http://www.mdpi.com/journal/insects Latest open access articles published in Insects at http://www.mdpi.com/journal/insects http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/492 Insects, like all invertebrates, express robust innate, but not adaptive, immune reactions to infection and invasion. Insect immunity is usually resolved into three major components. The integument serves as a physical barrier to infections. Within the hemocoel, the circulating hemocytes are the temporal first line of defense, responsible for clearing the majority of infecting bacterial cells from circulation. Specific cellular defenses include phagocytosis, microaggregation of hemocytes with adhering bacteria, nodulation and encapsulation. Infections also stimulate the humoral component of immunity, which involves the induced expression of genes encoding antimicrobial peptides and activation of prophenoloxidase. These peptides appear in the hemolymph of challenged insects 6–12 hours after the challenge. Prostaglandins and other eicosanoids are crucial mediators of innate immune responses. Eicosanoid biosynthesis is stimulated by infection in insects. Inhibition of eicosanoid biosynthesis lethally renders experimental insects unable to clear bacterial infection from hemolymph. Eicosanoids mediate specific cell actions, including phagocytosis, microaggregation, nodulation, hemocyte migration, hemocyte spreading and the release of prophenoloxidase from oenocytoids. Some invaders have evolved mechanisms to suppress insect immunity; a few of them suppress immunity by targeting the first step in the eicosanoid biosynthesis pathways, the enzyme phospholipase A2. We proposed research designed to cripple insect immunity as a technology to improve biological control of insects. We used dsRNA to silence insect genes encoding phospholipase A2, and thereby inhibited the nodulation reaction to infection. The purpose of this article is to place our view of applying dsRNA technologies into the context of eicosanoid actions in insect immunity. The long-term significance of research in this area lies in developing new pest management technologies to contribute to food security in a world with a rapidly growing human population. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/492 Wed, 16 May 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-05-16 3 2 Review 492 510 2075-4450 Eicosanoids: Exploiting Insect Immunity to Improve Biological Control Programs 2012-05-16 doi: 10.3390/insects3020492 David Stanley Eric Haas Jon Miller http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/473 When symbioses between insects and bacteria are discussed, the origin of a given association is regularly of interest. We examined the evolution of the symbiosis between reed beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Donaciinae) and intracellular symbionts belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae. We analyzed the partial sequence of the 16S rRNA to assess the phylogenetic relationships with bacteria we found in other beetle groups (Cerambycidae, Anobiidae, other Chrysomelidae). We discuss the ecology of each association in the context of the phylogenetic analysis. The bacteria in Sagra femorata (Chrysomelidae, Sagrinae) are very closely related to those in the Donaciinae and are located in similar mycetomes. The Sagrinae build a cocoon for pupation like the Donaciinae, in which the bacteria produce the material required for the cocoon. These aspects support the close relationship between Sagrinae and Donaciinae derived in earlier studies and make a common ancestry of the symbioses likely. Using PCR primers specific for fungi, we found Candida sp. in the mycetomes of a cerambycid beetle along with the bacteria. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/473 Mon, 07 May 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-05-07 3 2 Article 473 491 2075-4450 Shared Ancestry of Symbionts? Sagrinae and Donaciinae (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) Harbor Similar Bacteria 2012-05-07 doi: 10.3390/insects3020473 Gregor Kölsch Dimitra Synefiaridou http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/453 Bark beetle species within the scolytid genera Dendroctonus, Ips, Pityogenes and Tomicus are known to cause extensive ecological and economical damage in spruce and pine forests during epidemic outbreaks all around the world. Dendroctonus ponderosae poses the most recent example having destroyed almost 100,000 km2 of conifer forests in North America. The success and effectiveness of scolytid species lies mostly in strategies developed over the course of time. Among these, a complex system of semiochemicals promotes the communication and aggregation on the spot of infestation facilitating an en masse attack against a host tree’s defenses; or an association with fungi that evolved either in the form of nutrition (ambrosia fungi) or even by reducing the resistance of host trees (blue-stain fungi). Although often specific to a tree genus or species, some bark beetles are polyphagous and have the ability to switch on to new hosts and extend their host range (i.e., between conifer genera such as Pityogenes chalcographus or even from conifer to deciduous trees as Polygraphus grandiclava). A combination of these capabilities in concert with life history or ecological traits explains why bark beetles are considered interesting subjects in evolutionary studies. Several bark beetle species appear in phylogeographic investigations, in an effort to improve our understanding of their ecology, epidemiology and evolution. In this paper investigations that unveil the phylogeographic history of bark beetles are reviewed. A close association between refugial areas and postglacial migration routes that insects and host trees have followed in the last 15,000 BP has been suggested in many studies. Finally, a future perspective of how next generation sequencing will influence the resolution of phylogeographic patterns in the coming years is presented. Utilization of such novel techniques will provide a more detailed insight into the genome of scolytids facilitating at the same time the application of neutral and non-neutral markers. The latter markers in particular promise to enhance the study of eco-physiological reaction types like the so-called pioneer beetles or obligate diapausing individuals. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/453 Mon, 07 May 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-05-07 3 2 Review 453 472 2075-4450 What is Next in Bark Beetle Phylogeography? 2012-05-07 doi: 10.3390/insects3020453 Dimitrios N. Avtzis Coralie Bertheau Christian Stauffer http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/442 Two established field populations of bed bugs were sampled using host-mimicking traps baited with a combination of CO2, heat and a synthetic kairomone. The proportion of first instar nymphs (between 52% and 78% of all captured insects) was significantly higher than reported in previous studies, which had employed different sampling methods. The proportion of adults was correspondingly much lower than previously reported, between 5% and 7% of total capture. As many as 120 bed bugs were captured in a single trap in one night; the variation in catches between sampling locations within the same room and between days at the same location indicates that multiple nights of trapping may be required to obtain an accurate representation of population structure. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/442 Mon, 30 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-04-30 3 2 Article 442 452 2075-4450 Bed Bug (Cimex lectularius L.) Population Composition as Determined by Baited Traps 2012-04-30 doi: 10.3390/insects3020442 Elizabeth J. Schaafsma Samuel D. Hapke Michael G. Banfield http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/432 Two native, stream-associated amphibians are found in coastal streams of the west coast of North America, the tailed frog and the coastal giant salamander, and each interacts with stream insects in contrasting ways. For tailed frogs, their tadpoles are the primary life stage found in steep streams and they consume biofilm from rock surfaces, which can have trophic and non-trophic effects on stream insects. By virtue of their size the tadpoles are relatively insensitive to stream insect larvae, and tadpoles are capable of depleting biofilm levels directly (exploitative competition), and may also “bulldoze” insect larvae from the surfaces of stones (interference competition). Coastal giant salamander larvae, and sometimes adults, are found in small streams where they prey primarily on stream insects, as well as other small prey. This predator-prey interaction with stream insects does not appear to result in differences in the stream invertebrate community between streams with and without salamander larvae. These two examples illustrate the potential for trophic and non-trophic interactions between stream-associated amphibians and stream insects, and also highlights the need for further research in these systems. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/432 Tue, 10 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-04-10 3 2 Review 432 441 2075-4450 Trophic Interactions Between Insects and Stream-Associated Amphibians in Steep, Cobble-Bottom Streams of the Pacific Coast of North America 2012-04-10 doi: 10.3390/insects3020432 Trisha Atwood John S. Richardson http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/424 Seasonal changes in the popularity of fireflies [usually Genji-fireflies (Luciola cruciata Motschulsky) in Japan] and Japanese rhinoceros beetles [Allomyrina dichotoma (Linne)] were investigated to examine whether contemporary Japanese are interested in visible emergence of these insects as seasonal events. The popularity of fireflies and Japanese rhinoceros beetles was assessed by the Google search volume of their Japanese names, “Hotaru” and “Kabuto-mushi” in Japanese Katakana script using Google Trends. The search volume index for fireflies and Japanese rhinoceros beetles was distributed across seasons with a clear peak in only particular times of each year from 2004 to 2011. In addition, the seasonal peak of popularity for fireflies occurred at the beginning of June, whereas that for Japanese rhinoceros beetles occurred from the middle of July to the beginning of August. Thus seasonal peak of each species coincided with the peak period of the emergence of each adult stage. These findings indicated that the Japanese are interested in these insects primarily during the time when the two species are most visibly abundant. Although untested, this could suggest that fireflies and Japanese rhinoceros beetles are perceived by the general public as indicators or symbols of summer in Japan. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/424 Tue, 10 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-04-10 3 2 Article 424 431 2075-4450 Japanese Interest in “Hotaru” (Fireflies) and “Kabuto-Mushi” (Japanese Rhinoceros Beetles) Corresponds with Seasonality in Visible Abundance 2012-04-10 doi: 10.3390/insects3020424 Kenta Takada http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/410 The relationship between mosquitoes and their amphibian hosts is a unique, reciprocal trophic interaction. Instead of a one-way, predator-prey relationship, there is a cyclical dance of avoidance and attraction. This has prompted spatial and temporal synchrony between organisms, reflected in emergence time of mosquitoes in the spring and choice of habitat for oviposition. Frog-feeding mosquitoes also possess different sensory apparatuses than do their mammal-feeding counterparts. The reciprocal nature of this relationship is exploited by various blood parasites that use mechanical, salivary or trophic transmission to pass from mosquitoes to frogs. It is important to investigate the involvement of mosquitoes, frogs and parasites in this interaction in order to understand the consequences of anthropogenic actions, such as implementing biocontrol efforts against mosquitoes, and to determine potential causes of the global decline of amphibian species. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/410 Tue, 03 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-04-03 3 2 Review 410 423 2075-4450 Reciprocal Trophic Interactions and Transmission of Blood Parasites between Mosquitoes and Frogs 2012-04-03 doi: 10.3390/insects3020410 Laura V. Ferguson Todd G. Smith http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/402 Bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.) infestations are currently controlled by a variety of non-chemical and chemical methods. There have been few studies on the comparative effectiveness of these control techniques. We evaluated three bed bug management strategies in an apartment building: (1) non-chemical methods only (n = 9); (2) insecticides only (n = 6); and (3) integrated pest management including both non-chemical methods and insecticides (n = 9). The apartments were one-bedroom units occupied by seniors or people with disabilities. Bed bug numbers in each apartment were determined by visual inspection and/or installing intercepting devices under bed and sofa legs. The median (min, max) bed bug counts in the non-chemical methods only, insecticides only, and integrated pest management (IPM) treatment were: 4 (1, 57), 19 (1, 250), and 14 (1, 219), respectively prior to the treatments. The apartments were retreated if found necessary during biweekly to monthly inspections. After 10 weeks, bed bugs were found to be eliminated from 67, 33, and 44% of the apartments in the three treatment groups, respectively. The final (after 10 weeks) median (min, max) bed bug counts in the non-chemical methods only, insecticides only, and IPM treatment were: 0 (0, 134), 11.5 (0, 58), and 1 (0, 38), respectively. There were no significant differences in the speed of bed bug count reduction or the final bed bug counts. Lack of resident cooperation partially contributed to the failure in eliminating bed bugs from some of the apartments. Results of this study suggest that non-chemical methods can effectively eliminate bed bugs in lightly infested apartments. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/402 Mon, 02 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-04-02 3 2 Article 402 409 2075-4450 Comparison of Three Bed Bug Management Strategies in a Low-Income Apartment Building 2012-04-02 doi: 10.3390/insects3020402 Changlu Wang Kurt Saltzmann Gary Bennett Timothy Gibb http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/396 Standardized laboratory testing of wood and wood-based products against subterranean termites in Indonesia (SNI 01.7207-2006) (SNI) has no requirement for the inclusion of a comparative reference species of wood (reference control). This is considered a weakness of the Indonesian standard. Consequently, a study was undertaken to identify a suitable Indonesian species of community wood that could be used as a reference control. Four candidate species of community woods: Acacia mangium, Hevea brasiliensis, Paraserianthes falcataria and Pinus merkusii were selected for testing their susceptibility to feeding by Coptotermes formosanus. Two testing methods (SNI and the Japanese standard method JIS K 1571-2004) were used to compare the susceptibility of each species of wood. Included in the study was Cryptomeria japonica, the reference control specified in the Japanese standard. The results of the study indicated that P. merkusii is a suitable reference species of wood for inclusion in laboratory tests against subterranean termites, conducted in accordance with the Indonesian standard (SNI 01.7207-2006). http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/396 Wed, 28 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-03-28 3 2 Article 396 401 2075-4450 Termite-Susceptible Species of Wood for Inclusion as a Reference in Indonesian Standardized Laboratory Testing 2012-03-28 doi: 10.3390/insects3020396 Arinana Kunio Tsunoda Elis N. Herliyana Yusuf S. Hadi http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/390 The effects of thermal modification on the resistance of Dendrocalamus asper against Microcerotermes losbañosensis were investigated after exposure to virgin coconut oil at 140–200 °C for 30–120 min. The results showed that heat treatment significantly improved bamboo’s resistance to termites based on mass losses and visual observations. The enhancement was highest at 200 °C. Prolonged treatment had a positive effect on the resistance at lower temperatures only. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/390 Tue, 27 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2012-03-27 3 2 Article 390 395 2075-4450 Termite Resistance of Thermally-Modified Dendrocalamus asper (Schultes f.) Backer ex Heyne 2012-03-27 doi: 10.3390/insects3020390 Ronniel D. Manalo Carlos M. Garcia http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/378 We determined virulence of seven Heterorhabditis bacteriophora strain GPS11 inbred lines possessing superior infective juvenile longevity, and heat and ultra violet radiation tolerance against white grubs Popillia japonica and Cyclocephala borealis. At 1 and 2 weeks after treatment, inbred line A2 was significantly more virulent towards P. japonica compared to the parent strain GPS11 and inbred lines A7, A8, A12 and A21; and line A2 caused significantly higher C. borealis mortality than lines A6 and A12. Penetration, encapsulation and survival of two inbred lines, A2 and A12, that showed the highest and lowest virulence against both grub species were then assessed. There were no differences between the two lines for the total number of nematodes penetrated in either P. japonica or C. borealis within the first 24 h, but a significantly higher percentage of penetrated nematodes were alive in line A2 compared to the line A12 in both grub species. P. japonica immune response over time to hemocoel-injected nematodes of A2, A12 and the parent strain was further investigated. While all injected nematodes were encapsulated at 6 h post injection, non-encapsulated living nematodes were detected at 12 and 24 h post injection, showing the breakage out of encapsulation. A higher percentage of non-encapsulated living nematodes and a lower percentage of dead nematodes were found in line A2 as compared to the line A12 after 12 h post injection. These data suggest that virulence differences in the studied H. bacteriophora inbred lines are not due to differences in nematode penetration or recognition by the grub immune system, but are related to the ability of the infective juveniles to break out of encapsulation. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/378 Fri, 23 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-03-23 3 2 Article 378 389 2075-4450 Differences in Immune Defense Evasion of Selected Inbred Lines of Heterorhabditis Bacteriophora in Two White Grub Species 2012-03-23 doi: 10.3390/insects3020378 Ruisheng An Marcio Voss Ganpati B. Jagdale Parwinder S. Grewal http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/367 This study examines the individual behavior of workers of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shirkai, on two consecutive days of tunnel construction. In each trial, a group of 30 termite workers was observed continuously during the first 60 min of construction of a new tunnel on two consecutive days. On each day, an average of 68% of individuals did not participate in tunnel construction, 19% spent http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/2/367 Fri, 23 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-03-23 3 2 Article 367 377 2075-4450 Individual Behavior of Workers of the Formosan Subterranean Termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) on Consecutive Days of Tunnel Construction 2012-03-23 doi: 10.3390/insects3020367 Mary L. Cornelius http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/339 Ectosymbioses among bark beetles (Curculionidae, Scolytinae) and fungi (primarily ophiostomatoid Ascomycetes) are widespread and diverse. Associations range from mutualistic to commensal, and from facultative to obligate. Some fungi are highly specific and associated only with a single beetle species, while others can be associated with many. In addition, most of these symbioses are multipartite, with the host beetle associated with two or more consistent partners. Mycangia, structures of the beetle integument that function in fungal transport, have evolved numerous times in the Scolytinae. The evolution of such complex, specialized structures indicates a high degree of mutual dependence among the beetles and their fungal partners. Unfortunately, the processes that shaped current day beetle-fungus symbioses remain poorly understood. Phylogeny, the degree and type of dependence on partners, mode of transmission of symbionts (vertical vs. horizontal), effects of the abiotic environment, and interactions among symbionts themselves or with other members of the biotic community, all play important roles in determining the composition, fidelity, and longevity of associations between beetles and their fungal associates. In this review, I provide an overview of these associations and discuss how evolution and ecological processes acted in concert to shape these fascinating, complex symbioses. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/339 Thu, 22 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-03-22 3 1 Review 339 366 2075-4450 Ecological and Evolutionary Determinants of Bark Beetle —Fungus Symbioses 2012-03-22 doi: 10.3390/insects3010339 Diana L. Six http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/324 Juvenile hormone (JH) is responsible for controlling many biological processes. In several insect species JH has been implicated as a key regulator of developmental timing, preventing the premature onset of metamorphosis during larval growth periods. However, the molecular basis of JH action is not well-understood. In this review, we highlight recent advances which demonstrate the importance of transcription factors from the bHLH-PAS and nuclear receptor families in mediating the response to JH. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/324 Thu, 22 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-03-22 3 1 Review 324 338 2075-4450 Molecular Mechanisms of Transcription Activation by Juvenile Hormone: A Critical Role for bHLH-PAS and Nuclear Receptor Proteins 2012-03-22 doi: 10.3390/insects3010324 Travis J. Bernardo Edward B. Dubrovsky http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/307 We present a new perspective for the role of Termitomyces fungi in the mutualism with fungus-growing termites. According to the predominant view, this mutualism is as an example of agriculture with termites as farmers of a domesticated fungus crop, which is used for degradation of plant-material and production of fungal biomass. However, a detailed study of the literature indicates that the termites might as well be envisioned as domesticates of the fungus. According to the “ruminant hypothesis” proposed here, termite workers, by consuming asexual fruiting bodies not only harvest asexual spores, but also lignocellulolytic enzymes, which they mix with foraged plant material and enzymes of termite and possibly bacterial origin. This mixture is the building material of the fungus garden and facilitates efficient degradation of plant material. The fungus garden thus functions as an external rumen for termites and primarily the fungi themselves benefit from their own, and gut-derived, lignocellulolytic enzymes, using the termites to efficiently mix these with their growth substrate. Only secondarily the termites benefit, when they consume the degraded, nitrogen-enriched plant-fungus mixture a second time. We propose that the details of substrate use, and the degree of complementarity and redundancy among enzymes in food processing, determine selection of horizontally transmitted fungal symbionts at the start of a colony: by testing spores on a specific, mechanically and enzymatically pre-treated growth substrate, the termite host has the opportunity to select specific fungal symbionts. Potentially, the gut-microbiota thus influence host-fungus specificity, and the selection of specific fungal strains at the start of a new colony. We argue that we need to expand the current bipartite insect-biased view of the mutualism of fungus-growing termites and include the possible role of bacteria and the benefit for the fungi to fully understand the division of labor among partners in substrate degradation. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/307 Fri, 16 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-03-16 3 1 Communication 307 323 2075-4450 Fungiculture or Termite Husbandry? The Ruminant Hypothesis 2012-03-16 doi: 10.3390/insects3010307 Tânia Nobre Duur K. Aanen http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/295 Bacterial interactions with eukaryotic hosts are complex processes which vary from pathogenic to mutualistic. Identification of bacterial genes differentially expressed in the host, promises to unravel molecular mechanisms driving and maintaining such interactions. Several techniques have been developed in the past 20 years to investigate bacterial gene expression within their hosts. The most commonly used techniques include in-vivo expression technology, signature-tagged mutagenesis, differential fluorescence induction, and cDNA microarrays. However, the limitations of these techniques in analyzing bacterial in-vivo gene expression indicate the need to develop alternative tools. With many advantages over the other methods for analyzing bacterial in-vivo gene expression, selective capture of transcribed sequences (SCOTS) technique has the prospect of becoming an elegant tool for discovery of genes involved in the bacterium-host interaction. Here, we summarize the advances in SCOTS technique, including its current and potential applications in bacterial gene expression studies under a variety of conditions from in-vitro to in-vivo and from mammals to insects. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/295 Fri, 02 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-03-02 3 1 Review 295 306 2075-4450 Selective Capture of Transcribed Sequences: A Promising Approach for Investigating Bacterium-Insect Interactions 2012-03-02 doi: 10.3390/insects3010295 Ruisheng An Parwinder S. Grewal http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/270 The interaction between physiogeographic landscape context and certain life history characteristics, particularly dispersal ability, can generate predictable outcomes for how species responded to Pleistocene (and earlier) climatic changes. Furthermore, the extent to which impacts of past landscape-level changes ‘scale-up’ to whole communities has begun to be addressed via comparative phylogeographic analyses of co-distributed species. Here we present an overview of a body of research on flightless low-mobility forest invertebrates, focusing on two springtails and two terrestrial flatworms, from Tallaganda on the Great Dividing Range of south-eastern Australia. These species are distantly-related, and represent contrasting trophic levels (i.e., slime-mold-grazers vs. higher-level predators). However, they share an association with the dead wood (saproxylic) habitat. Spatial patterns of intraspecific genetic diversity partly conform to topography-based divisions that circumscribe five ‘microgeographic regions’ at Tallaganda. In synthesizing population processes and past events that generated contemporary spatial patterns of genetic diversity in these forest floor invertebrates, we highlight cases of phylogeographic congruence, pseudo-congruence, and incongruence. Finally, we propose conservation-oriented recommendations for the prioritisation of areas for protection. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/270 Wed, 29 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-29 3 1 Review 270 294 2075-4450 Phylogeography of Saproxylic and Forest Floor Invertebrates from Tallaganda, South-eastern Australia 2012-02-29 doi: 10.3390/insects3010270 Ryan C. Garrick David M. Rowell Paul Sunnucks http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/262 It has long been known that armored scale insects harbor endosymbiotic bacteria inside specialized cells called bacteriocytes. Originally, these endosymbionts were thought to be fungal symbionts but they are now known to be bacterial and have been named Uzinura diaspidicola. Bacteriocyte and endosymbiont distribution patterns within host insects were visualized using in situ hybridization via 16S rRNA specific probes. Images of scale insect embryos, eggs and adult scale insects show patterns of localized bacteriocytes in embryos and randomly distributed bacteriocytes in adults. The symbiont pocket was not found in the armored scale insect eggs that were tested. The pattern of dispersed bacteriocytes in adult scale insects suggest that Uzinura and Blattabacteria may share some homologous traits that coincide with similar life style requirements, such as dispersal in fat bodies and uric acid recycling. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/262 Wed, 29 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-29 3 1 Article 262 269 2075-4450 Distribution of the Primary Endosymbiont (Candidatus Uzinura Diaspidicola) Within Host Insects from the Scale Insect Family Diaspididae 2012-02-29 doi: 10.3390/insects3010262 Matthew E. Gruwell Meghan Flarhety Katharina Dittmar http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/246 Vertically acquired, endosymbiotic bacteria such as those belonging to the Rickettsiales and the Mollicutes are known to influence the biology of their arthropod hosts in order to favour their own transmission. In this study we investigate the influence of such reproductive parasites on the behavior of their insects and arachnid hosts. We find that changes in host behavior that are associated with endosymbiont infections are not restricted to characteristics that are directly associated with reproduction. Other behavioural traits, such as those involved in intraspecific competition or in dispersal may also be affected. Such behavioural shifts are expected to influence the level of intraspecific variation and the rate at which adaptation can occur through their effects on effective population size and gene flow amongst populations. Symbionts may thus influence both levels of polymorphism within species and the rate at which diversification can occur. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/246 Wed, 29 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-29 3 1 Review 246 261 2075-4450 Modification of Insect and Arachnid Behaviours by Vertically Transmitted Endosymbionts: Infections as Drivers of Behavioural Change and Evolutionary Novelty 2012-02-29 doi: 10.3390/insects3010246 Sara L. Goodacre Oliver Y. Martin http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/228 The possible roles played by yeasts in attine ant nests are mostly unknown. Here we present our investigations on the plant polysaccharide degradation profile of 82 yeasts isolated from fungus gardens of Atta and Acromyrmex species to demonstrate that yeasts found in ant nests may play the role of making nutrients readily available throughout the garden and detoxification of compounds that may be deleterious to the ants and their fungal cultivar. Among the yeasts screened, 65% exhibited cellulolytic enzymes, 44% exhibited pectinolytic activity while 27% and 17% possess enzyme systems for the degradation of protease and amylase, respectively. Galacturonic acid, which had been reported in previous work to be poorly assimilated by the ant fungus and also to have a negative effect on ants’ survival, was assimilated by 64% and 79% of yeasts isolated from nests of A. texana and Acromyrmex respectively. Our results suggest that yeasts found in ant nests may participate in generation of nutrients and removal of potentially toxic compounds, thereby contributing to the stability of the complex microbiota found in the leaf-cutting ant nests. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/228 Fri, 17 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-17 3 1 Article 228 245 2075-4450 Generation of Nutrients and Detoxification: Possible Roles of Yeasts in Leaf-Cutting Ant Nests 2012-02-17 doi: 10.3390/insects3010228 Thais D. Mendes André Rodrigues Ifeloju Dayo-Owoyemi Fernando A. L. Marson Fernando C. Pagnocca http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/200 Bark beetles (Coleoptera, Scolytinae) have a widespread association with fungi, especially with ophiostomatoid fungi (Ascomycota) that cause blue staining of wood, and in some cases, serious tree diseases. In Fennoscandia, most studies of these fungi have focused on economically important bark beetle species and this is likely to have led to a biased view of the fungal biodiversity in the region. Recently, the associations between fungi and bark beetles in Fennoscandia have been shown to be more diverse than previously thought. Furthermore, they form complex and dynamic associations that are only now beginning to emerge. This review examines the current knowledge of the rather poorly known interactions between bark beetles, fungi and their conifer host trees in Fennoscandia. The diversity of ophiostomatoid species is discussed and the possible factors that influence the assemblages of fungal associates are considered for all species that are known to occur in the region. For many ophiostomatoid species found in Fennoscandia, little or nothing is known regarding their pathogenicity, particularly if they were to be transferred to new environments. We, therefore, draw attention to the possible threats of timber trade and climate change-induced invasions of new habitats by bark beetles and the fungi that can be moved along with them. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/200 Wed, 15 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-15 3 1 Review 200 227 2075-4450 Associations of Conifer-Infesting Bark Beetles and Fungi in Fennoscandia 2012-02-15 doi: 10.3390/insects3010200 Riikka Linnakoski Z. Wilhelm de Beer Pekka Niemelä Michael J. Wingfield http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/161 The sex-determining systems of arthropods are surprisingly diverse. Some species have male or female heterogametic sex chromosomes while other species do not have sex chromosomes. Most species are diploids but some species, including wasps, ants, thrips and mites, are haplodiploids (n in males; 2n in females). Many of the sexual aberrations, such as sexual mosaics, sex-specific lethality and conversion of sexuality, can be explained by developmental defects including double fertilization of a binucleate egg, loss of a sex chromosome or perturbation of sex-determining gene expression, which occur accidentally or are induced by certain environmental conditions. However, recent studies have revealed that such sexual aberrations can be caused by various groups of vertically-transmitted endosymbiotic microbes such as bacteria of the genera Wolbachia, Rickettsia, Arsenophonus, Spiroplasma and Cardinium, as well as microsporidian protists. In this review, we first summarize the accumulated data on endosymbiont-induced sexual aberrations, and then discuss how such endosymbionts affect the developmental system of their hosts and what kinds of ecological and evolutionary effects these endosymbionts have on their host populations. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/161 Fri, 10 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-10 3 1 Review 161 199 2075-4450 Insect Sex Determination Manipulated by Their Endosymbionts: Incidences, Mechanisms and Implications 2012-02-10 doi: 10.3390/insects3010161 Daisuke Kageyama Satoko Narita Masaya Watanabe http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/141 Culture-independent analysis of the gut of a wood-boring insect, Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), revealed a consistent association between members of the fungal Fusarium solani species complex and the larval stage of both colony-derived and wild A. glabripennis populations. Using the translation elongation factor 1-alpha region for culture-independent phylogenetic and operational taxonomic unit (OTU)-based analyses, only two OTUs were detected, suggesting that genetic variance at this locus was low among A. glabripennis-associated isolates. To better survey the genetic variation of F. solani associated with A. glabripennis, and establish its phylogenetic relationship with other members of the F. solani species complex, single spore isolates were created from different populations and multi-locus phylogenetic analysis was performed using a combination of the translation elongation factor alpha-1, internal transcribed spacer, and large subunit rDNA regions. These analyses revealed that colony-derived larvae reared in three different tree species or on artificial diet, as well as larvae from wild populations collected from three additional tree species in New York City and from a single tree species in Worcester, MA, consistently harbored F. solani within their guts. While there is some genetic variation in the F. solani carried between populations, within-population variation is low. We speculate that F. solani is able to fill a broad niche in the A. glabripennis gut, providing it with fungal lignocellulases to allow the larvae to grow and develop on woody tissue. However, it is likely that many F. solani genotypes could potentially fill this niche, so the relationship may not be limited to a single member of the F. solani species complex. While little is known about the role of filamentous fungi and their symbiotic associations with insects, this report suggests that larval A. glabripennis has developed an intimate relationship with F. solani that is not limited by geographic location or host tree. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/141 Fri, 10 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-10 3 1 Article 141 160 2075-4450 Phylogenetic Analysis of Fusarium solani Associated with the Asian Longhorned Beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis 2012-02-10 doi: 10.3390/insects3010141 Scott M. Geib Erin D. Scully Maria del Mar Jimenez-Gasco John E. Carlson Ming Tien Kelli Hoover http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/133 This study evaluated foraging effectiveness of Pacific cicada killers (Sphecius convallis) by comparing observed prey loads to that predicted by an optimality model. Female S. convallis preyed exclusively on the cicada Tibicen parallelus, resulting in a mean loaded flight muscle ratio (FMR) of 0.187 (N = 46). This value lies just above the marginal level, and only seven wasps (15%) were below 0.179. The low standard error (0.002) suggests that S. convallis is the most ideal flying predator so far examined in this respect. Preying on a single species may have allowed stabilizing selection to adjust the morphology of females to a nearly ideal size. That the loaded FMR is slightly above the marginal level may provide a small safety factor for wasps that do not have optimal thorax temperatures or that have to contend with attempted prey theft. Operational FMR was directly related to wasp body mass. Smaller wasps were overloaded in spite of provisioning with smaller cicadas, while larger wasps were underloaded despite provisioning with larger cicadas. Small wasps may have abandoned larger cicadas because of difficulty with carriage. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/133 Fri, 10 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-10 3 1 Article 133 140 2075-4450 Near-Optimal Foraging in the Pacific Cicada Killer Sphecius convallis Patton (Hymenoptera: Crabronidae) 2012-02-10 doi: 10.3390/insects3010133 Joseph R. Coelho Jon M. Hastings Charles W. Holliday http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/131 Following publication of our article [1], we found errors in Table 4b. These errors do not make any difference to the main findings and conclusions reported in our paper. The numbers in the column for the range of mean ± 1 standard deviation for hind wings were incorrect. We wish to apologize for the mistake made and inconveniences caused. [...] http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/131 Fri, 03 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-03 3 1 Correction 131 132 2075-4450 Correction: Lim and Forschler, Reticulitermes nelsonae, a New Species of Subterranean Termite (Rhinotermitidae) from the Southeastern United States. Insects 2012, 3, 62-90. 2012-02-03 doi: 10.3390/insects3010131 Su Yee Lim Brian T. Forschler http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/120 Ants often form mutualistic interactions with aphids, soliciting honeydew in return for protective services. Under certain circumstances, however, ants will prey upon aphids. In addition, in the presence of ants aphids may increase the quantity or quality of honeydew produced, which is costly. Through these mechanisms, ant attendance can reduce aphid colony growth rates. However, it is unknown whether demand from within the ant colony can affect the ant-aphid interaction. In a factorial experiment, we tested whether the presence of larvae in Lasius niger ant colonies affected the growth rate of Aphis fabae colonies. Other explanatory variables tested were the origin of ant colonies (two separate colonies were used) and previous diet (sugar only or sugar and protein). We found that the presence of larvae in the ant colony significantly reduced the growth rate of aphid colonies. Previous diet and colony origin did not affect aphid colony growth rates. Our results suggest that ant colonies balance the flow of two separate resources from aphid colonies- renewable sugars or a protein-rich meal, depending on demand from ant larvae within the nest. Aphid payoffs from the ant-aphid interaction may change on a seasonal basis, as the demand from larvae within the ant colony waxes and wanes. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/120 Thu, 02 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-02-02 3 1 Article 120 130 2075-4450 Ant Larval Demand Reduces Aphid Colony Growth Rates in an Ant-Aphid Interaction 2012-02-02 doi: 10.3390/insects3010120 Tom H. Oliver Simon R. Leather James M. Cook http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/91 Symbiosis is a common phenomenon in which associated organisms can cooperate in ways that increase their ability to survive, reproduce, or utilize hostile environments. Here, we discuss polydnavirus symbionts of parasitic wasps. These viruses are novel in two ways: (1) they have become non-autonomous domesticated entities that cannot replicate outside of wasps; and (2) they function as a delivery vector of genes that ensure successful parasitism of host insects that wasps parasitize. In this review we discuss how these novelties may have arisen, which genes are potentially involved, and what the consequences have been for genome evolution. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/91 Tue, 31 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-01-31 3 1 Review 91 119 2075-4450 Polydnaviruses of Parasitic Wasps: Domestication of Viruses To Act as Gene Delivery Vectors 2012-01-31 doi: 10.3390/insects3010091 Gaelen R. Burke Michael R. Strand http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/62 Reticulitermes nelsonae, a new species of Rhinotermitidae (Isoptera) is described based on specimens from Sapelo Island, GA, Thomasville, GA, Havelock, NC, and Branford, FL. Adult (alate) and soldier forms are described. Diagnostic characters are provided and incorporated into a supplemental couplet of a dichotomous key to the known species of Reticulitermes found in Georgia, USA. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/62 Fri, 06 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-01-06 3 1 Article 62 90 2075-4450 Reticulitermes nelsonae, a New Species of Subterranean Termite (Rhinotermitidae) from the Southeastern United States 2012-01-06 doi: 10.3390/insects3010062 Su Yee Lim Brian T. Forschler http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/41 Fungus-growing ants gain access to nutrients stored in plant biomass through their association with a mutualistic fungus they grow for food. This 50 million-year-old obligate mutualism likely facilitated some of these species becoming dominant Neotropical herbivores that can achieve immense colony sizes. Recent culture-independent investigations have shed light on the conversion of plant biomass into nutrients within ant fungus gardens, revealing that this process involves both the fungal cultivar and a symbiotic community of bacteria including Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Pantoea species. Moreover, the genome sequences of the leaf-cutter ants Atta cephalotes and Acromyrmex echinatior have provided key insights into how this symbiosis has shaped the evolution of these ants at a genetic level. Here we summarize the findings of recent research on the microbial community dynamics within fungus-growing ant fungus gardens and discuss their implications for this ancient symbiosis. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/41 Fri, 06 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-01-06 3 1 Review 41 61 2075-4450 The Evolutionary Innovation of Nutritional Symbioses in Leaf-Cutter Ants 2012-01-06 doi: 10.3390/insects3010041 Frank O. Aylward Cameron R. Currie Garret Suen http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/25 Twenty-one boards infested with drywood termites were examined for activity using a Termatrac® motion detector. Termite galleries were identified using a Resistograph drill and treated with one of three ready-to-use (RTU) products. Results indicated that the Termatrac was excellent at locating termite activity but provided 9.5% false negatives. The Resistograph located termite galleries with an average of 4.6 ± 2.7 holes drilled to find at least one gallery in a board. Treatments included three formulations and two active ingredients; a foam (imidacloprid), a dry (fipronil) and an experimental formulation in a pressurized can (fipronil). All treatments provided evidence for a reduction in mean termite populations per board compared to the control. Two treatments provided evidence of elimination of infestation but no formulation eliminated infestations in every board that was treated. The concept of local treatment for drywood termite control is discussed relative to our results. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/25 Tue, 03 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Insects 2012-01-03 3 1 Article 25 40 2075-4450 Evaluation of a Localized Treatment Technique Using Three Ready-to-Use Products Against the Drywood Termite Incisitermes snyderi (Kalotermitidae) in Naturally Infested Lumber 2012-01-03 doi: 10.3390/insects3010025 Robert Hickman Brian T. Forschler http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/18 The resistance of yemane (Gmelina arborea Roxb.)-based wood wool cement board (WWCB) against Philippine termites was evaluated under laboratory and field conditions. Tests were conducted following the FPRDI standard procedures in determining the resistance of WWCB against subterranean and drywood termites. Results of the laboratory tests showed that WWCB was resistant to both Microcerotermes losbañosensis Oshima and Cryptotermes dudleyi Banks. Under field conditions, WWCB was highly resistant to subterranean termites. There was no remarkable termite damage except for the normal nibbling or initial termite feeding on the board during the 8-year exposure period. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/18 Wed, 28 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-12-28 3 1 Article 18 24 2075-4450 Resistance of Wood Wool Cement Board to the Attack of Philippine Termites 2011-12-28 doi: 10.3390/insects3010018 Carlos M. Garcia Dwight A. Eusebio Marciana R. San Pablo Edgar M. Villena http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/1 A majority of humans spend their waking hours surrounded by insects, so it should be no surprise that insects also appear in humans’ dreams as we sleep. Dreaming about insects has a peculiar history, marked by our desire to explain a dream’s significance and by the tactic of evoking emotions by injecting insects in dream-related works of art, film, music, and literature. I surveyed a scattered literature for examples of insects in dreams, first from the practices of dream interpretation, psychiatry, and scientific study, then from fictional writings and popular culture, and finally in the etymology of entomology by highlighting insects with dream-inspired Latinate names. A wealth of insects in dreams, as documented clinically and culturally, attests to the perceived relevance of dreams and to the ubiquity of insects in our lives. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/3/1/1 Wed, 21 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-12-21 3 1 Article 1 17 2075-4450 The Curious Connection Between Insects and Dreams 2011-12-21 doi: 10.3390/insects3010001 Barrett A. Klein http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/564 During the past decade a few artists and even fewer entomologists discovered flatbed scanning technology, using extreme resolution graphical arts scanners for acquiring high magnification digital images of plants, animals and inanimate objects. They are not just for trip receipts anymore. The special attributes of certain scanners, to image thick objects is discussed along with the technical features of the scanners including magnification, color depth and shadow detail. The work of pioneering scanner artist, Joseph Scheer from New York’s Alfred University is highlighted. Representative flatbed-scanned images of moths are illustrated along with techniques to produce them. Collecting and preparing moths, and other objects, for scanning are described. Highlights of the Fulbright sabbatical year of professor Scheer in Arizona and Sonora, Mexico are presented, along with comments on moths in science, folklore, art and pop culture. The use of flatbed scanners is offered as a relatively new method for visualizing small objects while acquiring large files for creating archival inkjet prints for display and sale. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/564 Wed, 14 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-12-14 2 4 Article 564 583 2075-4450 Moths on the Flatbed Scanner: The Art of Joseph Scheer 2011-12-14 doi: 10.3390/insects2040564 Stephen L. Buchmann http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/555 Activity of colonies of the western drywood termite, Incisitermes minor, was measured with acoustic emission (AE) technology in five loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) logs. Termite activity, whether it was feeding, excavation or movement, was monitored for 11 months under ambient conditions in a small wooden structure maintained at the University of California Richmond Field Station. AE, temperature, and humidity data were measured in 3-minute increments. Termite activity was greater during the warmer summer months compared to the cooler winter months. Termites in all five logs displayed a similar daily cycle of activity, peaking in the late afternoon. Seasonal and daily fluctuations in termite activity were significantly associated with temperature, whereas humidity did not appear to have a noticeable effect on termite activity. Possible mechanisms that drive the seasonal and daily cycles in termite activity, as measured by AE technology, and the possible implications for inspections and post-treatment analysis are discussed. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/555 Mon, 12 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-12-12 2 4 Article 555 563 2075-4450 Seasonal and Daily Patterns in Activity of the Western Drywood Termite, Incisitermes minor (Hagen) 2011-12-12 doi: 10.3390/insects2040555 Vernard Lewis Shawn Leighton Robin Tabuchi Michael Haverty http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/540 The present paper reviews the biology of reed beetles (Donaciinae), presents experimental data on the role of specific symbiotic bacteria, and describes a molecular method for the detection of those bacteria. Reed beetles are herbivores living on wetland plants, each species being mono- or oligo-phagous. They lay their eggs on the host plant and the larvae live underwater in the sediment attached to its roots. The larvae pupate there in a water-tight cocoon, which they build using a secretion that is produced by symbiotic bacteria. The bacteria are located in four blind sacs at the foregut of the larvae; in (female) adults they colonize two out of the six Malpighian tubules. Tetracycline treatment of larvae reduced their pupation rate, although the bacteria could not be fully eliminated. When the small amount of bacterial mass attached to eggs was experimentally removed before hatching, symbiont free larvae resulted, showing the external transmission of the bacteria to the offspring. Specific primers were designed to detect the bacteria, and to confirm their absence in manipulated larvae. The pupation underwater enabled the reed beetles to permanently colonize the wetlands and to diversify in this habitat underexploited by herbivorous insects (adaptive radiation). http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/540 Fri, 09 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-12-09 2 4 Article 540 554 2075-4450 Adopting Bacteria in Order to Adapt to Water—How Reed Beetles Colonized the Wetlands (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Donaciinae) 2011-12-09 doi: 10.3390/insects2040540 Birgit Kleinschmidt Gregor Kölsch http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/532 With the advancement from natural pyrethrins to synthetic pyrethroids, their applications have expanded from household insecticides for indoor use against sanitary pests to outdoor use for agriculture, forestry, animal health, termite control, and many other pest situations. However, high fish toxicity and development of pyrethroid resistance in some pests have been cited as common shortcomings of pyrethroids. To overcome these pyrethroid problems such as high fish toxicity, Katsuda and fellow scientists invented silafluofen by introducing a silicone atom into the pyrethroidal chemical structure in 1984. In addition to the high insecticidal activity and low mammalian toxicity, this compound features low fish toxicity, chemical stability under sunlight, in the soil and under alkaline environments. These features make silafluofen unique among pyrethroids. In Japan, silafluofen has been used as an agricultural insecticide for 15 years since 1995 for various plants, especially useful for paddy rice protection because of its low fish toxicity. Over the last 20 years, silafluofen-based termiticides including emulsifiable concentrate (EC) and oil formulations have been widely used in Japan for soil treatment and timber treatments. Additional silafluofen product lines include anti-termitic plastic sheets which are laid under buildings. In this paper, literature on the development of silafluofen and its use in Japan are reviewed. On the other hand, in Thailand, we proceeded with development works of silafluofen-based termiticides from 2005 by starting laboratory efficacy tests and field efficacy tests in Phuket. Both laboratory and field tests showed good efficacy as a soil termiticide, suggesting that the material will perform well for commercial use in high biological hazard environments such as Thailand and can be used in environments close to water where fish toxicity might be a concern with other pyrethroids. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/532 Thu, 08 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-12-08 2 4 Review 532 539 2075-4450 Development of Silafluofen-Based Termiticides in Japan and Thailand 2011-12-08 doi: 10.3390/insects2040532 Yoshio Katsuda Yoshihiro Minamite Charunee Vongkaluang http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/515 Bacteria excel in most ecological niches, including insect symbioses. A cluster of bacterial symbionts, established within a broad range of insects, share high 16S rRNA similarities with the secondary symbiont of the tsetse fly (Diptera: Glossinidae), Sodalis glossinidius. Although 16S rRNA has proven informative towards characterization of this clade, the gene is insufficient for examining recent divergence due to selective constraints. Here, we assess the application of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions, specifically the ITSglu and ITSala,ile, used in conjunction with 16S rRNA to enhance the phylogenetic resolution of Sodalis-allied bacteria. The 16S rRNA + ITS regions of Sodalis and allied bacteria demonstrated significant divergence and were robust towards phylogenetic resolution. A monophyletic clade of Sodalis isolates from tsetse species, distinct from other Enterobacteriaceae, was consistently observed suggesting diversification due to host adaptation. In contrast, the phylogenetic distribution of symbionts isolated from hippoboscid flies and various Hemiptera and Coleoptera were intertwined suggesting either horizontal transfer or a recent establishment from an environmental source. Lineage splitting of Sodalis-allied bacteria into symbiotic and free-living sister groups was also observed. Additionally, we propose an ITS region as a diagnostic marker for the identification of additional Sodalis-allied symbionts in the field. These results expand our knowledge of informative genome regions to assess genetic divergence since splitting from the last common ancestor, of this versatile insect symbiont clade that have become increasingly recognized as valuable towards our understanding of the evolution of symbiosis. These facultative and recently associated symbionts may provide a novel source of traits adaptable to the dynamic ecologies encountered by diverse host backgrounds. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/515 Wed, 30 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-11-30 2 4 Article 515 531 2075-4450 Use of the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) Regions to Examine Symbiont Divergence and as a Diagnostic Tool for Sodalis-Related Bacteria 2011-11-30 doi: 10.3390/insects2040515 Anna K. Snyder Kenneth Z. Adkins Rita V. M. Rio http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/509 Endoparasitoid wasps inject a variety of components into their host hemocoel at oviposition to facilitate successful development of their progeny. Among these are venom proteins which have been shown to play crucial roles in host regulation. A serine protease homolog (SPH)-like venom protein from Cotesia rubecula was previously shown to inhibit melanization in the host hemolymph by blocking activation of prophenoloxidase to phenoloxidase, a key enzyme in melanin formation. Similar to other SPHs, Vn50 consists of a clip and a protease-like (SPL) domain. Protein modeling demonstrated that Vn50 has a very similar structure to known SPHs and functional analysis of Vn50 domains expressed in insect cells indicated that neither of the domains on its own has an inhibitory effect on melanization. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/509 Fri, 25 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-11-25 2 4 Communication 509 514 2075-4450 Inhibition of Melanization by a Parasitoid Serine Protease Homolog Venom Protein Requires Both the Clip and the Non-Catalytic Protease-Like Domains 2011-11-25 doi: 10.3390/insects2040509 Pune Thomas Sassan Asgari http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/499 The Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, and the Asian subterranean termite, Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann), are both pests of wood in service in Hawaii and Florida. We conducted a laboratory study using method modified from those described in standard E1-09 of the American Wood Protection Association (AWPA 2009) to assess the termite resistance of three commercially available wood species used in regions of the USA where both termite species occur: Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga menziessii, southern yellow pine, Pinus spp. and redwood, Sequoia sempervirens. A multiple-choice (three-choice) assay was used for four weeks (28 days) in order to simulate field conditions of food choice and assess termite feeding preferences under 28 °C and 72–80% RH. 400 termites (360 workers: 40 soldiers) were released into each test jar. Five replicates and two controls of each wood species were used with each termite species. Termite mortality was recorded at the end of the test; and wood wafers were oven-dried and weighed before and after termite exposure to determine the mass loss due to termite feeding, and rated visually on a 0 (failure) to 10 (sound) scale. There were significant differences in mean mass loss values among the three wood species and between two termite species. The mean mass loss value for redwood was significantly lower than Douglas fir and southern yellow pine with both termite species. However, C. formosanus showed increased feeding on Douglas fir and southern yellow pine compared to C. gestroi. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/499 Fri, 25 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-11-25 2 4 Article 499 508 2075-4450 Preferences of Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki and Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann) (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae) among Three Commercial Wood Species 2011-11-25 doi: 10.3390/insects2040499 Nirmala K. Hapukotuwa J. Kenneth Grace http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/491 The utilization of pesticides often leaves residues which potentially pollute the environment. This journal issue has been encouraging some researchers to find an environmentally friendly insecticide by a cheaper wood preservative method. The International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures 15 (ISPM 15) [1] that is adopted in wood packaging protection in Europe is not suitable for tropical countries like Indonesia. Therefore, the treatment by Organo-Complex-based wood preservation, which consists of copper chromium combined with natural organic compounds, is proposed for effective treatment at a lower cost. The bioassay test was subjected to dry wood termite Cryptotermes cynocephalus Light. The result showed that wood materials treated by 10 ppm Organo-Complex formula gave good results which were indicated by the low consumption and the fast termination of the termites. The toxicity analysis of C-C organic compound solution is classified as grade IV (WHO, 2003) [2], or not harmful. Analysis of the residual content four weeks after the spraying treatment showed a significant reduction in the inorganic content (copper chromate complex), in the range of 35%, and in extracts of natural materials (natural extracts), above 80%. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/491 Tue, 15 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-11-15 2 4 Article 491 498 2075-4450 The Efficacy of Organo-Complex-Based Wood Preservative Formula Against Dry-Wood Termite Cryptotermes cynocephalus Light 2011-11-15 doi: 10.3390/insects2040491 Maya Ismayati Khoirul Himmi Setiawan Didi Tarmadi Deni Zulfiana Sulaeman Yusuf Budi Santoso http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/486 The effectiveness of a chlorfluazuron termite bait in eliminating colonies of the termite species Macrotermes gilvus (Hagen) was evaluated under field conditions. Three active termite mounds were chosen for this study, two acted as test mounds and the other as the control. Four In-Ground Stations (IGS) were installed around each mound. Interception occurred almost immediately in all the stations, which were subsequently baited. The control mound was fed a bait matrix lacking the active ingredient. Stations were re-baited every 2 weeks for 10–12 weeks until bait consumption ceased in the test mounds. The mounds were left undisturbed for four more weeks before being destructively sampled. The desiccated remains of workers, soldiers, late instars and queen were found upon sampling the treated mounds. A few live termites were located in one treated mound but were darkly pigmented indicating bait consumption. The control mound remained healthy and did not show any visible sign of negative impact. The bait successfully suppressed or eliminated both M. gilvus colonies within 16 weeks from commencement of feeding. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/486 Thu, 10 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-11-10 2 4 Product Review 486 490 2075-4450 A Preliminary Study on Elimination of Colonies of the Mound Building Termite Macrotermes gilvus (Hagen) Using a Chlorfluazuron Termite Bait in the Philippines 2011-11-10 doi: 10.3390/insects2040486 Partho Dhang http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/475 Bamboo is widely grown and utilized as a construction material around the world, particularly in the tropics. At present, there are about 70 bamboo species and varieties recorded from Hawaii. The objective of our study was to determine the relative resistance of six Hawaii-grown bamboo species to attack by Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki and Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann). Four-week laboratory feeding trials were performed as described in standard E1-09 of the American Wood Protection Association (AWPA 2009). Samples of each of the six bamboo species were individually exposed to 200 termites (with 10% soldiers); and termite mortality, wood mass loss, and visual appearance of the samples (on a scale of 0–10) were recorded at the conclusion of the trail. Mean mass losses of the six species as a result of termite feeding ranged from 13–29%; with the two most resistant bamboo species, Gigantocholoa pseudoarundinacea and Bambusa oldhamii, demonstrating significantly greater resistance to termite attack than the most susceptible bamboo species, Guadua anguistifolia, with both termite species. Dendrocalamus brandisii, Dendrocalamus latiflorus, and Bambusa hirose were intermediate in their termite resistance. Overall, we observed very little difference in wood preference between C. formosanus and C. gestroi. Although bamboo is a very promising construction material, and species clearly differ in their susceptibility to termite attack, all six species evaluated in the present study would require additional protection for use under conditions of high termite pressure. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/475 Thu, 03 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-11-03 2 4 Article 475 485 2075-4450 Comparative Study of the Resistance of Six Hawaii-Grown Bamboo Species to Attack by the Subterranean Termites Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki and Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann) (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae) 2011-11-03 doi: 10.3390/insects2040475 Nirmala K. Hapukotuwa J. Kenneth Grace http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/469 A study was carried out to evaluate the incidence of termite attack on an Araucaria cunninghamii plantation at Teluk Bahang Forest Park (TBFP), Penang. The hilly plantation area was surveyed to determine the diversity of termite species present. Termite specimens were collected from standin Araucaria trees, underground monitoring (aggregation) stations, fallen logs, forest litter and mounds (nests). Seven species of termites were identified from 6 genera; Coptotermes curvignathus, Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus, Schedorhinotermes malaccensis, Odontotermes sarawakensis Parrhinotermes aequalis, Macrotermes malaccensis and Hospitalitermes hospitalis. A total of 289 Araucaria trees were inspected for signs of termite attack. Termite infestation of trees was determined mainly by the presence of mud on the trunk, but particularly around their butts at ground line. The most dominant termite species discovered infesting the Araucaria trees was Coptotermes curvignathus; accountable for 74% of all infestations. Schedorhinotermes medioobscurus and Odontotermes sarawakensis were commonly found infesting dead trees and/or tree stumps. Approximately 21.5% of all Araucaria trees in the plantation forest at Teluk Bahang were infested by termites. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/469 Wed, 02 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-11-02 2 4 Article 469 474 2075-4450 Termite Incidence on an Araucaria Plantation Forest in Teluk Bahang, Penang 2011-11-02 doi: 10.3390/insects2040469 Aiman Hanis Jasmi Abu Hassan Ahmad http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/462 A study was carried out to test sisal (Agave sisalana Perrine) fiberboards properties as building materials against Asian subterranean termite, Coptotermes gestroi (Wasmann). Evaluation was in the laboratory according to the JWPA Standard-TW-S.1-1992. To improve mechanical properties of fiberboards made from sisal fibers, the boards were overlaid by rubber veneer, betung bamboo matting or formica. Result showed that the formica-overlaid sisal fiberboards performed better than other overlaid fiberboards against C. gestroi. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/462 Mon, 31 Oct 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-10-31 2 4 Article 462 468 2075-4450 Termite Resistant Properties of Sisal Fiberboards 2011-10-31 doi: 10.3390/insects2040462 Firda Aulya Syamani Bambang Subiyanto Muhamad Yusram Massijaya http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/447 Studies of connectivity of natural populations are often conducted at different timescales. Studies that focus on contemporary timescales ask questions about dispersal abilities and dispersal behavior of their study species. In contrast, studies conducted at historical timescales are usually more focused on evolutionary or biogeographic questions. In this paper we present a synthesis of connectivity studies that have addressed both these timescales in Australian Trichoptera and Ephemeroptera. We conclude that: (1) For both groups, the major mechanism of dispersal is by adult flight, with larval drift playing a very minor role and with unusual patterns of genetic structure at fine scales explained by the “patchy recruitment hypothesis”; (2) There is some evidence presented to suggest that at slightly larger spatial scales (~100 km) caddisflies may be slightly more connected than mayflies; (3) Examinations of three species at historical timescales showed that, in southeast Queensland Australia, despite there being no significant glaciation during the Pleistocene, there are clear impacts of Pleistocene climate changes on their genetic structure; and (4) The use of mitochondrial DNA sequence data has uncovered a number of cryptic species complexes in both trichopterans and ephemeropterans. We conclude with a number of suggestions for further work. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/447 Thu, 20 Oct 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-10-20 2 4 Review 447 461 2075-4450 Aquatic Insects in Eastern Australia: A Window on Ecology and Evolution of Dispersal in Streams 2011-10-20 doi: 10.3390/insects2040447 Jane M. Hughes Joel A. Huey Alison J. McLean Olivier Baggiano http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/435 Amphibian predator–insect prey relationships are common in terrestrial habitats, but amphibian larvae are preyed upon by a variety of aquatic hemipterans in aquatic habitats. This paper suggests that the survival of the nymphs of the endangered aquatic hemipteran Kirkaldyia (=Lethocerus) deyrolli (Belostomatidae: Heteroptera) is directly and indirectly affected by the abundance of their amphibian larval prey (tadpoles). Young nymphs of K. deyrolli mainly feed on tadpoles, regardless of differences in prey availability. Nymphs provided with tadpoles grow faster than nymphs provided with invertebrate prey. Therefore, tadpole consumption seems to be required to allow the nymphs to complete their larval development. In addition, the survival of K. deyrolli nymphs was greater during the period of highest tadpole density (June) than during a period of low tadpole density (July). Higher tadpole density moderates predation pressure from the water scorpion Laccotrephes japonensis (Nepidae: Heteroptera) on K. deyrolli nymphs; i.e., it has a density-mediated indirect effect. These results suggest that an abundance of tadpoles in June provides food for K. deyrolli nymphs (a direct bottom-up effect) and moderates the predation pressure from L. japonensis (an indirect bottom-up effect). An abundance of amphibian prey is indispensable for the conservation of this endangered giant water bug species. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/4/435 Fri, 30 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-09-30 2 4 Communication 435 446 2075-4450 Density-Dependent Effects of Amphibian Prey on the Growth and Survival of an Endangered Giant Water Bug 2011-09-30 doi: 10.3390/insects2040435 Shin-ya Ohba http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/423 Obligate nutritional symbioses require balance between the energetic needs of the host and the symbiont. The resident symbiont population size within a host may have major impacts on host fitness, as both host and symbiont consume and supply metabolites in a shared metabolite pool. Given the massive genome degradation that is a hallmark of bacterial endosymbionts of insects, it is unclear at what level these populations are regulated, and how regulation varies among hosts within natural populations. We measured the titer of the endosymbiont Buchnera aphidicola from different clones of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, and found significant variation in titer, measured as Buchnera genomes per aphid genome, among aphid clones. Additionally, we found that titer can change with the age of the host, and that the number of bacteriocytes within an aphid is one factor likely controlling Buchnera titer. Buchnera titer measurements in clones from a sexual cross indicate that the symbiont genotype is not responsible for variation in titer and that this phenotype is likely non-heritable across sexual reproduction. Symbiont titer is more variable among lab-produced F1 aphid clones than among field-collected ones, suggesting that intermediate titer is favored in natural populations. Potentially, a low heritability of titer during the sexual phase may generate clones with extreme and maladaptive titers each season. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/423 Fri, 16 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-09-16 2 3 Article 423 434 2075-4450 Effect of Host Genotype on Symbiont Titer in the Aphid—Buchnera Symbiosis 2011-09-16 doi: 10.3390/insects2030423 Kevin J. Vogel Nancy A. Moran http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/412 Developing effective alternative approaches for disinfesting bed bugs from residential spaces requires a balance between obtaining complete insect mortality, while minimizing costs and energy consumption. One method of disinfestation is the application of lethal high temperatures directly to rooms and contents within a structure (termed whole-room heat treatments). However, temperature and time parameters for efficacy in whole-room heat treatments are unknown given the slower rate of temperature increase and the probable variability of end-point temperatures within a treated room. The objective of these experiments was to explore requirements to produce maximum mortality from heat exposure using conditions that are more characteristic of whole-room heat treatments. Bed bugs were exposed in an acute lethal temperature (LTemp) trial, or time trials at sub-acute lethal temperatures (LTime). The lethal temperature (LTemp99) for adults was 48.3 °C, while LTemp99 for eggs was 54.8 °C. Adult bed bugs exposed to 45 °C had a LTime99 of 94.8 min, while eggs survived 7 h at 45 °C and only 71.5 min at 48 °C. We discuss differences in exposure methodologies, potential reasons why bed bugs can withstand higher temperatures and future directions for research. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/412 Mon, 29 Aug 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-08-29 2 3 Article 412 422 2075-4450 Temperature and Time Requirements for Controlling Bed Bugs (Cimex lectularius) under Commercial Heat Treatment Conditions 2011-08-29 doi: 10.3390/insects2030412 Stephen A. Kells Michael J. Goblirsch http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/400 Butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) have been suggested for the environmental monitoring of genetically modified (GM) crops due to their suitability as ecological indicators, and because of the possible adverse impact of the cultivation of current transgenic crops. The German Association of Engineers (VDI) has developed guidelines for the standardized monitoring of Lepidoptera describing the use of light traps for adult moths, transect counts for adult butterflies, and visual search for larvae. The guidelines suggest recording adults of Crambid Snout Moths during transect counts in addition to butterflies, and present detailed protocols for the visual search of larvae. In a field survey in three regions of Germany, we tested the practicability and effort-benefit ratio of the latter two VDI approaches. Crambid Snout Moths turned out to be suitable and practical indicators, which can easily be recorded during transect counts. They were present in 57% of the studied field margins, contributing a substantial part to the overall Lepidoptera count, thus providing valuable additional information to