sectional designs; future research should prioritize longitudinal designs and formal interaction testing.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050129

Authors: Sara Innocenzi Dario Lippiello

Traditional occupational noise risk assessment in quarries relies on static annual averages, failing to capture exposure peaks driven by operational shifts. Although noise risk assessment is a strict mandate under European Directives, capturing real-world operational volatility would require continuous, unfeasible phonometric campaigns. This study addresses this limitation by developing a dynamic, telemetry-driven energetic model to map occupational noise exposure and fleet volatility within the Carrara marble basin. The framework integrates continuous tracking from Internet-of-Things (IoT) platforms over a full calendar year with targeted in-cabin phonometric data. The empirical results reveal a dual-directional acoustic divergence from manufacturer specifications due to real-world quarry conditions and automated engine sub-regimes. Energetic tracking uncovers extensive exposure variance across production weeks; during peak periods, the skid-steer loader breaches statutory action boundaries, reaching a critical exposure value of 84.2 dB(A). Ultimately, this framework fulfills regulatory requirements through a streamlined, low-cost approach, providing a significantly more reliable and realistic hazard tracking tool than traditional static models.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050128

Authors: Sreeja Thallapureddy Fred Sherratt Matthew R. Hallowell Yaqoob Raheemy

Learning from incidents is central to construction occupational safety management, yet information collected during incident investigation interviews may be influenced by cognitive bias. This study introduces Check Yourself, a web-based reflective tool designed to support construction incident investigators in recognizing and managing cognitive biases during interviews. The tool was developed with industry input and evaluated through an exploratory within-subjects simulated role-play experiment involving 20 construction safety professionals with an average experience of approximately 12 years conducting or participating in incident investigations. Participants completed two rounds of incident investigation interviews, with the Check Yourself tool introduced between rounds. Changes in observable bias indicators were assessed through transcript-based analysis, supported by participant reflections and post-study feedback. The results showed that 70% of participants exhibited fewer observable bias indicators during post-intervention interviews, according to the study’s coding framework. Participants also reported that the tool supported greater awareness of bias, encouraged more structured questioning, and was relevant to real-world investigation practice. Although participant responses varied, findings suggest that Check Yourself may provide a practical reflective resource for improving interview quality and supporting more balanced incident investigations in construction. Findings from this study should be interpreted cautiously given the exploratory within-subjects design and the absence of a control group.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050127

Authors: Sergio Malinconico Federica Paglietti Sergio Bellagamba Ivano Lonigro Paolo De Simone Giuseppe Bonifazi Giuseppe Capobianco Alice Aurigemma Silvia Serranti

This technical note describes a protocol for the safe excavation of asbestos-bearing serpentinite and the management of the associated spoil during tunnel construction. Asbestos fibers occur naturally in serpentinites belonging to greenstone formations and may pose serious health risks if released and inhaled. Detailed, site-specific risk assessment is therefore required for tunnelling and earthworks involving these lithologies. Where excavation through greenstones cannot be avoided, as in the construction of major national and international infrastructure networks, dedicated safety and waste-management procedures are necessary to minimize occupational and environmental risks. The protocol was implemented considering Italy’s extensive experience with tunnel construction sites and integrates operational controls, environmental monitoring, personal protective equipment, and procedures for the characterization and management of rocks potentially containing asbestos. Drawing on practical site experience, it provides a structured framework for risk assessment, worker protection, exposure prevention, and appropriate spoil classification and handling. The proposed approach is also consistent with circular-economy principles, as more detailed material characterization can enable greater recovery of excavated material for reuse. The present technical note may therefore serve as a practical reference for comparable tunnelling projects involving naturally occurring asbestos.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050126

Authors: Ting Lei Abbas Sheykhfard

Hot-spot analysis identifies high-crash locations, whereas systemic analysis identifies recurring crash and facility characteristics across a network. This study introduces multidimensional fatality profiles as a descriptive bridge between those levels by grouping deaths into recurring combinations that agencies can subsequently map, diagnose, and connect to treatments. Fatality Analysis Reporting System records from 33 U.S. Vision Zero cities and 31 contextual benchmark cities (2010–2023) were classified by road-user group, functional class, junction context, and lighting. The primary equal-city analysis used two-year windows around verified formal-adoption or state-based pseudo-adoption years and included 12,454 fatalities. In Vision Zero cities, the 10 leading profiles accounted for 47.3% of fatalities before adoption and 51.6% after adoption, and nine pre-adoption top-10 profiles remained in the post-adoption top 10. Absolute fatalities increased from 4342 to 5081 in the selected Vision Zero windows and from 1339 to 1692 in benchmark windows; these counts are not exposure-adjusted and do not estimate policy effects. Benchmark cities showed a larger increase in concentration in the primary two-year window, but the relative direction varied across alternative windows. The results identify recurring fatality contexts for local investigation. This descriptive comparison did not establish a distinct post-adoption concentration pattern for Vision Zero cities.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050125

Authors: Gulnara Bektemyssova Abdul Razaque Arman Keresh Malika Ziyada Ayagoz Saparkhankyzy Saltanat Nuralykyzy Mussa Uatbayev

Reliable safety-helmet monitoring in complex industrial environments remains challenging because open-vocabulary detectors are sensitive to prompt wording and changing scene conditions. This study proposes a context-aware framework for YOLO-World and YOLOE that systematically generates color-specific prompts; selects prompts according to the camera angle, time of day, and subject distance; and combines detections using AP-weighted Weighted Box Fusion. The framework was evaluated using strictly separated calibration and test partitions of aerial IITU footage and ground-level CHV construction images. Prompt formulation had the greatest effect on detection performance, with mean AP50 ranging from 0.17 to 0.49 across prompt generation strategies. Weighted fusion produced higher point estimates than the single-best-prompt baseline in all 18 model–dataset–color configurations, with a median improvement of 0.0245 AP50, although most individual gains were not statistically resolved. A supervised YOLOv8-L model remained more accurate in-domain, whereas the open-vocabulary framework could recognize an unseen helmet color without updating detector weights. This flexibility nevertheless requires labeled target-site calibration for prompt ranking and fusion weights. The performance was weakest for long-range overhead views and visually confounded helmet colors. The proposed framework is therefore best suited as a condition-aware monitoring and triage tool, with automation restricted to validated operating regimes and human review retained for uncertain cases.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050124

Authors: Akane Masumitsu Mami Nakamura Masahito Hitosugi

Occupants involved in far-side lateral collisions are at a similar risk of sustaining severe head injuries to those involved in near-side impacts. Previous studies have evaluated injury mechanisms and risk factors using large-scale crash datasets. However, continuous evaluation using more recent vehicle models is necessary to further improve occupant protection. The purpose of the current study was to identify the factors independently associated with severe head injury (Abbreviated Injury Scale [AIS] score ≥ 3) in far-side lateral collisions using the Crash Investigation Sampling System database. We included occupants with head injuries (AIS ≥ 1) involved in far-side collisions between 2017 and 2022. Eligible occupants were seated in the front-left or rear-left (second row) positions and were struck from the right side. Occupants with height < 140 cm were excluded. A total of 107 occupants were analyzed, including 90 with head AIS scores of 1–2 and 17 with head AIS scores ≥ 3. The total change in vehicle velocity and the degree of vehicle intrusion were significantly higher in occupants with severe head injury. No significant differences were observed in seatbelt use, belt pretensioner activation or airbag deployment between the two groups. In multivariable logistic regression analysis, the total change in vehicle velocity was independently associated with severe head injury, whereas seatbelt use, belt pretensioner activation and airbag deployment were not associated with reduced risk of severe head injury in far-side collisions. These findings provide real-world evidence that reducing vehicle velocity prior to impact remains essential for preventing severe head injury in far-side collisions, even in contemporary vehicles equipped with advanced occupant restraint systems.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050123

Authors: Rachele Bianchi Luca Colombo Roberto Arditi Emanuele Toraldo

Road tunnels represent a critical aspect of road network safety, since crashes occurring in road tunnels usually lead to severe consequences. For this reason, road managers struggle in defining strategies to effectively evaluate tunnels’ safety levels and to identify potentially dangerous sections with the goal to intervene and counteract them. This study aims to propose a new method to assess the highway tunnel safety of the Trans-European Transport Network. Based on the analysis of the existing approaches, the main advantages and drawbacks of the traditionally adopted methods are identified. On this basis, the Method for Assessing Road Tunnel Safety (MARTS) is developed by selecting the most appropriate indicators from the literature and integrating them into a comprehensive method. The MARTS method applies Multi Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) which allows us to reach a global indicator of attention for each analyzed tunnel, while the relative importance of the selected indicators is determined by means of an Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The newly proposed method is then applied to a real case study in order to assess its sensitivity and accuracy in evaluating the potential safety benefits arising from an intervention.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050122

Authors: Sherrilene Classen Seung Woo Hwangbo Jason Rogers Beth Gibson Sandra Winter Joanna Shatlan Hongloan Tran Marley Parks Hongwu Wang

Background: Driving is a critical determinant of independence, social participation, and access to healthcare among older adults. Age-related declines in attention, executive function, working memory, and processing speed can adversely affect driving performance and increase the risk of crashes and driving cessation. Fermented papaya preparation (FPP®), a nutraceutical with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, has shown promise for supporting cognitive function in older adults. However, its effects on driving performance have not been previously investigated. Objective: To examine the short- and long-term effects of FPP® supplementation on driving performance and associated cognitive functions in community-dwelling older adults aged 70–80 years using a high-fidelity driving simulator. Methods: An experimental repeated-measures design was employed in which participants served as their own controls. Fifty-nine older adults were enrolled, with 34 completing all three study visits. Participants completed a baseline assessment (Visit 1), a short-term assessment within approximately 24 h after receiving three 3 g doses of FPP® (Visit 2), and a long-term assessment following eight weeks of daily FPP® intake (Visit 3). Assessments included visual and cognitive testing, the Useful Field of View (UFOV), quality-of-life measures, and a standardized simulator-based driving evaluation that quantified total driving errors and errors related to attention, working memory, reaction time, and executive function. Non-parametric analyses, Bayesian testing, and generalized estimating equations (GEEs) were used to evaluate efficacy and safety outcomes. Results: Unadjusted analyses demonstrated no statistically significant reductions in total driving errors by comparing baseline testing to eight weeks after the use of FPP®; however, executive function errors exhibited a favorable trend (p = 0.065; r = 0.307). Across all driving measures, short-term exposure to three doses of FPP® produced no evidence of impaired driving performance, with Bayesian analyses providing moderate support for the absence of detrimental effects. Significant improvements were observed in UFOV Divided Attention (p = 0.008) and overall crash-risk categorization (p = 0.046), indicating enhanced cognitive processing speed and attentional performance. After adjusting for baseline cognition, visual acuity, and compliance, GEE modeling demonstrated a trend toward reduced total driving errors after eight weeks of FPP® supplementation (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 0.79, p = 0.065), corresponding to approximately 21% fewer driving errors. Sensitivity analyses excluding participants with severe lower-extremity musculoskeletal impairments (n = 2) strengthened the intervention effect, revealing a statistically significant 25% reduction in total driving errors (IRR = 0.75, p = 0.031). Conclusions: FPP® supplementation did not produce evidence of detrimental effects on driving performance under the tested conditions and may confer meaningful cognitive and functional benefits relevant to driving performance. Improvements in divided attention and reductions in driving errors suggest that FPP® may represent a promising, non-invasive intervention to support driving safety and prolong mobility and independence among older adults. Larger controlled trials are warranted to confirm these findings and establish clinical recommendations for FPP® use in aging populations.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050121

Authors: Chaojie Yang Jiawei Tang Wenlong Chen Shengli Kong

Identifying the specific battery type that caused a fire is a critical part of forensic investigation, yet it becomes difficult when severe heat destroys physical evidence. To provide a non-contact forensic solution, this study proposes an interpretable identification framework based on eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP). Thermal runaway signals from prismatic, pouch, and cylindrical cells were recorded using various devices under realistic conditions, including environmental noise and wall obstructions. By integrating time-domain statistics, frequency-domain metrics, and Mel-frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs), we characterized the unique acoustic signatures of each battery format. The results show that battery structure determines the sound. Cylindrical cells produce high-frequency impulsive sounds due to valve jetting, while pouch cells produce low-frequency tearing sounds. Using these physical features, the optimized XGBoost classifier achieved an overall accuracy of 96.39% and an F1-score of 96.21% on a mixed dataset. This model outperformed Support Vector Machine and Random Forest classifiers. It proved robust even when processing low-quality audio from surveillance equipment. Additionally, SHAP analysis interprets the decision logic, identifying Peak Frequency and specific cepstral textures as the most important features. In conclusion, acoustic fingerprinting serves as independent, quantifiable evidence, enabling accurate ignition source identification even when traditional physical analysis is impossible.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050120

Authors: Celso Sanga Víctor Alvarez Alejandra Sanga Piero Sanga Nelson Chambi

A systematic review was conducted to identify ergonomic risk factors associated with musculoskeletal disorders in the limbs of mining workers, the assessment methods used, and their relationships. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 53 studies from Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, MDPI, and IEEE Xplore (January 2015–May 2026) were included. Eleven risk factors were identified, with vibration (18 studies) and working hours (12 studies) being the most frequently reported. Five individual assessment methods (ISO/IEC 2631-1, REBA, OWAS, NIOSH, Risk Score), one symptom questionnaire (Nordic Questionnaire), and five hybrid/advanced methods (Bayesian Network + REBA, RULA + Nordic, SEM + Participatory Ergonomics, DMQ + Logistic Regression, RULA + Fuzzy Logic) were identified. Fifteen limb segments were evaluated, with the back (15 studies), shoulders (12 studies), and neck (12 studies) being the most studied, while wrists and elbows were notably absent. Hybrid methods demonstrated superior accuracy compared to individual approaches. Underground mining studies (58%) predominated over open-pit operations (42%). The findings provide an integrated framework connecting risk factors, affected limbs, and assessment tools. Critical gaps were identified, including the lack of wrist/elbow evaluation, underrepresentation of female miners, and absence of AI-based assessment systems. Four key challenges are proposed for future research, including developing deep learning-based ergonomic assessment tools and implementing real-time monitoring systems.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050119

Authors: Ayuto Kodama Emiko Ohtake Takuji Nakamura Takako Ohnuma Hidetaka Ota

Background: Driving risk in older adults is multifactorial, and comprehensive on-road assessment is not always feasible in community practice. Although the Driving Risk Checklist-25 (DRCL-25) is easy to administer, interpretation based solely on the total score may obscure the type of driving difficulty. Objective: This study aimed to clarify the latent structure of the DRCL-25 in community-dwelling older adults and to propose a clinically interpretable three-factor solution based on parallel analysis. Methods: A total of 591 community-dwelling older drivers (mean age 75.9 ± 5.5 years), recruited through community-based long-term care prevention health checkups in Akita Prefecture, completed the DRCL-25. Internal consistency was examined using Cronbach’s alpha. The suitability of factor analysis was assessed using the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) statistic and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. The number of factors was examined by parallel analysis (1000 random datasets). Factors were extracted from the Pearson correlation matrix by maximum likelihood (ML) estimation and rotated using varimax rotation; an oblique (Promax) rotation was conducted as a sensitivity analysis. Loadings of |0.30| or greater were used to support interpretation. The three-factor model and the total-score model were compared with respect to their association with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) status, determined using the National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology Functional Assessment Tool (NCGG-FAT). Results: Internal consistency was acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.767), the KMO value was 0.808, and Bartlett’s test was significant (χ2(300) = 2249.1, p < 0.001). A three-factor solution, supported by parallel analysis and interpretability, was interpreted as (1) driving burden in complex situations, (2) danger signs noticed by others, and (3) reduced attention and orientation, together explaining 21.2% of total item variance. Factor-specific reliability was acceptable for Factor 1 (α = 0.725) but low for Factor 2 (α = 0.459) and Factor 3 (α = 0.460). Oblique rotation indicated moderate-to-high inter-factor correlations (r = 0.56–0.63). The three-factor model and the total-score model showed comparable association with MCI status (AUC = 0.571 for both; this was a descriptive comparison, and no formal statistical test of the AUC difference was performed). Conclusions: The DRCL-25 showed an interpretable, although moderately inter-correlated, three-factor structure. Given its modest explained variance, the low reliability of two of the three factors, and the absence of incremental predictive validity over the total score, this structure should be regarded as provisional and hypothesis-generating, providing a conceptual and communicative framework rather than a validated basis for clinical decision-making at this stage.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050118

Authors: Raziyam Anayatova Mustafa Zhomart Kayrat Koshekov Inna Ryabchenko Nataliia Levchenko Abay Koshekov

This study examines the impact of digital stress on the cognitive functioning of civil aviation personnel in the context of increasing digitalization and its implications for flight safety. Civil aviation employees operate in highly information-intensive environments that require continuous interaction with automated systems, rapid data processing, digital interface management, and time-sensitive decision-making, all of which may contribute to digital stress. Using a comprehensive assessment framework, the study explores the relationship between digital stress, cognitive workload, and human-factor risks in aviation operations. The findings indicate that digital stress may impair concentration, information-processing speed, memory, analytical thinking, and decision-making quality, thereby increasing the likelihood of human error. These effects are particularly critical for personnel involved in airport navigation and other safety-sensitive functions, where cognitive lapses can adversely affect operational safety. The study highlights the importance of timely identification and quantitative assessment of digital stress to support aviation safety management. In addition, it proposes the implementation of a digital wallet for storing, updating, and verifying personnel medical data to facilitate reliable health monitoring and early detection of psychophysiological risks associated with digital stress and cognitive load. The proposed approach may contribute to improved human-factor management and enhanced flight safety.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050117

Authors: Angelo Compierchio Phillip Tretten Prasanna Illankoon

The data-driven solutions of Industry 4.0 have affected the role of human factors and ergonomics (HFE) in blending natural and artificial environments in the military to train aircrews for emergency situations. This shift, through the widespread deployment of digitalization and cyber–physical systems, has led to the implementation of engineered autonomy that can predicate rational, goal-driven decisions. The extensible architecture of a fifth-generation aircraft with autonomous sensor management places the human–autonomy team at the center of collaborative sensing operations, shared verification and proactive control for risk mitigation. In the pursuit of aircraft safety during a mission, trust calibration between pilots and intelligent agents (IA) in safety-critical aviation environments remains poorly understood. Existing models do not account for how personality influences human–agent trust. Consequently, a Personality Gap Model (PGM), based on Jung’s functions-attitude is proposed to characterize trust under Partial Mission Capable (PMC) status. This conceptual relationship unfolds through the interactions of processes that need to work jointly, as Prof. James Reason emphasized in his Swiss Cheese Model (SCM). With salience information, these elements enable HFE practitioners to model the human personality structure embedded in the SCM, thereby augmenting a Trust Calibration Space (TCS) for designing trust-aware interventions.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050116

Authors: Alexander M. Crizzle Mackenzie L. McKeown Ryan Toxopeus

Young and novice drivers have the highest representation of driver injuries and fatalities. While driver education provides in-class and in-car exposure to the driving environment, the use of driving simulators can further expose challenging driving environments that are not typically provided as part of current driver education programs. The aim of this study was to examine and compare the delivery of a driver training program on simulated driving performance and confidence in young drivers. Sixty participants (aged 15–20; 66% male) completed cognitive and visual assessments, a driving comfort scale, and a pre-test simulated drive. Subsequently, participants were assigned to: (1) an intervention with feedback group (n = 20), (2) an intervention without feedback group (n = 20), or (3) control group (n = 20). Intervention group participants completed fifteen training scenarios, and all participants completed a post-test simulated drive and driving confidence scale. Outcome measures assessed on the simulator were driving errors (e.g., speed, vehicle position, braking distance) and the number of collisions. Across all groups, simulated crashes significantly decreased and driving confidence significantly increased post-test. Training with feedback produced the most consistent improvements, including improved speed regulation and safer following distances. All participants reported greater confidence in challenging conditions such as heavy rain, snow, icy roads, and night driving. Findings indicate that high-fidelity simulation, particularly when paired with structured feedback, can improve novice drivers’ skills and confidence, supporting simulation as a valuable complement to traditional driver education.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050115

Authors: Witold Jucha Anna Rapacz

The role of hospital pharmacists is broadening from primarily operational responsibilities towards greater involvement in clinical and research activities. Poland’s growing position in the clinical-trials sector and recent legislative changes create new opportunities for pharmacists to manage investigational medicinal products (IMPs) and contribute to multidisciplinary research teams. This narrative review and commentary, based on 27 sources, examines pharmacists’ roles and contributions in clinical trials. The reviewed literature describes pharmacists as contributors to medication safety, pharmacovigilance, drug-interaction assessment, IMP management, and maintenance of blinding. Their involvement may also support protocol adherence, patient education and participant care; however, the available evidence does not yet permit firm conclusions regarding its impact on medication-error rates, treatment adherence, recruitment, dropout rates, or clinical outcomes. In oncology and advanced therapy medicinal product (ATMP) trials, pharmacists may provide specialised expertise in complex medication-management and logistical processes. Nevertheless, a gap appears to persist in Poland between pharmacists’ professional readiness and their practical involvement in clinical research. Key barriers include minimum staffing requirements, insufficient protected research time and organisational constraints. Hospital pharmacists therefore represent a valuable but underused resource in clinical research. Appropriate training, institutional support, dedicated research time, and regulatory development could facilitate their broader participation in clinical-trial conduct and enable future evaluation of their effects on trial quality and participant safety.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050114

Authors: Vitor Matassoli Joana Guedes Joana Duarte

Safety culture has become a central construct in occupational safety management due to its recognized influence on organizational performance and accident prevention. However, the absence of a universally applicable assessment methodology has contributed to substantial methodological fragmentation. Therefore, this scoping review aimed to identify, classify, and critically analyze methodological approaches for safety culture assessment. Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, studies published between January 2016 and October 2025 were retrieved from Scopus, Web of Science, and Dimensions. Study selection and methodological quality appraisal were conducted using predefined eligibility criteria and the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT, version 2018). Through a descriptive synthesis, the 25 included studies revealed a heterogeneous landscape encompassing psychometric surveys, multi-criteria and maturity-based models, and triangulated approaches. The findings indicate that each methodological family captures different dimensions of safety culture. Psychometric approaches provide scalability and comparability but remain dependent on self-reported perceptions, whereas multi-criteria models support structured organizational diagnosis. Triangulated approaches integrate multiple sources of evidence and facilitate the examination of discrepancies between formal organizational arrangements and operational practices. Overall, the review highlights the diversity of available assessment approaches and suggests that the evaluation’s objectives, context, and scope should guide the selection of the methodology.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12050113

Authors: Karsten Klaffer Mark Vollrath

To travel safely, drivers must attend to various elements in their driving environment. When visually scanning for these elements, attention can be guided by a prime that provides target information. In a vehicle, this prime could be shown as a visual (alert) message to alert the driver in various situations. In an online experiment (N = 72), four primes (text warning, symbol warning, scene picture, target picture) were used in a visual search for five targets (pedestrian, cyclist, car, traffic sign, roadway). Reaction time until finding the target was measured via a button press. All primes led to a decrease in search time compared to the control condition. The text warning and scene picture did not differ significantly and were the least effective in improving reaction time. The symbol warning was the next more effective prime. Finally, the target picture resulted in the quickest visual search. The effectiveness of a prime depends on its characteristics. To reduce cognitive processing time, the prime should be visual rather than semantic (i.e., text). Also, it should share as many visual features with the target as possible to provide optimal attentional guidance.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040112

Authors: Zoltán Herényi Andrea Tick Tihomir Dovramadjiev Gyula Szabó

Occupational safety risk assessment combines measured data, qualitative observations, and expert judgment to prioritize preventive action. Fuzzy logic can structure linguistic and uncertain information, but poorly justified variables, membership functions, rules, or weights can embed bias, while aggregation can obscure hazard-specific differences. Following a PRISMA-aligned selection process, this systematic review examined 30 fuzzy-based occupational safety studies, focusing not only on technical design but also on output types, intended decision users and purposes, traceability, temporal operation, and evidence of safety outcomes. Fifteen models primarily produced a score, index, level, or class; nine produced a ranking or priority; and six preserved a relational or causal representation. Only two directly supported workers, one operated in real time, and none demonstrated recalibration driven by observed safety outcomes. Although 28 studies reported positive evaluations of their own solutions, only one reported improvement in accident outcomes observed over time, and one provided partial follow-up. Aggregated fuzzy values are therefore most defensible as traceable, context-bound decision-support indicators. They should complement rather than replace hazard-specific assessment and should be linked to worker participation, documented control actions, assigned responsibilities, and verification of implemented measures.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040111

Authors: Panagiotis K. Marhavilas Themis C. Iliopoulou Nick Delianidis

Occupational safety management in combined cycle power plant (CCPP) construction requires methods that can both prioritize multiple tasks and explain why critical scenarios arise. This article presents a hybrid case-study methodology integrating questionnaire-based semi-quantitative 5 × 5 risk matrices with task-focused HAZOP. An anonymous structured questionnaire was completed by 105 workers at a CCPP construction site (response rate 75.0%), covering eight major construction activities and four occupational groups. Likelihood and severity ratings were processed in RStudio 2025.09.2 to produce 5 × 5 risk matrices, distribution plots, and “High + Critical” prioritization indices. The highest-ranked tasks were then subjected to HAZOP in PHAWorks RA Edition (Version 1.0.9834). “Work at height” emerged as the highest-ranked perceived-risk activity across all groups, followed by lifting/load handling, chemicals/flammables, and electrical works. Safety technicians tended to assign more conservative ratings than labor personnel, indicating role-dependent differences in risk perception. The HAZOP analysis suggested that the plausible HAZOP-informed accident scenarios and control weaknesses were not only technical but also organizational, including failures in permit-to-work, lockout/tagout, exclusion-zone control, fall protection, and chemical handling discipline. The integrated hybrid workflow bridges rapid semi-quantitative prioritization and structured causal analysis, supporting the translation of field-based perceptions into targeted and actionable safety controls for dynamic energy-project worksites. The findings highlight the critical role of organizational discipline alongside technical measures and support the integration of structured risk assessment within occupational health and safety management systems in dynamic construction environments.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040110

Authors: Dong-youn Lee Ho-jun Yoo

Personal mobility (PM) devices have expanded rapidly as an urban transport mode supporting short-distance travel and first- and last-mile access to public transport, while conflicts involving PM users, pedestrians, and other road users have emerged as an important traffic-safety concern. This study reconstructed police-reported PM crash records from Seoul for 2017–2024 into a crash-level dataset of 2398 crashes and examined changes in crash composition and monthly crash-count trajectories around the strengthening of PM safety regulations on 13 May 2021. Grouped-binomial models using monthly outcome and non-outcome counts were treated as the primary analysis. The descriptive PM–pedestrian share increased from 42.9% before the regulation to 49.7% after the regulation. However, the grouped-binomial models did not identify statistically significant PM–pedestrian or severe-or-fatal level or slope changes. The only statistically significant post-regulation composition term in the full-period model was a declining late-night slope; this term was not significant under the conservative month-level HC3 covariance check in the January 2019 sensitivity window. Segmented Poisson models were retained as secondary, descriptive, and exploratory analyses. Observed post-regulation counts were lower than the trajectory obtained by extrapolating the pre-regulation trend; however, the counterfactual became implausibly large within two to three years, so the model could not distinguish a regulatory discontinuity from the natural deceleration or saturation of PM diffusion and other concurrent temporal changes. Among crashes with known helmet-use status, no statistically detectable pre/post change was observed, and license type was not recorded before the regulation. The evidence therefore does not establish either a beneficial or adverse causal effect of the regulation. PM safety policy should combine user-oriented enforcement with multi-indicator monitoring, pedestrian-conflict management, continuous and clearly separated PM travel space, and targeted monitoring of late-night single-vehicle crashes.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040109

Authors: Liam Kettle Pawinee Pithayarungsarit Kayla M. G. Herrera Kassidy L. Simpson Kian Sharifi Yi-Ching Lee

Vehicles equipped with level 3 automated driving system (ADS) features are expected to integrate into consumer markets in the near future. Drivers’ trust and situation awareness (SA) are critical for the acceptance and safe operation of level 3 ADS. Prior research has found that augmented reality interfaces and verbal alerts can communicate information to drivers and thus enhance trust and SA. However, little is understood as to the degree to which specific communication needs may differ across driving contexts. Participants watched videos of traffic scenarios and answered open-ended questions about desired information across measures (SA, trust) and modalities (visual, verbal), and what they considered redundant information. A thematic analysis was used to analyze responses from 128 participants. Communicating the vehicle’s intentions was one of the most crucial desired features. Other desired features were context-dependent including the detection, location, and trajectory of relevant objects and intention reasoning. Key redundant features included excessive cues, unspecific visual or auditory alerts. The results were organized as a framework for the consideration of modalities and information relevancy in future vehicle-human communication research. The framework also considers context-specific communication needs as well as a cognitive-perceptual threshold for presenting desired amount of information through the appropriate modality.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040108

Authors: Stephane Gille Alexandre Klingler

This study presents the design, theoretical modeling, and experimental validation of a novel mechanical reducer made up of three stages, including two logarithmic spiral gears, offering a continuously variable transmission ratio. Unlike conventional constant transmission ratio reducers (circular gears reducers), this reducer provides high transmission ratios during motion initiation and gradually decreases them per cycle, preventing abrupt torque transition. A comprehensive mechanical model was developed to predict transmission ratio, gear geometry, assistance distance and duration, motor torque, and energy consumption, providing a complete framework for reducer design according to target performance requirements. A proof-of-concept prototype manufactured by additive manufacturing was integrated into a trolley to validate the mechanical model. Experimental results demonstrated good agreement with theoretical predictions, with no difference in distance crossed and 13% difference in assistance duration. The model further predicts substantially lower energy consumption than conventional reducers, while maintaining progressive torque delivery throughout the assistance phase. These results demonstrate the potential of logarithmic spiral gears for variable-ratio mechanical transmissions and provide a predictive framework for the design and optimization of this type of mechanism. This reducer is hypothetically intended for applications requiring progressive torque assistance, such as manual trolleys, wheelchairs, or aircraft.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040107

Authors: Ivan Petrović Živana Slović Ivana Andrić Ksenija Bošnjaković Olgica Mihaljević Filip Mihajlović Marijana Stanojević Pirković Miloš Todorović Katarina Vitošević

Background: To reduce the incidence of road traffic accidents (RTAs), countries worldwide implement various measures: intensified police controls, awareness-raising campaigns, technological solutions such as alcohol interlock systems, and stricter legal sanctions. Methods: The objective of this research is to determine the trend of alcohol-impaired drivers’ involvement during the period 2010–2024, to compare periods before and after the reduction of the permitted blood alcohol concentration limit from 0.3 mg/mL to 0.2 mg/mL, to analyze the distribution of intoxication levels and demographic characteristics, and to determine the severity of traffic accident outcomes. Results: A total of 1,743 drivers under the influence of alcohol were analyzed and divided into two study groups based on the timing of the legislative amendment. The greatest effect of the legislative change was observed in the age group 22–34 years. A significantly higher percentage of very high intoxicated drivers was recorded before the legislative change. The percentage of drivers that were affected after reducing Traffic Safety Law regulations limit from 0.3 mg/mL to 0.2 mg/mL, resulted in increase of the number of low level intoxicated drivers nearly twice after the regulations. Conclusions: The results indicate that stricter legislative regulations contributed to a significant reduction in high-risk behaviours, although the effect was not uniform across all categories of drivers.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040106

Authors: Anna Donnla O’Hagan Sinéad O’Keeffe Annie O’Connor Hannah Casey Jack Sweeney John McNamara Siobhán O’Connor

Farming families are central to the agricultural industry in Ireland. The poor mental health of farmers is well documented. However, the mental health of farm family members remains overlooked. This study aims to understand the mental health literacy and help-seeking of farm family members and how mental health literacy and help-seeking are associated with demographics. A cross-sectional study examined 447 farming family members’ mental health literacy and help-seeking using the Attitudes Towards Seeking Professional Psychological Help Short Form (ATSPPH-SF), Mental Help-Seeking Intention Scale (MHSIS), and the Multicomponent Mental Health Literacy Measure (MMHL). Participants reported an average ATSPPH-SF score of 20.4 ± 5.8. The average MHSIS score was 4.8 ± 1.6, and the average MMHL score was 19.4 ± 4.5. Farm family members’ mental health literacy and help-seeking attitudes and intentions were positively associated. Those who worked on the farm regularly, men, and those who were less educated had significantly lower literacy and help-seeking. The mental health literacy and help-seeking attitudes and intentions of farm family members were marginally higher than those of Irish farmers and other populations. Interventions targeting the enhancement of family members’ mental health literacy and help-seeking could support improved mental health literacy and help-seeking amongst farmers and farm family members.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040105

Authors: Lori L. Dunlop-Pyle Gerd Bruder Charles E. Hughes

Many law enforcement agencies operate crisis service models that utilize the expertise of mental health professionals in assisting law enforcement officers (LEOs) when interacting with people experiencing a mental health crisis. This study examines three agencies with two different types of established crisis service models in the same geographical area to answer three research questions: (1) Does the type of crisis service model affect facilitators of success for the model? (2) Does the type of crisis service model affect how practitioners personally measure the success of the model they use? (3) What patterns exist in involuntary psychiatric examination rates before and after the implementation of the crisis service models? Sixteen practitioners representing two crisis service models responded to a survey investigating the first two questions. Participants were recruited through email. The analysis used inferential and descriptive statistics to examine their responses. A before-and-after design using descriptive statistics of publicly available data about involuntary psychiatric examinations was employed to investigate the third research question. Results showed variation across the model participants’ choices of facilitators important for model success and metrics, but only differences between the responses from members of two models in choosing the facilitator of clear policies and procedures (e.g., clearly written protocols) and the metric of use of force were at statistically significant levels. The practitioners of the models are the experts. Understanding how they judge the success of their work and what facilitates that success is vital for allocating resources effectively and adjusting policies as needed. The study determined that involuntary psychiatric examinations decreased concurrently with the use of crisis service models, but it is not possible to establish causation. More investigation is needed.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040104

Authors: Emmanuel Ardiabah Hannah M. Mason Richard C. Franklin

Heatwaves are becoming more frequent and intense, with well-established impacts on mortality and heat-related illness. However, their influence on unintentional injuries, including falls, is less understood. This study examined the association between heatwaves and fall-related ambulance attendances in Queensland, Australia. A retrospective population-based study was conducted using Queensland Ambulance Service attendance data from 2010–2019. Attendances were classified as fall-related if a fall was indicated in any of the dispatch, diagnosis, injury-cause, or case-classification fields, regardless of if this was based on caller report or paramedic assessment. Heatwaves were defined using the Bureau of Meteorology’s Excess Heat Factor and classified by severity. Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) compared fall-related ambulance attendances on heatwave and non-heatwave days, with stratification by age, sex, rurality, heatwave severity, and warm-season month. Across the study period, 323,254 fall-related ambulance attendances were recorded. Overall incidence did not differ between heatwave and non-heatwave days (IRR = 1.00; 95% CI: 0.99–1.00). Extreme heatwaves were associated with an 11% increase in attendances (IRR = 1.11; 95% CI: 1.06–1.17), with elevated risks observed among adults aged 45–74 years and residents of outer regional areas. Extreme heatwaves contribute to increased fall-related ambulance demand in Queensland. Recognising falls as part of the broader heat-related morbidity burden allows for targeted prevention strategies and enhances preparedness for extreme heat events.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040103

Authors: Elpidio Maria Garzillo Riccardo Mastrantonio Antonio Spacone Andrea Scandaglia Diletta Cannavò Massimo Princigallo Ilaria Bologna Fabio Duronio Rita Vecchiola Leila Fabiani

Occupational injuries and work-related diseases remain a major concern in Italy, particularly in high-risk sectors such as construction, agriculture, manufacturing and healthcare. This study retrospectively analyzed a series of breaches of occupational safety regulations and the determining factors that caused them over a seven-year period in a mixed industrial-rural area of Abruzzo, Italy. Inspections were classified by period (pre-pandemic, post-pandemic), economic sector, type of intervention, type of violation, multiple non-compliances, responsible party, age of the responsible party, and restored compliance. Two hundred and seventy-four inspections led to penalties, mainly in the construction sector (65%). Procedural violations were the most frequent, followed by structural, documental, and combined violations. Violations and the violation/inspection ratio decreased after the pandemic. The type of violation was significantly associated with the economic sector, the type of intervention, and the responsible party; moreover, the pandemic period was associated with changes in sectoral inspections, violation patterns, multiple non-compliances, and restoration of compliance. The results highlight sector-specific and context-dependent compliance dynamics, with construction and agriculture presenting complex chains of responsibility. Strengthening an integrated inspection–training supervisory body may improve long-term compliance and safety governance. This study proposes a pilot model for standardized data collection enabling comparative analyses across sectors and institutional contexts.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040102

Authors: Daniel Onut Badea Lucian-Ionel Cioca Claudiu Coman Marius-Viorel Posa

Despite being classified as low-risk workplaces, museums involve tasks that generate demands, chemical exposure, and management-related stress that accumulate over time. This study assesses the relationship between occupational safety and health conditions in museums and task organization within operations to develop a task-based coordination approach grounded in practice. A mixed-methods design was employed in three museums, encompassing conservation, public interaction, and administrative activities. Data included 30 task observations in each museum, collected through on-site observations, posture assessment, checklist evaluation of chemical handling and ventilation practices, task-focused exchanges, and observation of leadership engagement during activities. Task configurations, defined as the combination of technical and organizational conditions under which a task is performed during routine activities, were compared through task scenarios developed as analytical models using a composite task-level safety index. Results suggested that exposure patterns varied with the technical and organizational conditions of task execution. Task configurations combining adjustable equipment, functional ventilation, coordinated task allocation, and regular leadership presence had lower frequencies of ergonomic, chemical, and organizational non-compliance. The findings indicate that occupational safety and health practice in museums depends on how technical and organizational measures operate at the task level.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040101

Authors: Saumu Shabani Bente Elisabeth Moen Wakgari Deressa Simon Henry Mamuya

Occupational health and safety (OHS) malpractices may increase the risk of occupational injuries and are a significant public health problem in the iron and steel industries, often leading to disability and death. Information on OHS practices related to occupational injuries in the iron and steel industries is limited in many countries. This study aimed to assess OHS practices in relation to occupational injuries among workers in the iron and steel industries in Tanzania. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 321 production line workers. Data were collected through interviews, using a structured OHS questionnaire and the modified International Labour Organization (ILO) injury assessment tool. A total of 209 workers had experienced an occupational injury in the past year. According to univariate regression analyses, the safety practice variables ‘safety inspections’ and ‘use of personal protective equipment’ were significantly associated with occupational injury. However, after adjusting for sociodemographic and organizational factors, including years of work experience, work section, daily working hours, and shift work, these associations were no longer statistically significant. Working in the rolling mill, having less than four years of work experience, working more than 10 h per day, and performing shift work were significant predictors of occupational injuries. These factors attenuated the associations between safety practices and occupational injuries. The severity of injuries was found to be related to the accessibility of PPE. The findings suggest that work experience and organizational characteristics play a critical role in shaping occupational injury risk, highlighting the need for multifaceted interventions that integrate effective safety practices, work experience and organizational measures to improve worker safety in Tanzania’s iron and steel industry.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040100

Authors: Tomáš Jastrzembski Tomáš Pětvaldský Aleš Bernatík

The increasing deployment of lithium-ion batteries in electromobility, industrial logistics, and stationary energy storage systems has introduced new operational safety challenges associated with thermal runaway, fire development, and the release of hazardous substances. Although significant attention has been devoted to battery design and fire suppression technologies, less emphasis has been placed on the development of integrated monitoring systems capable of identifying abnormal thermal behaviour during routine storage and handling operations. This paper presents an operational framework for the early detection of thermal anomalies in lithium-ion battery storage facilities based on the integration of thermal imaging technology, multi-level alarm logic, automated notification processes, and predefined response procedures. The proposed framework was developed using a risk-based approach and implemented within an industrial environment where lithium-ion batteries and battery modules are routinely stored and handled. The methodology included hazard identification, determination of critical monitoring zones, configuration of thermal detection devices, establishment of alarm thresholds, and integration with existing fire protection infrastructure. Particular attention was devoted to ensuring rapid identification, localization, verification, and escalation of abnormal thermal conditions before the occurrence of visible fire manifestations. The implemented monitoring framework comprised a total of 21 thermal imaging cameras, including four fixed radiometric thermal imaging cameras and seventeen local thermal monitoring cameras, covering five risk-prioritized monitoring zones within an industrial lithium-ion battery storage facility. During operational deployment, the system recorded 21 Yellow Alerts, 6 Red Alerts, and 4 false alarms, with an average response time of 4.2 min. Experimental verification further demonstrated that, although directly exposed battery modules were measured at approximately 60 °C, enclosure within the battery pack significantly attenuated the externally detectable thermal signature, with surface temperatures decreasing to approximately 23–31 °C after prolonged enclosure. The results demonstrate that the proposed framework enables continuous operational monitoring, supports timely identification of abnormal thermal behaviour, and provides a structured basis for rapid decision-making and emergency response in industrial lithium-ion battery storage facilities. The integration of thermal monitoring with structured alarm management and response procedures creates a comprehensive safety chain that contributes to reducing the probability of delayed incident recognition. The presented approach provides practical guidance for industrial operators seeking to improve lithium-ion battery safety and may serve as a foundation for the future development of operational safety requirements for battery storage facilities. The principal contribution of this study is the documented implementation and operational evaluation of an integrated thermal monitoring and response system under routine automotive production conditions.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040099

Authors: Sharon R. T. Chilunjika Patrick Ngulube

Air travel is widely regarded as a safe mode of transport, yet the aviation journey remains a significant source of psychological and physiological stress for many passengers. Existing research has largely focused on fear of flying during the flight itself, with limited synthesis of stress experienced across the entire passenger journey. This integrative review aimed to synthesize evidence on stressors affecting commercial airline passengers during the pre-flight, in-flight, and post-flight stages of travel. A comprehensive search of Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed identified peer-reviewed studies published between 2013 and 2025. Following screening and quality appraisal using an adaptation of Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) principles, 46 studies met the inclusion criteria. The review identified 12 major categories of passenger stressors across the aviation journey. Pre-flight stress was primarily associated with procedural, socio-psychological, and financial factors, while in-flight stress centered on perceived loss of control, physical cabin constraints, environmental conditions, and disruptive passenger behavior. Post-flight stress was linked to physical fatigue, communication gaps, baggage-related challenges, immigration procedures, and ground transport difficulties. The review also revealed a substantial geographical imbalance, with most evidence originating from high-income countries. By providing a comprehensive temporal synthesis of passenger stressors, this review offers an evidence-based framework to inform passenger wellbeing initiatives, aviation policy, and future cross-cultural research.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040098

Authors: Madison W. Moore Serap Gorucu Daeun Choi Xu Wang Nikolay A. Bliznyuk

Agriculture remains one of the most hazardous industries in the United States, yet nonfatal surveillance remains incomplete. Prior studies have shown that trauma registries can support agricultural injury surveillance, but many approaches rely on text review, state-specific indicators, or coding frameworks that are not easily transferable across systems. In this study, Florida Trauma Registry records from 2016 to 2021 were screened using a reproducible case definition based on International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) external cause of injury codes, registry occupation and industry fields, and the work-related indicator. Agricultural injuries were summarized descriptively and mapped to Occupational Injury and Illness Classification System (OIICS) categories. Injury severity scores (ISS) were modeled using generalized additive models (GAMs). The case definition identified 963 agricultural injuries requiring trauma care, including 17 fatalities. Most injuries were minor, and the leading event categories were contact incidents, falls, slips, and trips, and transportation incidents. Body region was the strongest correlate of severity, with head and abdomen/pelvic contents injuries showing the highest adjusted ISS. These findings suggest that the National Trauma Data Standard (NTDS)-aligned trauma registry fields may support reproducible agricultural injury surveillance when narrative text is unavailable.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040097

Authors: Garrett T. Hancock Jason D. McKibben Christopher A. Clemons James R. Lindner Andrew C. Bailey Ronald J. Davis

Personal health and safety are significant concerns across agricultural education, specifically agricultural mechanics. While hearing safety has been discussed for numerous years as a shortcoming in overall safety actions, it has been identified that attitudes and perceptions of sound and noise within agricultural settings are not aligned. This research continues work to focus on students’ understanding of and application of safety culture within an agricultural mechanics environment. Through direct and indirect exposure to noise levels, students reflected on and identified their use and intended use of hearing personal protective equipment (PPE). Pre- and post-instructional data aided in establishing students’ thresholds to use proper personal protective equipment and identify their perceptions of the decibel (dB) outputs for commonly used power tools in an agricultural laboratory setting. Course reflections alarmingly show a disconnect between intention and practice as many students do not utilize hearing PPE. While indicated threshold values and tool-specific PPE use align with the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health’s recommended hearing PPE guidelines, the self-reported hearing PPE use results are concerning. While knowledge and application gaps still need to be addressed, based on this exploratory study, bounded in a single instructional context, continued exposure through direct and indirect instruction leads to increased knowledge of sound levels.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040096

Authors: Giorgio Filippoli Beniamino Maria Perri Niko Terzaroli Stefano Cacciola Carlo E. D. Riboldi Lorenzo Trainelli

Characterizing the highly complex aero-propulsive interaction in distributed electric propulsion (DEP) aircraft may require automated flight-testing procedures with dedicated maneuvers, which introduce specific safety challenges. This paper investigates an accident involving a distributed electric propulsion research demonstrator, named SwitchMaster, during an automated flight-test mission for aerodynamic model identification. The event occurred during a scheduled pitch excitation maneuver and resulted in a loss of control followed by ground impact. The investigation is based on flight logs, telemetry analysis, and structured accident investigation methods, including the ICAO ADREP taxonomy and the Swiss Cheese Model. The results show that the accident resulted from a combination of open-loop control surface fixation, insufficient real-time safety barriers, ineffective maneuver interruption, and delayed recovery authority. Variable wind speeds and asymmetric trim acquisition are considered possible contributing factors to the aircraft drift from equilibrium conditions. This paper concludes with safety recommendations, software improvements and lessons learnt to enhance the reliability of automated flight testing for DEP aircraft.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040095

Authors: Márton Schramkó Tünde Kovács Péter Pinke Zoltán Nyikes

In gas-shielded arc welding, selecting the appropriate gas mixture is crucial not only for welding quality but also for reducing harmful UV radiation, which poses an occupational health risk. The aim of this research was to investigate the intensity of UV-A and UV-B radiation (290–390 nm) in the low-current range (10–45 A) using pure argon (Ar), helium (He), nitrogen (N2), and a 70% Ar/30% He gas mixture. The measurements demonstrated that the composition of the shielding gas drastically affects UV emission. Under identical parameters, pure argon generates around three times higher radiation levels than pure helium. But when 30% helium was added to argon, the UV emission was significantly reduced by approximately 30%. The highest UV values were recorded with pure nitrogen. The tests revealed that the main reason is severe arc instability: the expanding plasma surface area significantly increases radiation. Overall, it can be concluded that in the low-current welding range, arc stability determines the magnitude of UV radiation to a greater extent than the emission characteristics of the gases. However, further measurements are needed to draw conclusions for higher amperages.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040094

Authors: Gabriel Nickson Mutalemwa Ren Moses Sarah Mvuma Joan Kitundu

Arterial corridors present complex safety challenges because signalized intersections, access points, mixed traffic movements, and speed variation can increase the likelihood of severe crash outcomes. Although Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are becoming increasingly common in modern vehicles, limited evidence exists regarding their safety performance in real-world arterial environments. This study investigates crash injury outcomes involving ADAS-equipped vehicles along the US-98 corridor, in Panama City, Florida. Police-reported crash records from 2022–2024 were integrated with vehicle-level ADAS data derived from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Vehicle Product Information Catalog (vPIC) VIN decoding. Multinomial Logistic Regression (MNL) and Random Forest (RF) models were used to examine factors associated with injury severity. MNL results indicate that crashes involving ADAS-equipped vehicles were associated with an approximately 59% lower relative risk of severe injury, while no statistically significant association was observed for moderate injury outcomes. Speeding, alcohol involvement, intersection-related crashes, dark–not-lighted conditions, and rural roadway context were associated with elevated severe injury risk. These findings suggest that ADAS technologies may contribute to severe injury mitigation, but their safety relevance depends on broader behavioral, environmental, and roadway conditions.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040093

Authors: Davide Piovesan Xiaoxu Ji

The NIOSH Lifting Equation is widely used to evaluate manual material handling tasks by identifying lifting risk through load reduction multipliers based on task geometry. However, while it provides a means of classifying risk, it does not estimate spinal forces and therefore cannot quantify the biomechanical load experienced at the lumbar spine. In contrast, biomechanical simulations can estimate spinal compression with high fidelity, but they require motion capture systems and specialized software that are not practical for most workplace assessments. This study aimed to bridge these approaches by developing a family of mixed-effect statistical models that predict L4/L5 spinal compression forces using the geometric parameters of the NIOSH framework combined with posture-specific biomechanical descriptors at peak-loading poses extracted from digital simulations. Data were aggregated from multiple experimental lifting studies in which standardized NIOSH parameters and corresponding spinal compression forces were obtained through validated digital human modeling. Mixed-effects regression was used to establish the relationship between task geometry, joint posture, load weight, and spinal compression. The resulting predictive equation demonstrated strong agreement with simulation-derived forces and effectively captured the contributions of subject, task and body positioning to the spinal compression force across diverse lifting tasks. Importantly, the variance structure of the model’s coefficients allows the contribution of risk to be attributed either to task-related factors or to subject-specific movement behaviors, reinforcing the safety relevance of the framework. Horizontal reach, vertical hand height, and load magnitude emerged as dominant predictors, with trunk posture providing additional explanatory power. The model offers ergonomists a practical, biomechanics-informed tool that extends the descriptive capacity of the NIOSH framework by enabling direct estimation of spinal compression forces without the need for full biomechanical simulations.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040092

Authors: Sarala Gunathilaka Sunanda Dissanayake Parth Bhavsar

Automated Speed Enforcement (ASE) has emerged as a prominent speed enforcement practice, attracting policy attention as its adoption has increased. Although ASE has been widely studied on residential streets and urban corridors, empirical evidence regarding its effectiveness in school zones is limited, where vulnerable road users and time-specific exposure create distinct safety challenges. This study developed Crash Modification Factors (CMFs) for ASE in school zones that quantify the expected change in crash frequency associated with a safety treatment, using before-and-after studies with Empirical Bayes (EB) and comparison group methods. The before-and-after crash studies yielded CMFs below 1.0 in all scenarios considered in this study, indicating the safety benefits of ASE across multiple crash and school categories. The comparison group before-and-after study indicated that, following ASE implementation, total crashes decreased by 10 percent (CMF = 0.90) and 9 percent (CMF = 0.91), while speeding-induced crashes decreased by 35 percent (CMF = 0.65) and 54 percent (CMF = 0.46) for school zones on state-maintained and locally maintained roads, respectively. Thus, estimated CMFs provide quantitative inputs that agencies may consider, indicating that ASE is an effective speed management strategy for improving safety in school zones and justifying investment.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040091

Authors: Sybert Stroeve Barry Kirwan Mariken Everdij

There is a need to ensure that the application of artificial intelligence (AI) in increasingly automated operations is safe, human-centric, and trustworthy, and respects ethical principles. To this end, this paper presents an innovative holistic assessment framework to support certification-aware design of AI-based sociotechnical systems with a range of levels of automation along multiple design stages from low to high technology and human readiness levels (TRLs/HRLs). The holistic scope considers a range of relevant key performance areas (KPAs): safety, resilience, security, Human Factors, accountability, responsibility, liability, efficiency, societal sustainability, and environmental sustainability. The core of the framework is a seven-step cycle that assesses the KPAs for critical scenarios and evaluates the combined performance, including uncertainty and trade-offs. This provides feedback to either adapt the design at the same TRL/HRL or refine it at higher TRLs/HRLs. The framework enacted by a toolbox of assessment methods for the KPAs. The framework has been developed in the aviation domain, but it is formulated in a generic manner, enabling application to various AI techniques and operational domains. Its application is illustrated in detail for an air traffic management use case that employs an AI-based system to support air traffic controllers in sequencing aircraft. It is concluded that the framework provides a viable approach for holistic assessment of AI-based sociotechnical systems.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040090

Authors: Adam Kreutter Elijah Wyckoff Jason Ray Kenneth J. Loh

To more effectively address the wide range of safety risks faced by construction workers on job sites, machine learning (ML)–based computer vision and augmented reality (AR) technologies are increasingly being employed to enhance efficiency, safety, and productivity. However, current AR construction safety tools only provide passive information for the user to then decide how to use that information. This study leverages advanced computer vision coupled with AR to work with site managers and on-site workers to make operational safety decisions using real-time, visual information of potential hazards. A YOLOv11 model trained to detect the presence or lack of personal protective equipment was developed and tested by creating a local ML computing environment using camera feeds. The detection results were compiled and displayed in real time on a web-based interface developed with Hypertext Preprocessor and on a Microsoft HoloLens 2 heads-up display. The system was successfully field-tested on a construction site.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040089

Authors: Teresa Galanti Morena Santoriello Michela Cortini Luca Di Giampaolo

Sharps injuries and biological exposures remain a leading occupational safety risk in healthcare training environments. Preventing such injuries requires not only trainees’ declarative knowledge of biological hazards, but their threat appraisal—the cognitive process through which individuals evaluate personal risk and that motivates consistent adherence to standard precautions in practice. This cross-sectional study (N = 581) examined whether biological risk knowledge predicts cognitive threat appraisal in Italian health professions students surveyed prior to their first supervised clinical internship, and whether this relationship varies by gender. Drawing on Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), a multiple linear regression showed that biological risk knowledge significantly predicted personalized threat appraisal (β = 0.214, p < 0.001). Gender was also associated with threat appraisal, with female students reporting higher levels than male peers at equivalent knowledge levels (β = 0.184, p = 0.035). The overall model explained 16% of variance in threat appraisal (adjusted R2 = 0.150), indicating that mandatory pre-placement occupational safety training is associated with risk appraisal activation, but only partially, and that a causal interpretation requires longitudinal confirmation. These findings suggest that knowledge transmission alone is insufficient to reduce biological risk exposure in clinical settings: appraisal-activating components—including scenario-based learning and near-miss incident review—should be integrated into occupational safety curricula for health professions students, with attention to gender differences in risk perception.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040088

Authors: Yuwairee Salamae Kaknokrat Chonsin Kusuma Sukmanoo Piyachat Praihong Muhsen Nasamut Aujchariya Chotikhun Jitralada Kittijaruwattana

Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) represent a critical global challenge to workforce productivity. In Thailand, these disorders are particularly prevalent in labor-intensive industries such as ice manufacturing, where workers face significant ergonomic hazards. Addressing this gap, the present study aimed to assess the occupational health, safety, and ergonomic risks facing workers in ice production facilities. This cross-sectional descriptive study investigated production workers who were employees in two of eight ice manufacturing plants in Surat Thani, Thailand, using the Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) method. A structured occupational health and safety risk assessment questionnaire and the REBA evaluation form were used to collect data. All participants were male, averaging 30.4 (±8.5) years old. Regular pain areas included the upper/lower back, hips/thighs, shoulders, wrists, and ankles. Ergonomic assessments showed high overall risk due to heavy lifting, repetitive tasks, and cold environments. Based on REBA scores, 13.04% were in the very-high-risk group (score ≥ 11) and 65.22% in the high-risk group (score 8–10). Most production workers in ice plants faced high ergonomic risks, especially from postures affecting the upper and lower back. Training should be provided to promote awareness of risky postures and proper lifting techniques. Mechanical aids and back-support equipment are also recommended to help prevent musculoskeletal injuries.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040087

Authors: Eleonora Chiantera Lorenzo Arciulo Francesco Di Nocera

Cybersecurity relies heavily on warning systems to regulate user behavior under uncertainty. These warnings (ranging from browser security dialogs to phishing alerts and enterprise security notifications) do more than convey information: they may alter the conditions under which users select, avoid, verify, report, or override security-related actions. When combined with feedback, they may also contribute to calibrated reliance and safer behavior over time. However, existing research remains fragmented across usable security, human–computer interaction, and safety-related decision-making, and is largely focused on short-term outcomes. As a result, limited attention has been given to how cybersecurity warnings function as risk-control and learning mechanisms within safety-relevant socio-technical systems. This scoping review maps how empirical studies have examined cybersecurity warning systems in relation to behavioral adaptation, trust calibration, and risk regulation, and whether they assess persistence, transfer, or learning over time, identifying recurring design patterns, critical trade-offs, and structural gaps. Following PRISMA-ScR 2018 guidelines, we searched major multidisciplinary and domain-specific databases, with no time frame limits, for empirical studies that examined cybersecurity warnings in relation to learning-relevant behavioral, cognitive, or performance outcomes. Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria; this number reflects the review’s focused conceptual scope rather than the size of the cybersecurity-warning literature as a whole. Eligible studies included experimental, quasi-experimental, field, and mixed-method designs, but no included study assessed persistence or transfer over time. Data extraction focused on warning characteristics, learning and trust mechanisms, user behavior, and security outcomes. Across the included studies, research primarily evaluates immediate responses, such as clicks, choices, response time, and classification accuracy, whereas comprehension and corrective feedback are infrequently assessed, trust calibration is never formally measured, and persistence or transfer over time is assessed in none of the included studies. On this basis, the review proposes a learning-oriented framework for evaluating cybersecurity warnings beyond short-term compliance, emphasizing feedback, calibrated reliance, risk-regulation responses, and direct tests of maintenance and transfer over time.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12040086

Authors: Louise Julia Acerimo Nicolas Janah Margareth N. Sia Akeizha Ashley Brutas Huai-Ying Huang Po-Hua Wu Gabriel Alexis San Pedro Tubalinal Kuo-Pin Chuang Brian Harvey Avanceña Villanueva

Access to safe drinking water remains a global public health concern due to its role in the transmission of infectious diseases. Despite the 20th-century achievement of chlorine-based disinfection, drinking water systems face threats from aging infrastructure, climate-induced stressors, and emerging pathogens that evade traditional treatment. This bibliometric review maps three decades of research on microbial contamination in drinking water systems to explain its historical developments, current knowledge, and important updates. Only original and review articles retrieved on 13 April 2026 were screened for inclusion, requiring a focus on detecting, monitoring, or mitigating microbial contamination in drinking water systems. Analysis of 93 records identified a linear growth pattern, shifting from acute enteric pathogen monitoring to the management of opportunistic pathogens (OPs), antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and disinfection by-products (DBPs). Additionally, traditional fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), such as Escherichia coli, may not fully predict the presence of resilient pathogens protected within biofilms or free-living amoebae (FLA), which serve as environmental reservoirs for infection. To address these limitations, this review presents a conceptualization of waterborne pathogens by proposing formal case definitions and diagnostic criteria for critical contamination events (CCE) and chronic low-level exposure (CLLE). Lastly, knowledge gaps and open research questions relevant to future studies on microbial contamination in drinking water systems were identified and discussed.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030085

Authors: Shinhao Yang Hsiao-Lin Huang Pei-Ling Kuo Yu-Chin Chiang Yen-An Chen

This study develops and validates risk-based emergency response scenarios for Biosafety Level 2 (BSL-2) and Animal Biosafety Level 2 (ABSL-2) facilities. Utilizing Bow-tie analysis, three multidimensional scenarios were constructed: infrastructure failure, biosecurity breach, and compound disaster. Four domain experts independently evaluated the scripts using the Content Validity Index (CVI), with an absolute consensus threshold of I-CVI = 1.00. To address operational gaps identified during initial evaluations, the revised protocols were strictly aligned with the Taiwan Centers for Disease Control (CDC) mandatory reporting thresholds for high-hazard incidents. Furthermore, the scripts explicitly defined the Incident Command System (ICS) to prevent communication fragmentation and integrated the NC3Rs tunnel handling technique to minimize occupational bite risks. Following these targeted refinements, all items achieved absolute expert consensus. This research translates static biosafety regulations into dynamic, stress-tested training tools. By providing a standardized instrument for resilience assessment, this study equips frontline personnel with the critical capacity to navigate cascading crises while strictly adhering to a “life safety first” paradigm.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030084

Authors: Inês Ribeiro Catarina Ramos Joana Santos Carlos Carvalhais

Higher education institutions, particularly those with teaching and research laboratories, play an important role in transmitting knowledge and attitudes regarding chemical safety to their students. As such, this study aims to assess the knowledge and attitudes of higher education students across different study programs regarding laboratory chemical safety. A cross-sectional study was conducted using a questionnaire adapted and translated into Portuguese. The instrument comprised twenty-seven questions and was distributed to students enrolled in undergraduate and graduate programs that include laboratory practices in their curricula in March and July of 2025. A total of 284 students participated in the study, divided among the different study programs (CTeSP = 4.2%; Bachelor’s = 70.4%; Master’s = 21%; Doctorate = 4.2%). The results showed that, although a large percentage of students have a high level of knowledge, their attitudes are not always the most appropriate, which could jeopardize their safety and that of those around them. Our findings revealed that there is room for curriculum adjustments. Early exposure to chemical and laboratory safety concepts can promote the development of students’ awareness and future professionals’ competence. Integrating safety modules into education may enhance knowledge and skills for making informed decisions that reduce accidents/incidents in laboratory environments.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030083

Authors: Ana Rački Marinković Tomislav Katić Darko Palačić

Risk assessment is a cornerstone of effective occupational health and safety (OHS) management, yet its efficacy often varies in practice. Evaluating legislative frameworks is essential for enhancing the practical application of safety standards. This study examines the state of the risk assessment process in Croatia from the perspective of OHS experts to provide recommendations for improvement and standardization. A digital survey was conducted among registered OHS experts via the national Information System for Occupational Safety (ISZNR). Data from 967 OHS experts were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The hypothesis that current risk assessment processes are insufficiently effective was partially accepted, as a significant portion of the surveyed OHS experts perceive them as having limited functional effectiveness. While 33% of experts view the current prescribed mandatory risk assessment methodology as effective, more than half of respondents (56%) identified that risk assessments are predominantly adjusted to formal requirements rather than to actual work conditions. Statistical analysis showed no significant differences in perceptions of risk assessment effectiveness based on OHS experts’ support for mandatory legal frameworks for standardization (Q19; p = 0.259) or the active usage of digital tools (p = 0.984). However, a statistically significant relationship was observed regarding general attitudes toward quality improvement through standardization (Q17; p < 0.05) and the perceived utility of digitalization (p < 0.001). The study concludes that the current process requires further improvement and suggests detailed sectoral analyses for future research.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030082

Authors: Vladimir M. Cvetković Dalibor Milenković Jasmina Bašić Tin Lukić Renate Renner

In the original publication [...]

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030081

Authors: Gibin Raju Jan-Arthur Utrecht James H. Stewart Allan R. Pinhas

Academic research laboratories often exhibit gaps between formal safety policies and everyday practices, driven by variability in training, leadership engagement, and safety practices. Effective safety therefore depends not only on formal compliance programs but also on operational factors such as training quality, SOP use, audit practices, and reporting culture. This study examines how operational factors within a large research-intensive university, including laboratory role, access to and adequacy of safety training, use of standard operating procedures (SOPs), experience with audits, near-miss reporting practices, and laboratory workers’ perceptions of risk and safety culture, are related to one another. A cross-sectional anonymous survey was administered to 1340 individuals, of whom 245 self-identified as currently working in research laboratories. Categorical data were analyzed using likelihood ratio chi-square tests with false discovery rate adjustments. Respondents reported high overall use of SOP use (85%), but staff indicated significantly lower SOP use than graduate students (69% vs. 91%, p = 0.004), and staff were more likely than faculty to view audits as helpful (97% vs. 85%, p = 0.050). Only 68% of laboratories reported documenting near misses, and 25% of respondents reported difficulty locating required training, despite 88% of training users rating it as sufficient once accessed. Although 52% of respondents classified their laboratory as moderate or high risk, 96% nonetheless described their laboratory as safe, suggesting normalization of risk based on self-reported perceptions. No significant associations were observed between perceived laboratory safety and years of experience, hours worked in the laboratory, or extent of training completed. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of not only accessible training and consistent procedures but also institutional conditions that support reporting, learning, and shared responsibility for hazard mitigation in academic research laboratories.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030080

Authors: Hamid Reza Behnood Sonja Elisabeth Forward Jan Andersson Mohammadreza Bakhtiary

Taxi drivers are a group with high driving exposure and are involved in a significant number of urban traffic casualties. Using two modelling approaches, this study examines whether the intention to speed, as measured by the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), can better fit a crash frequency model than errors or lapses as measured by the Driving Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ). Data from 1000 drivers in Tehran was collected through questionnaires. The crash prediction model included a cross-sectional model using negative binomial (NB) regression methods and a tree regression model from a previous study. In the last three years, the drivers had been involved in 544 road crashes, and of those, 42 resulted in serious injuries. Due to the rare and random nature of crashes, the empirical Bayesian (EB) method was used for model testing. Comparing AIC and BIC showed that zero-inflated NB (ZINB) models performed better. The final selected model was the intention-based ZINB model without the age variable. The coefficients for intention, exposure, and driver experience were 0.205, 0.103, and −0.443, respectively. The high EB coefficients indicated strong reliance on predicted crash values. The conclusion is that road crashes are closely related to taxi drivers’ intention to speed rather than errors and lapses. This indicates that it can be described as a traffic violation, rather than a mistake. Therefore, significant efforts are required to increase compliance with speed limits and reduce road crashes. Further education and high-quality campaigns are essential elements to achieve this goal.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030079

Authors: Cátia Sousa Anne Coelho

Safety behaviour in the workplace is influenced by both individual characteristics and organizational practices; however, the conditions under which these factors interact remain insufficiently understood. Drawing on an interactionist perspective, this study examines whether perceived safety training effectiveness functions as a contextual condition that shapes the influence of personality traits on safety behaviour. A cross-sectional design was adopted, and data were collected through an online questionnaire from 268 workers across diverse professional backgrounds. Measures included safety behaviour, personality traits (neuroticism and conscientiousness), and perceived safety training effectiveness. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, correlation analyses, multiple regression, and moderation analyses, controlling for age and gender. The results showed that neuroticism was negatively associated with safety behaviour, whereas conscientiousness did not present a significant effect when perceived safety training effectiveness was included in the model. Perceived safety training effectiveness emerged as the strongest predictor of safety behaviour. Importantly, perceived safety training effectiveness moderated the relationship between conscientiousness and safety behaviour, such that its influence was stronger at lower levels of training and diminished as training increased. These findings suggest that perceived safety training effectiveness was associated with a weaker relationship between conscientiousness and safety behaviour. By suggesting that the relationship between personality traits and safety behaviour may depend on organizational conditions, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of safety behaviour and highlights the central role of training as a key organizational resource for promoting safer work practices.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030078

Authors: Jean Sagwati Mdumela Tsolanku Sidney Maliehe Yannick Nuapia Marks Matee Sebaiwa Tlou Nelson Selepe

Pharmaceutical and microbial pollution in urban rivers is an emerging concern, particularly in developing regions with limited wastewater treatment capacity, posing risks to human health and ecosystems. This study evaluated the risk profiles of selected pharmaceutical compounds and bacterial indicators in the Sand River, South Africa, and computed their ecological risks, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and human health risk assessment. Surface water samples were collected from three sites during the wet season and analyzed for target antibiotics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with a photodiode array (PDA) detector, while total coliforms (TCs) and Escherichia coli (E. coli) were enumerated using the Colilert system. Ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, and erythromycin were the most abundant pharmaceuticals, with maximum concentrations of 2.50 µg/L, 2.76 µg/L, and 2.53 µg/L, respectively. TC and E. coli levels exceeded regulatory thresholds, indicating severe microbial contamination. Risk quotient analysis identified ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, and trimethoprim as high-risk compounds for potential resistance selection (RQ ≥ 1), while ciprofloxacin and erythromycin posed significant ecological risks to fish. Although non-carcinogenic health risk assessment remained below concern (HI < 1), children showed higher exposure levels. These findings underscore the urgent need for improved pharmaceutical waste management and wastewater treatment infrastructure.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030077

Authors: Xavier Merino-Vivanco Fabián Díaz-Muñoz Yasmany García-Ramírez

Road safety is a global priority, and driver behavioral factors are among its most critical determinants. Although the literature has advanced in characterizing driving styles using psychometric instruments such as the Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory (MDSI), an empirical gap persists in the simultaneous integration of latent behavioral profiles, driving exposure, and road safety outcomes, particularly in Latin American contexts and across generational extremes. This study examined the relationship between latent driving style profiles and road safety outcomes among young (18–25 years) and older (≥65 years) licensed drivers in Ecuador, while evaluating the moderating role of driving exposure. A structured survey based on the MDSI was administered to 833 active drivers, and data were analyzed using Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) and binary logistic regression. The six-profile solution was selected according to the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC = 11,655.07), with acceptable classification quality (entropy = 0.860; minimum posterior probability = 0.808); for inferential parsimony, these profiles were subsequently consolidated into three analytically interpretable categories: Predominantly Careful, Predominantly Risky, and Distress-Reduction. The Predominantly Risky profile was significantly associated with higher odds of traffic accident involvement (OR = 2.76, 95% CI [1.55, 4.93]), whereas the Distress-Reduction profile showed substantially higher odds of receiving traffic infraction fines (OR = 4.74, 95% CI [1.69, 13.34]). The composite driving exposure index was a robust predictor across both models (accident model: OR = 2.82, 95% CI [1.60, 5.14]; fine model: OR = 1.87, 95% CI [1.29, 2.74]). In addition, a significant interaction was observed between the Predominantly Risky profile and driving exposure in the model predicting traffic infraction fines, suggesting that exposure amplified sanction risk within this behavioral category. Older drivers showed a substantially higher representation of the Distress-Reduction profile than young drivers. These findings underscore the utility of person-centered approaches for identifying heterogeneous driver configurations and for designing profile-differentiated road safety interventions; from a practical perspective, these results support the development of targeted road safety programs that integrate behavioral profile screening with exposure-based risk management for young and older drivers.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030076

Authors: Reagile Raditsela Kirsty-Lee Sharp-Eke Ayesha L. Bevan-Dye

Establishing a strong safety culture remains a key challenge for safety professionals in the manufacturing sector. Although safety culture has been examined across South African industries such as food production, aviation and construction, limited research focuses on manufacturing Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs). This study addresses this gap by examining how employees perceive organizational factors influencing safety culture through a six-factor leadership and safety practices framework. Using a cross-sectional design, data were collected from a convenience sample of 487 employees aged 18–65 years working in South African manufacturing SMEs, recruited through a national market research panel. A structured, self-administered questionnaire measured employee perceptions of organizational factors shaping safety culture and related compliance behaviors. The structural model demonstrated satisfactory reliability and strong model fit, with six core factors identified, namely management commitment, safety incentives, safety training, safety communication with feedback, safety culture, and safety compliance. Findings indicate that stronger safety culture development requires SME leadership engagement, resource allocation and open communication, supported by frequent, context-specific training and intrinsic and extrinsic incentives, while clear, enforceable compliance measures help reduce workplace hazards and maintain regulatory alignment.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030075

Authors: Tianxing Ji Mingxing Gao Haixiao Wang Hangtian Li

Grassland highways present a distinctive application context for human–machine co-driving (HMCODR), yet the evidence on takeover behavior in such environments remains limited. This study employed a driving simulator experiment to investigate how takeover scenarios, weather conditions, and driver gender influence eye-movement behavior during automated-driving takeovers on a representative Inner Mongolia grassland highway. 36 student participants completed a 2 (gender) × 3 (scenario: stationary vehicle ahead, ramp vehicle merging, and livestock intruding into lane) × 3 (weather: clear, rain–snow, and sandstorm) mixed experimental design. The mean fixation duration (MFD), fixation rate (FR), mean saccade duration (MSD), saccade amplitude (SA), and relative change in pupil area (RCPA) were recorded using a wearable eye tracker, and a mixed-design ANOVA was conducted based on these five metrics. The scenario and weather had significant effects on all eye-movement measurements (p < 0.05), with interactions observed for some indices. The ramp vehicle merging scenario elicited denser visual scanning, as reflected by a shorter MFD and a higher FR. In the livestock intruding into lane scenario, drivers exhibited a broader visual search, characterized by a longer MSD and a larger SA, along with greater pupil-area fluctuations (a higher RCPA); these effects tended to be more pronounced under rain–snow and sandstorm conditions. Across most of the condition combinations, the female drivers tended to show a higher FR, a shorter MFD, and a higher RCPA, whereas male drivers tended to show a slightly larger MSD and SA. Among all the eye-movement indices, RCPA showed a relatively more pronounced gender difference, with female drivers exhibiting values approximately 16–32% higher than male drivers. These findings extend the takeover research to grassland highway contexts and suggest that takeover assistance should place greater emphasis on hazard-relevant cues and timely gaze guidance under complex scenarios and adverse weather conditions, while the observed differences in the visual-response patterns may also inform more personalized prompting strategies to better support safety in high-risk takeover situations.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030074

Authors: Rusber Alberto Risco-Ojeda Cesar Moreno-Rojo Ruben Adrián Figueroa-León Saúl Ricardo Chuqui-Diestra Juan Carlos Ponce-Ramirez Arlette Guiuliana Villacresis-Huashuayo Janet Verónica Saavedra-Vera Luis Alberto Segura-Terrones Segundo José Palacios-Guarniz Edgar Virgilio Bedoya-Justo Abel José Rodríguez-Yparraguirre Carlos Diego Rodríguez-Yparraguirre

Musculoskeletal disorders represent one of the most frequent occupational health problems in labour-intensive industries, particularly in fish processing, where repetitive tasks and prolonged postures are common. The objective was to determine the level of ergonomic risk by applying the Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) method and based on the results, to formulate recommendations aimed at preventing musculoskeletal disorders and improving preventive management within the organization. The assessment included 30 workers distributed across three operational workstations, where the overall average REBA score was 8.60 ± 1.65 (range: 6–12), indicating a predominantly high level of ergonomic risk. In categorical terms, 60.0% of the workers were classified as high risk, 13.3% as very high risk, and 26.7% as medium risk, while none reached negligible or low risk levels. Significant differences were observed between workstations (Kruskal–Wallis H = 16.72, p < 0.001, ε2 = 0.545), with the nobbing stage exhibiting the highest biomechanical load (mean REBA = 10.38 ± 1.06). It is concluded that ergonomic risk is structurally integrated into the operational design of the evaluated production system; therefore, ergonomic interventions focused on redesigning workstations, adjusting height, and configuring tasks are recommended to reduce biomechanical exposure and strengthen the organization’s preventive occupational safety framework.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030073

Authors: America Romero Nora Munguía Luis Velázquez Ramón E. Robles Zepeda Carlos Montalvo Esteban Picazzo-Palencia

Industry 4.0 (I4.0) is transforming industrial systems through interconnected, data-driven technologies, raising questions about how these developments affect Occupational Health and Safety (OHS). This study investigates research trends, thematic structures, and knowledge gaps at the intersection of I4.0 and OHS using a multilevel bibliometric framework applied to Scopus records published from 2011 to 2025. The analysis moves from a broad overview of the I4.0 landscape to more focused examinations of specific I4.0–OHS publications, prevention-oriented studies, and emerging-risk research. The results show that OHS has limited visibility in the general I4.0 literature and is more prominent mainly in targeted subsets, where digital sensing, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and immersive technologies drive prevention-focused research. Conversely, emerging risks such as cognitive load, psychosocial stressors, and human–autonomy interaction appear in smaller, more dispersed clusters. Overall, the findings suggest that the relationship between I4.0 and OHS is unevenly developed, with established prevention mechanisms and early-stage conceptualization of new risks. Strengthening this field will require integrating human factors with digital indicators, better characterizing emerging risks, and ensuring that digital transformation supports SDG 8 by fostering safe and healthy working environments.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030072

Authors: Katlego L. Mailula Phoka C. Rathebe Masilu D. Masekameni

Automobile spray painters in small informal workshops in developing countries face high occupational exposure to organic solvents. Although health effects are well known, the influence of workers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) on these effects is less well understood. This study examined spray painters’ KAP regarding organic solvents and health symptoms and assessed workplace safety compliance. A cross-sectional study in Region F, Johannesburg, collected data among 152 spray painters across 47 workshops using a questionnaire and checklist. KAP scores were analysed with multivariable logistic regression to identify associations with eye, skin, respiratory, and CNS symptoms, while controlling for confounders. Workplace controls were inadequate: 64% of workshops conducted spray painting outdoors, while only 17% had a functioning spray booth. Although knowledge scores were high (45.29/50 ± 6.025), practice scores remained low (9.01/20 ± 5.275). After adjustment, higher knowledge was significantly associated with reduced odds of eye (AOR = 0.846), skin (AOR = 0.915), and respiratory symptoms (AOR = 0.890). Better practice scores also correlated with fewer skin symptoms (AOR = 0.891). No KAP construct was linked to CNS symptoms. In the absence of engineering controls, workers’ knowledge is strongly linked to lower reporting of solvent-related symptoms affecting the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. However, knowledge does not appear to influence CNS symptoms, which are probably driven by ambient solvent concentrations that individual behavioural measures cannot effectively manage. Therefore, knowledge acts as a supplementary, rather than a substitute, safeguard where engineering controls are lacking. Interventions should include education and enforceable regulations to empower workers and ensure the use of engineering controls, especially in spray booths.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030071

Authors: Kinga Hokstok Zsolt Nagy Kevin Nagy

This study examines organisational and ergonomic predictors of safety compliance in automotive just-in-time (JIT) production environments. Drawing on the theory of safety climate and the literature on organisational control, we developed a multivariate regression model to analyse how managerial commitment, production pressure, technological safeguards, training quality, severity of sanctions, and ergonomic prevention relate to employee safety compliance. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among the employees of five Central European Tier 1 and Tier 2 automotive suppliers (n = 221). The results show that organisational factors play a central role in explaining compliance behaviour. Management commitment and training quality emerged as the strongest positive predictors of safety compliance, while production pressure showed a significant negative association. Ergonomic prevention was also positively related to compliance, suggesting that workplace design and physical risk reduction contribute to safer behaviour. The severity of sanctions showed only a weak relationship with compliance. In general, the findings indicate that supportive organisational practices and preventive safety management are more strongly associated with compliance than sanctions-based control mechanisms alone. The results highlight the importance of integrating management commitment, training systems, and ergonomic design into safety strategies in high-pressure manufacturing environments.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030070

Authors: Boyi Zhuang Praveena Penmetsa Salman Haider Khan Emmanuel Kofi Adanu Lawrence Powell Steven Jones

Seatbelt use is well established as a life-saving measure. Nevertheless, many drivers and passengers continue to neglect seatbelt use. This study examines the risks associated with unrestrained occupants involved in motor vehicle crashes. Using data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System from 2000 to 2018, the relative risk of fatal traffic accidents for unrestrained vehicle occupants in the United States was estimated using the maximum likelihood estimation method. The findings indicate that unrestrained passengers make up about 12% of all passengers on the road and face a roughly 4.3 times greater likelihood of fatality in severe crashes. Additionally, unrestrained drivers, whose higher risk profiles are linked not only to their lack of restraint but also to broader patterns of hazardous driving behavior, account for over 8% of all drivers and exhibit a risk approximately 5.4 times higher in causing fatal crashes compared to restrained drivers. The findings of this study reveal the prevalence and consequences of unrestrained vehicle occupants and supports ongoing efforts to promote seatbelt utilization and bolster road safety protocols. By doing so, we can alleviate the burden of preventable injuries and fatalities on individuals, families, and society at large, thus fostering a safer and more secure transportation environment for all.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030069

Authors: Asela Weerakoon David Thorpe Amirhossein Heravi Anirudh Atmakuru Asoke Mehera Subrata Chakraborty

This study aims to identify key health and safety challenges and examine root causes while developing a conceptual framework to improve safety. Results of the study will be useful for policy makers, regulatory authorities, construction managers, safety professionals and researchers to improve regulations, safety practices, training programs and policy development. The emerging construction industry in Sri Lanka is facing significant safety challenges for workers, including poor practices, inappropriate conduct, and negative attitudes. The construction industry was selected for this study due to its labor-intensive nature and its consistently high exposure to occupational hazards compared to other industrial sectors. The underlying root causes of these health and safety challenges remain unclear, primarily due to a lack of comprehensive government regulations, which are currently limited to the outdated Factories Ordinance of 1942. Sri Lanka was chosen as the focus of this study because of its rapidly expanding construction sector and outdated regulatory framework; it is also a representative of underdeveloped countries. Several studies have identified contributing factors such as outdated legislation, a shortage of qualified officers, poor attitudes, lack of funding, negligence, and limited awareness. To address this research gap, the safety aspects of the Sri Lankan construction industry have been examined, revealing emerging challenges such as poor safety practices, the presence of foreign workers, and the inadequate use of personal protective equipment (PPE) by staff. A deeper examination of these challenges indicates that sufficient safety budgets reflect leadership attitudes toward preventing injuries, and that targeted safety training for different roles can help mitigate these issues. Accordingly, a conceptual safety framework has been developed. A qualitative, semi-structured interview comprising both open- and closed-ended questions was conducted to gain insights from 26 experts (including engineers, architects, human resource personnel, safety officers, and managers) regarding workplace safety challenges. The interview data was thematically categorized based on the identified safety challenges using NVivo analysis, to determine their root causes and develop strategies to improve workplace safety. To evaluate the emotional tone of participants’ response, sentiment analysis was conducted. Results highlighted participants’ optimism when discussing proactive or successful safety measures, neutrality in objective assessments, and concern or dissatisfaction when addressing safety challenges and organizational shortcomings. Experts recommended that safety education should be introduced in universities and vocational institutes. Firms can incorporate safety training through toolbox talks and induction sessions, and they can allocate a safety budget in their contracts. The study suggests developing a certificate-level safety training module for the construction industry and provides fresh insights into the underlying causes of safety issues in the Sri Lankan construction sector. Furthermore, the study has implications for delivering a health and safety framework for project risk management in developing countries that face budget constraints and limited training and development opportunities for enhancing construction skill sets.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030068

Authors: Jolanta Klukowska-Rötzler Igor Gagarkin Dragica Suker Martin Müller Doris-Viviana Vesa Aristomenis Exadaktylos Johanna Boldt

Background: Indoor climbing is a rapidly growing sport; however, data on injury patterns and clinical outcomes remain limited. This study aimed to evaluate the injury severity, characteristics, and clinical outcomes of indoor climbing-related injuries and explore the clinical applicability of the UIAA MedCom Score. Methods: We conducted a 10-year retrospective analysis (2012–2021) of patients aged ≥16 years presenting with indoor climbing-related injuries to a Swiss level 1 emergency department. Cases were identified using predefined keywords in the E-care and Qualicare databases. Demographics, injury mechanisms and patterns, Injury Severity Score (ISS), UIAA MedCom Score, treatment strategies, and clinical outcomes were analysed. A multivariable logistic regression model was applied to explore factors associated with higher injury severity. Results: A total of 98 patients were included, with 50% aged 26–35 years. Injuries occurred with a similar frequency during climbing and bouldering (51.0% vs. 49.0%). The predominant mechanism was ground fall (68.4%). Lower-extremity injuries were most common, particularly affecting the ankle and foot (43%). Most injuries were of mild-to-moderate severity, with 46.9% classified as UIAA grade 2. Conservative treatment was sufficient in 83.7% of cases, while 16.3% required surgical intervention, and one fatality (1.0%) was recorded. Injury severity was significantly associated with clinical outcomes, including hospitalisation and resource utilisation. In addition, in a multivariable model, higher Injury Severity Score (ISS) was significantly associated with longer hospital length of stay. A strong association between the UIAA MedCom Score and ISS was observed (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The indoor climbing injuries of individuals presenting to the emergency department were predominantly mild to moderate and were generally associated with favourable short-term outcomes. These findings are supported by model-based analysis demonstrating an independent association between injury severity and hospital length of stay. These findings are based on a single-centre emergency department cohort and do not capture injuries managed outside the hospital setting. Therefore, conclusions regarding overall injury risk should be interpreted with caution. The observed association between the UIAA MedCom Score and ISS suggests that the UIAA classification may serve as a complementary tool for injury assessment, although further validation is required.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030067

Authors: Andrea Daly Sudesh Ramesh Bhagat Bernard Ndeogo Issifu Bhaven Naik Deogratias Eustace David Asare Odei

Roadways classified as state routes in both rural and urban settings are tree-lined, creating a canopy over the pavement surface. Although trees are beneficial to the environment, they pose a hazard to road safety in a variety of ways. For example, they offer reduced skid resistance due to fallen leaves; restrict direct sunlight on pavement surface, causing the formation of black ice and fog; and increase the risk of entire trees/branches/fruits falling on passing vehicles or blocking traffic lanes. State agencies have undertaken the task of eliminating tree canopies, inviting widespread criticism. Currently, there is a gap in the literature about the impact of tree canopy on traffic safety in the form of scientific research. This paper addresses this gap by presenting insight into the benefits of tree-trimming and/or removal operations along state routes in Ohio. Adopting the Empirical Bayesian approach, this study evaluates crashes to quantify the safety benefits. Additionally, a surrogate safety assessment was conducted to evaluate driver behaviors in the presence/absence of tree canopy. The results indicated that roadside tree trimming and pruning showed site-specific safety benefits at most locations, though no consistent project-level crash reduction or conclusive effects on surrogate safety measures, such as reduced speeds and hard braking, were observed.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030066

Authors: Boitumelo Mooketsi Johannes Tshepiso Tsoku Patrick Malose Leeto Shogole

This study compares the predictive performance of traditional multivariate time series models and machine learning (ML) techniques in modelling perceived feelings of safety among South African residents. The analysis uses secondary data from the Governance, Public Safety, and Justice Survey conducted by Statistics South Africa, covering 2013/2014 to 2023/2024 and comprising 215,301 observations. Perceived safety while walking alone in the neighbourhood during the day and after dark served as the response variables, while socio-economic characteristics such as age, sex, province, and main source of income were included as predictors. A Vector Autoregressive Moving Average (VARMA) model was estimated alongside Random Forest (RF) and Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM) algorithms. VARMA (2,2) and VARMA (3,1) provided the best statistical fit for daytime and after-dark safety perceptions, respectively. However, ML models achieved higher predictive accuracy overall, with RF outperforming both LightGBM and VARMA in capturing nonlinear relationships and short-term dynamics. The findings underscore the value of integrating ML into public safety modelling to enhance evidence-based planning and socio-economic policy development in South Africa. Future research should consider integrating higher-frequency and alternative data sources, such as administrative crime statistics and real-time behavioural data to improve model sensitivity and forecasting accuracy.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030065

Authors: Chien-Tsung Lu Xiaofu Fan Mengyi Wei

To detect the fatigue status of air traffic controllers before duty and better manage on-the-job fatigue risk, this study proposes a convenient and effective pre-shift fatigue assessment method. A cohort of controller cadets was examined, using average reaction time, the standard deviation of reaction time, and the fastest 10% reaction time from a psychomotor vigilance test (PVT) as indicators of fatigue. These indicators were combined with self-reported MFI-16 fatigue scale scores to establish a quantitative relationship between fatigue level and each metric, allowing calculation of a comprehensive fatigue index for each cadet. This quantified fatigue index was then fitted against control-aptitude test scores to develop a regression model. An experimental condition involving 24 h of sleep deprivation was used to generate data for model development and validation. Results showed strong correlations between PVT metrics (average reaction time, reaction time variability, and fastest 10% reaction time) and fatigue scale scores. The resulting fatigue index model demonstrated good agreement between predicted and measured control-aptitude test scores. This study provides a theoretical foundation for a practical fatigue detection and early-warning method for air traffic controllers, offering significant value for reducing safety risks and enhancing civil aviation safety.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030064

Authors: Mingyin Wang Xuan Di

In January 2025, New York City became the first major U.S. city to implement a cordon-based congestion pricing policy via the Central Business District Tolling Program. While the policy’s effects on traffic volume are well-documented, its impact on road safety remains underexplored. This study evaluates the short-term effects of the program on two distinct metrics: total crash counts (frequency) and injury rates (severity, defined as the number of persons injured per 10,000 residents), using a monthly panel dataset of ZIP code-level data from January 2024 to December 2025. We employ a rigorous multi-method causal inference framework—including difference-in-differences, matched difference-in-differences, and generalized synthetic control—to estimate changes in injury rates and total crash counts independently. Across all empirical specifications, we find no statistically significant reduction in either traffic injuries or collisions following the policy’s implementation. Event study analyses confirm a consistent null effect month-over-month, with no transient or sustained safety dividend. Subject to short-term methodological constraints, our findings suggest that congestion pricing functions primarily as a demand management tool; realizing immediate road safety benefits in complex urban grid networks likely requires complementary physical infrastructure interventions.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030063

Authors: Said Dawood Fayaz Somik Ghosh

The construction industry is one of the most hazardous occupational sectors globally, with persistently high rates of worker injuries and fatalities. This study examined the association between safety motivation and safety climate among construction workers, addressing a critical gap in understanding their bidirectional relationship. A cross-sectional survey was administered to 922 construction workers across multiple commercial projects within a single U.S. state, yielding 383 valid responses (41.5% response rate). The survey instrument measured safety motivation types (intrinsic, extrinsic, and negative) and multiple safety climate dimensions, including leadership and communication, safety procedures and training, peer support, recognition, and equipment availability. The results revealed that safety motivation demonstrated a significant positive correlation with overall safety climate (r = 0.467, p < 0.01), with leadership and communication showing the strongest association (r = 0.514, p < 0.01). Analysis of motivation types indicated that negative motivation (fear of accidents) predominated (41%), followed by extrinsic (34%) and intrinsic motivations (25%). The findings support a reciprocal relationship wherein safety motivation and safety climate mutually reinforce one another, influencing safety performance and outcomes. The study highlights the need for safety interventions that simultaneously address organizational climate factors and diverse individual motivational pathways to improve safety performance in the construction industry.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030062

Authors: Sarah Mohamadpour Maryam Mozaffari Narendra Malalgoda

This study presents an enhanced multi-criteria decision-making framework for ranking emergency shelters, addressing the unique needs of displaced persons beyond mere survival. By defining comprehensive criteria in collaboration with the Emergency Management Organization, the model ensures a holistic approach to shelter selection. The study applies these criteria to a case study in Manitoba, Canada, utilizing an improved Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) model integrated with entropy-based methods for precise, unbiased weight calculations. This enhancement increases reliability compared to conventional TOPSIS models. The involvement of field experts bridges the gap between theoretical models and real-world applications, making the decision-making process more practical. Beyond mathematical improvements, this research incorporates the human aspects of displaced populations’ needs, ensuring a balance between quantitative and qualitative factors. The results demonstrate optimized shelter selection, improved prioritization, and more efficient resource allocation, ultimately reducing response times, minimizing disruptions, and preventing repeated relocations during evacuations in crisis situations.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030061

Authors: Marcela Carvajal-Suárez Marco Bietresato Rino Gubiani Athena K. Ramos

Agriculture is a hazardous industry, and working in livestock production has been linked to musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). However, limited research has examined work-related risk factors contributing to MSDs among livestock workers especially in small and family-owned operations, like most of the companies located in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia (FVG) region of Italy. This cross-sectional study conducted in July 2024 investigates self-reported musculoskeletal pain and discomfort and occupational exposures among dairy and swine farmworkers (N = 50; mean age = 37 years) in FVG. We assessed musculoskeletal exposures, self-reported pain and discomfort, and the use of preventive techniques to maintain musculoskeletal health. Participants reported a high prevalence (80%) of musculoskeletal pain and discomfort, particularly among those working in family operations. While lower back and knee pain were most common, work-related exposures were most strongly associated with pain in the lower back and neck. These findings highlight the need to address occupational health risks related to MSDs in livestock operations, including possible prevention and intervention strategies. This may be especially important for small and family-owned farms where preventive and ergonomic interventions may yield substantial benefits.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030060

Authors: Ladislau Radermacher Andrei Burlacu Cristian Radeanu

Abandoned mine methane (AMM) emissions represent a significant public safety and environmental hazard in post-industrial urban areas. Uncontrolled subsurface gas migration may lead to explosive accumulations in confined spaces, human exposure, infrastructure damage, and additional greenhouse gas emissions. This study develops an integrated risk assessment framework for AMM in urban environments, combining quantitative analysis of field monitoring data with semi-quantitative probability–consequence risk matrices and multi-factor evaluation. Methane concentrations were measured at 41 monitoring points during three campaigns (August–September 2024). A total of 42 influencing factors were identified and classified into seven categories (geological, mining, hydrogeological, meteorological, anthropogenic, biological, and special phenomena). Exceedance probabilities of critical thresholds were estimated with 95% confidence intervals. Consequence weights were derived using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) based on a five-expert panel (CR = 0.043). The framework was applied to the urban area of Lupeni, Romania, where methane concentrations of up to 54% vol. were measured during borehole screening measurements (subsurface probe points). Elevated concentrations were detected four days after commissioning of a new gas pipeline. Gas chromatographic analysis excluded pipeline leakage and confirmed a mining-related source. Results indicate a localized critical risk (R = 25 on a 1–25 scale) in hotspot P2, with a 95% confidence interval for the probability of exceeding the 3% vol. alert threshold of [0.885–1.00], justifying immediate mitigation through controlled drainage. Post-intervention monitoring showed a reduction to instrumentally undetectable levels by February 2025. The study demonstrates that administrative mine closure does not eliminate residual methane risk and proposes a complete decision-support algorithm (URBAN-MINE-RISK) for similar urban settings. The applicability of structural reliability methods (e.g., FORM) is discussed as a future research direction. The methodology is transferable to other post-mining regions in Central and Eastern Europe.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030059

Authors: Vladimir M. Cvetković Dalibor Milenković Jasmina Bašić Tin Lukić Renate Renner

Community disaster resilience is increasingly guiding risk-reduction investments, but in many Southeast European settings, comparable subnational data remain scarce. This study assesses perceived community disaster resilience across Serbia by combining BRIC–DROP dimensions into a single index and analyzing differences across hazard types and sociodemographic factors. A cross-sectional household survey was conducted using multistage random sampling and the “next birthday” method for respondent selection. The final sample included 1200 adults from 22 local government units across four regions: Belgrade, Vojvodina, Šumadija & Western Serbia, and Southern & Eastern Serbia. Participants evaluated preventive measures and societal resilience for ten hazard types and considered five social dimensions: social structure, social capital, social mechanisms, social equity/diversity, and social beliefs. Descriptive statistics, bivariate analyses (including Pearson correlations, t-tests, and ANOVA), and multiple linear regression identified key predictors of preventive behavior and perceived resilience. Composite scores highlighted spatial resilience differences. Overall perceptions were generally low, mostly falling below the midpoint of the scale. Furthermore, the highest ratings for implemented preventive measures were recorded for pandemics/epidemics, storms/hail, and floods, whereas the lowest were observed for environmental pollution and droughts. Perceived resilience was highest for snowstorms, storms/hail, and pandemics/epidemics, and lowest for environmental pollution and droughts. Also, respondents reported relatively strong family ties and favorable perceptions of communication and access to basic supplies, but weak institutional capacity, particularly in budget allocation, early warning and public notification, rapid decision-making, and evacuation and shelter readiness. Regression results were statistically significant but explained only a small portion of the variance. Age and public-sector employment positively predicted perceived resilience; fear, income, and, to a lesser extent, education were negatively associated. These findings highlight the structural and psychosocial factors that shape perceptions of resilience. The BRIC–DROP composite indicates generally low perceived preparedness and resilience, especially in risk communication, evacuation and shelter readiness, and financing—the key bottlenecks in strengthening local resilience. The results recommend combining institutional reform with targeted risk communication to reduce fear and build trust, especially focusing on hazard areas with the lowest confidence, such as environmental pollution and drought.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12030058

Authors: Norman Nkuzi Khoza Oscar Rikhotso Thokozane Patrick Mbonane Dingani Moyo Phoka Caiphus Rathebe Masilu Daniel Masekameni

Mining activities are characterised by a multiplicity of inherent occupational hazards. Exposure to mineral dust such as silica, asbestos, and coal dust is common in mining, leading to pneumoconiosis. Exposure to respirable silica-containing dust is one of the common respiratory hazards associated with adverse health effects such as silicosis, lung cancer, renal failure, scleroderma, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), to mention but just a few. In southern Africa, there is a rising epidemic of silicosis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tuberculosis (TB). Excessive exposure to silica-containing dust exacerbates the TB and silicosis epidemic in mining areas. There is poor control of dust exposure and a lack of occupational hygiene assessments of silica dust in mining in southern Africa. In southern Africa, there remains a persistent knowledge gap regarding the extent of occupational exposures to respirable chemical substances, such as silica dust. Consequently, occupational hygiene air monitoring was conducted in mining companies across four low-income Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) countries, Lesotho, Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia, to provide a baseline exposure dataset. The hazardous nature of work associated with mining activities still persists in these low-income countries, with 53% (n = 72) of quarries and 20% (n = 19) of coal mines having respirable quartz exposures exceeding the reference occupational exposure limit (OEL) of 0.1 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3). The highest exposure ranges for quartz were recorded in surface aggregate quarries, with the maximum concentration recorded at 2.739 mg/m3. The highest number of air samples (93%, n = 111), which were in compliance with the OEL of 3 mg/m3 for respirable dust, were recorded in the copper, diamond, ruby, cement quarry and gold mines. This exploratory study confirms the variable extent of mineworker exposure to respirable dust and corresponding quartz fractions emanating from different mining activities. The collected exposure data provides a baseline overview of exposures within the mining industry in the SADC region. It also serves as a vital input for future regional exposure surveillance databases, as well as preliminary data for directing future research towards regional exposure prevention initiatives.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020057

Authors: Muhamad Imam Firdaus Muhammad Badrus Zaman Raja Oloan Saut Gurning

Ship collision accidents remain a critical concern in maritime safety because of their potential to cause operational disruption as well as environmental and economic damage in areas with dense shipping activity. Complex traffic interactions, differences in vessel characteristics, and dynamic environmental conditions make collision risk increasingly difficult to manage using traditional navigation measures alone. This paper presents a structured review of ship collision research, focusing on collision impacts, collision avoidance strategies, risk assessment methodologies, and safety index development. The review synthesizes reported collision cases and their environmental consequences, examines commonly used analytical frameworks including probabilistic, data-driven, and multicriteria approaches, and discusses recent developments in AIS-based analysis, sensor-based monitoring, and intelligent prediction techniques. The analysis identifies several methodological gaps in existing studies. Collision avoidance methods and risk assessment models are often developed independently, while their integration with safety index frameworks remains limited. In addition, safety index formulations differ considerably in terms of indicator selection and modeling approaches, which reduces comparability between studies conducted in different waterways. The findings highlight how different analytical approaches contribute to maritime safety evaluation at strategic, operational, and real-time levels and provide insights for developing more integrated safety assessment frameworks to support navigation risk monitoring in high-traffic maritime environments.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020056

Authors: Giacomo Belloni Petru Lucian Curșeu

Aviation safety depends critically on pilots’ mental and cognitive states, particularly in high-stakes and complex operational environments where human errors cause most safety events today. This paper reviews current advances in real-time monitoring of commercial pilots’ cognitive states through physiological and neurophysiological signals and identifies methods applicable to enhance aviation safety and efficiency. In an increasingly complex and congested system, it is essential to investigate the relationships between pilots’ mental workload, stress, startle effect, and physiological parameters to highlight cognitive overload or deficiencies in real time. This systematic literature review was conducted according to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, using Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed, and identified 26 eligible studies. A targeted backward citation search screened 17 additional records, and two studies were added to the initial set. Twenty-eight records were therefore included and the review highlights a range of biometric indicators of pilots’ mental states with varying degrees of validity and operational applicability. Collectively, these studies offer a clear overview of state-of-the-art approaches, while also evidencing constraints related to intrusiveness and real-world feasibility. Physiological monitoring holds strong promise for enhancing pilot performance and safety by detecting early signs of overload and stress. However, its integration into operational aviation remains limited. Future research should prioritise longitudinal, in situ evaluations, multimodal data fusion, and pilot-centred design to ensure practical applicability, non-intrusiveness, and regulatory compliance, ultimately bridging the gap between academic research and cockpit reality.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020055

Authors: Matteo Curcuruto Nicholas Todd Lilleyman Rebecca Lancioni Andrea De Vincenti Valerio Vinciarelli Andrea Bazzoli Jim Morgan

A cross-sectional correlational research design was used to investigate the relationship between organizational safety climate, supervisor safety climate, compliance, safety citizenship behaviors and safety self-efficacy. A sample of 728 workers located in a single Eastern European manufacturing plant completed self-report questionnaires regarding the aforementioned constructs. A path analysis revealed that supervisor safety climate partially mediated the relationship between organizational safety climate and the outcome variables, compliance and safety citizenship behaviors. Additionally, safety self-efficacy was found to be positively related to compliance and safety citizenship behaviors. Safety self-efficacy also moderated the relationship between supervisor safety climate and safety citizenship behaviors, such that a stronger positive correlation between safety citizenship behaviors and supervisor safety climate was present when safety self-efficacy was high. The findings suggest safety self-efficacy may be useful in predicting compliance and organizational citizenship behaviors. Further, it is likely that the presence of safety self-efficacy may serve as an enabling factor, which empowers employees who have been motivated by the supervisor safety climate to actually engage in safety citizenship behaviors. Organizations could aim to increase employee safety self-efficacy by encouraging supervisors to role model appropriate safety behaviors, by implementing adequate safety training programs and ensuring information about safety hazards and previous safety incidents is disseminated.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020054

Authors: Aleksandr B. Stefaniak Elizabeth D. Brusak Lauren N. Bowers Austin Kron Sherri A. Friend M. Abbas Virji

Powder bed fusion (PBF) and directed energy deposition (DED) additive manufacturing use feedstock powders that contain metals associated with skin diseases. We performed a survey of surface contamination and limited task-based dermal exposure assessment (four employees) at a PBF and DED facility. Skin wipes of wrists for two employees in the PBF room had higher post-task levels of chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, and nickel. Personal clothing worn by PBF employees showed evidence of contamination with metals as did personal protective equipment (PPE). Microscopy analysis documented contamination of metals throughout most areas of the facility. Levels of metals on surfaces throughout the facility were (ng/cm2) <5.0–7247 (aluminum), <0.2–4899 (chromium), <background-6.0 (chromium VI), 0.03–468.1 (cobalt), 1.6–100.0 (copper), 32.9–19,000 (iron), 0.01–789.0 (molybdenum), 0.1–12,058 (nickel), 0.1–482.8 (titanium), and 0.07–9.3 (vanadium). Levels were significantly lower in administrative areas compared with the production area but generally did not differ among powder handling and non-powder handling rooms in production. The small number of participants in the dermal exposure assessment and uniqueness of the facility might limit generalizability of the results. At least for this facility, steps to lower skin contact with metals can include washing, consistent use of PPE, and increasing awareness of dermal hazards among workers. Approaches to reduce migration of metals throughout a facility can include using adhesive (“tacky”) mats and boot covers and frequent wet cleaning of floors, tools, handles, and high touch surfaces.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020053

Authors: Ali Işın Amy E. Peden

Swimming and water safety education can reduce drowning risk, yet research among the Turkish population is limited. This study examined differences in water safety attitude and knowledge scores by self-reported participation in swimming and lifeguard education, including any differences seen by participant gender. A cross-sectional survey collected data on demographics, swimming experience, perceived ability, aquatic location use, swimming and lifeguard education participation, water safety knowledge and self-reported attitudes. Among 255 participants (51.4% female; mean age 22), 83.9% reported being able to swim. Females were significantly less likely than males to self-report swimming ability (χ2 = 5.99; p = 0.018) or prior lessons with a qualified teacher (χ2 = 4.10; p = 0.043). Swimming or lifeguard education did not significantly affect attitude scores overall or by gender. However, both forms of education were significantly associated with knowledge scores overall and by gender, with males showing significant differences in knowledge levels after swimming (χ2 = 16.46; p < 0.001) and lifeguard education (χ2 = 11.93; p = 0.003). Findings indicate that swimming and lifeguard education were significantly associated with greater water safety knowledge but not with positive attitudes. Gender disparities persist, with females reporting lower self-reported swimming ability and males showing higher water safety knowledge after education. Expanding swimming and lifeguard education in Türkiye could enhance water safety knowledge.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020052

Authors: Francesco De Micco Gianmarco Di Palma Greta Seveso Flavia Giacomobono Roberto Scendoni Vittoradolfo Tambone

Introduction: Hospital adverse events are a global patient safety problem that account for avoidable death, long-term disability, extended length of stay, and increased healthcare costs. Underreporting, wherein fewer than 10% of events are indeed recorded, is prevalent and is characterized primarily by cultural and organizational determinants. Artificial intelligence, in the form of machine learning and natural language processing, has been described as a potential tool for enhancing adverse events detection and prediction with the use of large-scale clinical data. Materials and Methods: PRISMA-DTA guidelines were followed in this systematic review. Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched employing keywords associated with adverse events, artificial intelligence methodologies (e.g., machine learning, deep learning, natural language processing), and healthcare settings. Inclusion criteria included original research on artificial intelligence-based solutions for the detection or prediction of adverse events such as medication errors, hospital-acquired infections, and complications during surgery. Reviews, meta-analyses, and non-artificial intelligence studies were excluded. Following screening, 15 studies were found to meet inclusion criteria. Results: The referenced studies show a shift from rule-based natural language processing models to advanced deep learning and Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers models. Early approaches, i.e., Support Vector Machine classifiers, achieved AUC scores as high as 0.92, while later models (Random Forest, LightGBM, XGBoost) mirrored AUCs of over 0.93. Large language models achieved F1-scores of 0.84 for named entity recognition. Artificial intelligence models even identified unreported incidents. Discussion: Artificial intelligence-powered methods are transforming adverse events detection from retrospective to predictive, proactive monitoring. There remain some challenges, however, including limited external validation, class imbalance, and interpretability of complex models. Future studies must address explainable artificial intelligence, multicenter trials, and high-quality well-annotated datasets to offer secure clinical integration.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020051

Authors: Arūnas Samas Giedrius Trakimas Alius Ulevičius Vaidotas Valskys Joris Valatka Lina Matačina Gytautas Ignatavičius

Animal-vehicle collisions (AVCs) are an increasing concern globally, yet domesticated animals, particularly dogs, remain understudied. We investigated spatial and temporal patterns of dog-vehicle collisions (DVCs) in Lithuania. Landscape variables such as distance to buildings, forests, meadows, and arable land, as well as land cover composition within a 500 m radius, were analyzed using GIS and compared to randomly generated pseudo-absence points. Temporal patterns were analyzed monthly, daily, and hourly. There was a significant difference in the number of DVCs occurring at sunrise and sunset. Moreover, DVCs were more frequent on weekends, peaking on Fridays and Sundays. Spatially, DVCs were significantly more likely to occur closer to built-up areas and meadows, and farther from forests and arable land, compared to random pseudo-absences, indicating a strong association with human-modified habitats. These findings indicate that DVCs are more influenced by human-modified landscapes and dog activity patterns, particularly around dawn and dusk.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020050

Authors: Deo Chimba Bryson Mgani Masanja Madalo Erickson Senkondo

Effective incident management is a cornerstone of transportation system performance, influencing roadway clearance times (RCTs) and the risk of secondary crashes. This study investigated how towing regulations involving large commercial vehicle crashes and jurisdictional variations affect the management of large-vehicle crashes, focusing on the relationship between regulatory frameworks, incident duration, and secondary crash occurrence with the state of Tennessee as a case study. The objective was to determine whether differences in towing policies, operational mandates, and rural/urban contexts lead to measurable changes in clearance efficiency. A multi-year dataset of more than 770,000 traffic incidents and 4400 towing-involved large-vehicle crashes from 2017 to 2022 was analyzed. Statistical methods, including two-sample testing and hazard-based survival modeling, were applied to evaluate the impact of towing regulations and operational protocols on roadway clearance and secondary crash patterns. The results consistently showed that strong performance-based towing regulations, such as mandated maximum response times and standardized training and equipment requirements, were associated with significantly lower average RCTs. Jurisdictions with enforced rapid-response mandates achieved average clearance durations of approximately 120–130 min, even under high incident volumes, compared to over 150 min in areas without performance benchmarks or with more complex procedural requirements. A pronounced rural–urban divide was observed, with incidents outside urbanized areas averaging 30–40% longer clearance times, largely due to limited towing resources, longer dispatch distances, and less stringent regulatory enforcement. Secondary crash analysis identified that more than 90% of secondary collisions were linked to crashes requiring towing, with the majority occurring within 20 min and 0.5 miles of the primary incident, underscoring the direct connection between delayed clearance and safety risk. These results carry direct implications for transportation policy and incident management practice by providing empirical evidence that standardized, performance-based towing regulations can meaningfully reduce RCTs and secondary crash risk, particularly when paired with investments in rural towing infrastructure

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020048

Authors: Alex de Voogt Teck Chen Koh Yi Lu

Low-level flight or maneuvering defines a flight phase that is particularly common and, in some cases, central to helicopter operations, but brings several safety concerns. At low altitude, helicopters are more susceptible to collisions with objects, while there is also limited time and space in which to perform an emergency landing. A total of 403 helicopter accidents in the low-level flight phase that occurred between 1 January 2009 and 31 December 2022 in the US were analyzed for their most common causes and differentiated based on the type of flight operation to gain insight into low-level flight accidents. It is shown that, for low-level flights, the proportion of fatal accidents in flights conducted under Federal Aviation Regulations Part 91, General Aviation, is 30%, but in flights conducted under Part 137, aerial application or agricultural flights, only 12%. Logistic regression analysis shows that while controlling for other factors, the proportion of fatal accidents was significantly higher in Part 91 operations. Flight experience measured as total flight hours was not a significant factor for estimating fatality. It is recommended that low-level helicopter training includes low-altitude autorotations in simulators to optimize the mitigating effect of this emergency procedure in this flight phase with a specific focus on Part 91 operations.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020049

Authors: Fernando da Costa Pfitscher Joyce Azevedo Caetano Cintia Machado de Oliveira Glaydston Mattos Ribeiro Marina Leite de Barros Baltar

The high number of deaths and serious injuries in traffic crashes can be considered a silent global epidemic, as it is still understood by part of society as an inherent consequence of road traffic. There are several risk factors that can increase the occurrence or severity of crashes on roads, acting alone or in combination. Road safety diagnoses based on facts and evidence are essential for improving public policies to reduce victims. With the aim of assisting in these diagnoses and since the official database on these victims is not made available in detail to the public, this work investigates the relationship between seven indicators, collected in field research and in public databases, and the occurrence and fatality of traffic victims in the City of Rio de Janeiro. Linear regression models are developed for each approach and the one with the best statistical parameters is chosen. The model with greater robustness demonstrated that helmet non-use, the density of traffic enforcement cameras, and illiteracy together explain a significant portion of the variation in the fatality rate. The results are considered satisfactory, since a limited number of existing risk factors for road safety were used.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020047

Authors: Dionysios Tzamakos Lambros Mitropoulos

Mini-roundabouts are increasingly implemented as compact, low-cost alternatives to conventional roundabouts and signalized intersections, especially at low-speed, space-constrained urban locations where safety is a concern. Their design emphasizes speed management, reduced conflict severity, and operational simplicity, contributing to safer mobility for all road users. This paper reviews U.S., German, and UK design guidelines and synthesizes empirical safety evidence from before-and-after studies of mini-roundabout conversions. In terms of design, the U.S. practice typically relies on a single large design vehicle and more permissive geometry, whereas the German guidance adopts a multi-vehicle approach with tighter curvature and stronger compactness to enforce lower speeds, affecting crash risk and driver behavior. The UK guidance is distinguished by its flush or slightly domed central marking and flexible application approach. Conversions from two-way stop-controlled (TWSC) or one-way stop-controlled (OWSC) intersections yield substantial reductions in injury and severe crashes, with total crash reductions of 17–42%. Conversions from all-way stop-controlled (AWSC) intersections present more variable outcomes, including increases in total crashes, because drivers are still reacting based on the previous control and may not adjust their expectations quickly. Modular roundabouts are also examined as alternative compact interventions for constrained or high-risk sites, with early evidence indicating reductions in severe crashes and improved speed control while minimizing construction costs and right-of-way impacts.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020046

Authors: Richard Phelps Janis Jansz Chris Aldrich

Societal expectations for serious breaches of health and safety legislation that lead to loss of life have changed. The Australian harmonized work health and safety legislation has introduced industrial manslaughter to many jurisdictions across Australia, placing senior leaders at risk of prosecution. This paper examines whether mining construction managers (those involved in the building or maintenance of infrastructure at a mine site) have been adequately prepared, both ethically and practically, to understand how complex socio-technical systems could fail and the role human cognitive architecture plays in such systems. A case study is presented, which adequately highlights tragic outcomes from management inaction. The aim of this perspective article was to critically examine whether there is the need for greater health and safety education for construction managers within Western Australia’s mining construction sector. The analysis argues for the importance of embedding fundamental health and safety education in tertiary curricula and statutory training programs to promote and strengthen a positive safety culture and reduce high-severity incidents. The conclusion of the review is that there is a strong case for giving future mining construction leaders a better introduction to the fundamentals of workplace health and safety during tertiary education. By including work health and safety in their curricula, educational institutions can better prepare students for leadership roles in the industry.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020045

Authors: Werneck Ubiratan Felipe Santos Carina Mariane Stolz Mayara Amario

Working conditions in the offshore oil and gas industry can expose workers to fatigue and sleep deprivation due to extended working hours, irregular shift schedules, and highly complex operational environments. This study aimed to conduct a systematic review of scientific literature on fatigue and sleep deprivation in the offshore oil and gas sector and their implications for health, performance, and safety. The systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines and included primary studies published between 2015 and 2025, retrieved from the Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Embase databases. Following the eligibility assessment, fifty studies were included in the final analysis. The selected studies were classified according to their level of direct relevance to offshore oil and gas operations, distinguishing evidence derived from offshore platforms from that obtained in analogous operational settings. The findings demonstrate consistent associations between fatigue and chronic sleep deprivation and adverse occupational health outcomes. Regulatory gaps were also identified when comparing different international approaches to fatigue risk management in the offshore sector. Overall, the results underscore the need for integrated fatigue management strategies aligned with best international practices to enhance health and safety in offshore operations.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020044

Authors: Haoyuan Zhang Siqi Wang Xiaoping Jia Fang Wang

In emergency decision-making for carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) CO2 pipeline leakage, risk levels and warning distances/impact ranges are often derived from different methodological systems—risk-matrix scoring versus mechanistic consequence modeling. Differences in threshold definitions and modeling assumptions make it difficult to align level assignment with distance boundaries for the same scenario, which in turn reduces the comparability and traceability of multi-scenario batch screening. To address this, this study proposes an integrated framework based on “threshold impact-distance calculation–risk-matrix mapping,” with physical consequence quantification as the main thread. A scenario library (N = 4320) covering phase state, leak aperture, operating conditions, and meteorological fields is constructed; impact distances corresponding to CO2 volume-fraction thresholds of 1%/4%/10% (R1%, R4%, R10%) are computed and then mapped to five RiskLevel classes under a unified rule set, enabling standardized synchronous outputs. The modeling tasks are formulated as RiskLevel classification and threshold-distance regression. Using a stratified 70%/30% train–test split, Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) is adopted as the primary model and compared with logistic regression (LR), support vector classification (SVC), ordinary least squares regression (OLS), and support vector regression (SVR). Results show that XGBoost achieves an accuracy of 0.806 and a macro-F1 of 0.825 for RiskLevel classification, with a recall of 0.631 for the high-risk classes (RiskLevel 4–5), and yields mean absolute errors (MAEs) of 95/62/41 m for R1%/R4%/R10% regression with coefficient of determination (R2) values of 0.795–0.814. Distributional analysis further indicates that threshold impact distances increase overall with higher RiskLevel, while dispersion becomes larger at higher levels. Accordingly, a parallel representation of “RiskLevel + multi-threshold rings” is recommended to support coordinated graded control and zoned warning delineation.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020043

Authors: Francesco Russo Corrado Rindone

The transport of dangerous goods (TDG) produces serious risks, particularly in urban areas, due to the high presence of people and sensitive infrastructures from a social, environmental and economic point of view. Transport Risk Assessment combines occurrence, vulnerability and exposure to support urban transport planning aimed at achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. The objective of this paper is to propose a simplified risk calculation method, referring to a single link of the urban transport network, with reference to the occurrence component of the risk. The proposed formulation considers the sequence of factors that determine the overall dangerous event. The specification of the occurrence factors and a quantitative definition of the different parameters for a widespread type of transport of dangerous goods in urban areas is proposed. The results obtained are interesting because (1) the method, with quantitative parameters, can be applied to any urban area, and (2) some of the factors can also be used by replacing and introducing, where known, specific factors and relative parameters calibrated for the area for which it is planned to be implemented. The results indicate the feasibility of the proposed method without significant chemical–physical or electromechanical insights. This work is of potential interest for urban transport planners and public and private decision makers.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020042

Authors: Lisa Jane Harrison Kerri-Lynn Peachey Carlos Mesa-Castrillon David Lyle Richard Franklin Tony Lower

Agriculture remains one of the most hazardous industries in Australia, with consistently high rates of workplace injury and fatality. Traditional approaches to monitoring safety performance in agriculture have largely relied on reactive lag indicators, metrics that capture incidents after they occur, such as injury rates, compensation claims, or fatalities. While useful for identifying trends and measuring past performance, there is a need for proactive lead indicators, and these are preventive measures that identify risk and promote safer practices before injuries occur. With limited research available on leading indicators specific to the agricultural industry, the modified Delphi method has been identified and designed for this study. A panel of experts will be engaged with the aim to achieve consensus on a set of valid lead indicators for Australian agriculture. This study will include four rounds of Delphi questionnaires with the addition of a face-to-face consensus conference to be included in round four. The data gathered in this study to identify Work Health and Safety (WHS) leading indicators has potential to improve farmers’ safety, wellbeing, and personal health, as well as reducing injuries and fatalities across the Australian agricultural industry.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020041

Authors: Marinel Costel Temneanu Marius Ciprian Branzila Elena Serea Codrin Donciu

This study presents a site-specific calibration of the ratio between S-wave and P-wave peak ground acceleration (PGA) for use in low-cost, on-site earthquake early warning (EEWS) systems in Iași, Romania. A dataset of 25 intermediate-depth Vrancea earthquakes (Mw 4.1–5.7; epicentral distances 150–210 km) was analyzed. PGA values were extracted for the P- and S-wave windows on both horizontal components and combined using geometric means. The resulting S/P amplitude ratios yield a median value of kS/P = 6.19 and a logarithmic standard deviation of σlog10 = 0.31, corresponding to a multiplicative uncertainty factor of approximately ×2. These results indicate that S-wave amplitudes are typically six times larger than P-wave amplitudes at this site, consistent with soft-soil amplification observed in comparable stations in Japan and Italy. The calibrated ratio can be used as a site-specific input for future MEMS-based on-site EEW implementations to estimate the expected S-wave PGA immediately after P-wave detection, with the observed S–P delays in Iași indicating a typical available warning window of 20–22 s.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020040

Authors: Michael J. Jorgensen Nils A. Hakansson

Passive arm support exoskeletons (ASEs) have attracted interest with the prospect of reducing shoulder musculoskeletal injuries. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of passive ASEs on electrical activation of shoulder and torso muscles while performing simulated vertical and horizontal drilling exertions by 17 experienced aircraft workers. The tasks included three vertical drilling heights (chin, head, overhead levels) and two horizontal drilling heights (eye, overhead levels), where participants performed five two-second exertions with one-second no-exertion times between successive drilling exertions. Electromyographic signals from the anterior and medial deltoids, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, erector spinae, biceps and triceps were captured. During vertical drilling exertions, ASEs significantly reduced dominant and non-dominant medial deltoid muscle activity, as well as activity in the non-dominant anterior deltoid, but not the dominant anterior deltoid. During horizontal drilling exertions, ASEs significantly decreased dominant and non-dominant anterior and medial deltoid muscle activity. ASEs significantly reduced non-dominant and dominant anterior and medial deltoid muscle activity during the time between drilling exertions in both the vertical and horizontal drilling directions. These results are encouraging in suggesting that ASEs reduce muscular exertion during drilling tasks commonly found in aircraft manufacturing. However, ASEs must be evaluated in worksite studies to better assess their efficacy.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020039

Authors: Miha Šlebir Janja Vuga Beršnak

This study aims to investigate how an organization’s purpose (raison d’être) dictates first responder resilience-building. While existing studies often treat first responders as a homogeneous group, this research argues that significant interprofessional differences exist. Using a socioecological framework, the study employs a qualitative, comparative design to analyze three first responder systems: the Slovenian Armed Forces, the Slovenian Police, and Slovenia’s public healthcare system. The analysis is grounded in 31 semi-structured interviews, supplemented by analysis of official documents. The findings reveal three pillars of resilience—training, planning, and experience—and three distinct institutional paradigms. The military fosters a culture of proactive, institutionalized resilience-building oriented toward macro-level crises. The police exhibit a more reactive approach, where resilience-building is often undermined by chronic organizational stressors. In the healthcare system, resilience-building is fragmented and localized, with the burden falling on smaller organizational units to manage micro-level crises of capacity overload. The study concludes that an organization’s raison d’être is a vital socioecological factor that shapes its approach to resilience.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020038

Authors: Zhengqi Huo Xiaobao Yang Xiaobing Liu Xuedong Yan

Existing research on driving under the influence (DUI) crashes predominantly employs independent modeling frameworks that overlook the interdependency between injury outcomes of impaired and sober drivers, potentially leading to biased parameter estimates and an incomplete understanding of crash mechanisms. This study develops a copula-based bivariate ordered response modeling framework to investigate how injury severities of DUI and non-DUI drivers are interdependent and how this dependency varies systematically across weather conditions. Using crash data from the U.S. Crash Report Sampling System (2016–2022), we analyze 3773 two-vehicle crashes involving one alcohol-impaired and one sober driver under clear, rain/snow, and fog conditions. Three key findings emerge from our analysis. First, injury severities between DUI and non-DUI drivers exhibit significant dependency, with both the strength and structure of this association varying systematically across weather conditions. Dependency intensity increases progressively from clear weather (Kendall’s τ = 0.2717) to rain/snow (0.2966) and peaks under fog (0.3239). Moreover, the optimal dependency structure differs by weather conditions. Second, DUI and non-DUI drivers demonstrate markedly differentiated response patterns to risk factors, with the same factor often producing opposite-direction or substantially different magnitude effects on the two parties. Third, weather conditions play a critical moderating role, with most risk factors exhibiting significant amplification effects on crash injury severity under adverse weather. For example, on curved roadways under fog compared to clear weather, severe/fatal injury risk increases from 4.45% to 5.81% for DUI drivers and from 7.99% to 11.36% for non-DUI drivers. These findings highlight the importance of joint dependency modeling in alcohol-related crash research and provide evidence-based insights for weather-sensitive DUI enforcement and targeted safety interventions.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020037

Authors: Sang-A Lee Dothang Truong

Aviation maintenance is a high-risk work environment in which worker safety and operational safety must be managed simultaneously. This study develops and validates a dual-domain safety culture framework for aviation maintenance technicians (AMTs) employed by U.S. Part 121 airlines. The framework distinguishes between two complementary dimensions of safety culture: Maintenance Occupational Safety Culture (MOSC), which emphasizes AMTs’ physical safety and protection from workplace hazards, and Maintenance-Based Aviation Safety Culture (MASC), which focuses on organizational practices that prevent maintenance errors and support overall aviation safety. A quantitative survey of AMTs (n = 240) was administered, and data were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM). The measurement model demonstrated acceptable fit indices and reliability. SEM findings indicate that trust has a significant positive effect on both MOSC and MASC, whereas fear exerts a negative effect, though statistically non-significant. These results highlight the central role of trust in strengthening safety culture in aviation maintenance, while suggesting that fear may only marginally undermine safety-related perceptions. The validated framework further emphasizes the importance of psychological safety in enhancing both AMT well-being and operational safety. Overall, this research advances understanding of safety culture in aviation maintenance by treating occupational and aviation safety as distinct yet interrelated domains, offering practical guidance for industry leaders, safety managers, and regulators seeking to improve safety outcomes by cultivating trust.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020036

Authors: Jawad Abusalama Sazalinsyah Razali Yun-Huoy Choo Ali Attajer Ismahen Zaid

Crowd mass disasters occur over a relatively short time, and rescue operations in disasters, such as earthquakes, are challenging because of people’s behavior, type, or location. Therefore, it is essential to devise means and methods to manage such problems to minimize the consequences as much as possible. During disasters, rescue operations should be conducted in a timely conducted to save people’s lives. Otherwise, losses and consequences are severe, and if there are no proper rescuing operation models, the situation worsens, and the consequences are devastating. In particular, the allocation and coordination of limited rescue resources have a critical impact on response times and the number of lives saved. This paper aims to develop an Agent-Based Simulation (ABS) model for rescuing operations in crowd-mass disasters with six main intelligent agents. The proposed model explicitly represents the interactions among victims, rescuers, command-and-control entities, transportation assets, road networks, and affected infrastructure within a GIS-based urban environment. The developed model is based on an enhanced approach to improve rescue agents’ tasks allocation operations that enable modeling and simulation to make critical decisions for people to be rescued in a crowded mass disaster. Our task-allocation mechanism incorporates dynamic accessibility of roads, time-dependent rescue capacity, and context-aware prioritization of victims. Three related task-allocation strategies from the literature are used as baselines under identical scenarios, and performance is compared in terms of average rescue time and number of rescued victims. Results show that the proposed model achieves more efficient and robust rescue operations in most simulated experiments.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020035

Authors: Jasna Bertoncelj Nina Križnik Tanja Pajk Žontar

Emergency situations can cause sudden food shortages, which emphasize the need for preventive measures to ensure food security. The aim of this study was to determine the Slovenian population’s awareness of the official national recommendation for a 30-day emergency food supply, assess the adequacy of households’ food supplies, and identify factors influencing their quantity. An online survey was conducted among 815 Slovenian residents aged 18 to 89. The results showed that 81.0% were not aware of the national recommendations. Of the recommended foods, sugar, salt, cooking oil, jam, and pickled beet were most frequently stored, while rusks, water, canned meat sauces, bars, and dried yeast were least frequently stored. Only 17.0% of respondents had a sufficient supply of food to sustain their household members for a month or more, and only 19.1% had a supply of beverages for three days or more. Factors influencing the quantity of food supply included self-sufficiency assessment, knowledge of national recommendations, type of residence, region, household size, and number of children. This case study can serve more broadly as a basis for designing strategies to raise public awareness of the importance of emergency food supplies in improving food security during times of crisis.

Safety doi: 10.3390/safety12020034

Authors: Edgar Arroyo-Huerta Luis Enrique García-Santamaría Gregorio Fernández-Lambert Yesica Mayett-Moreno Eduardo Fernández-Echeverría Marieli Lavoignet-Ruiz Margarito Landa-Zárate

Citrus production in Mexico relies predominantly on manual labor and traditional harvesting tools, which are often associated with physical overload, awkward postures, and reduced productivity. This study presents an exploratory, perception-based field evaluation of the BLIMPER, an early-stage ergonomic harvesting prototype designed for selective Persian lime collection. A total of 93 citrus harvesters participated through snowball sampling. A structured 33-item questionnaire was administered, covering five perception dimensions and open-ended comments. The instrument was expert-validated and demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.85). Data analysis included descriptive statistics, Welch’s t-test for gender-based comparisons, and Hedges’ g to estimate the magnitude of the difference between groups. A modified Kano model was applied to classify perceived tool attributes and identify priorities for design refinement. The results indicated that 83–85% of respondents valued material strength, 64–70% approved of the unloading system, and 67–75% perceived reduced fatigue in the shoulders and lower back. The findings should be interpreted as an initial ergonomic validation based on user perceptions under real working conditions, rather than as evidence of readiness for large-scale deployment. The BLIMPER prototype shows potential to improve comfort and posture, while highlighting design aspects—weight distribution, mobility, and material selection—that require further optimization overall.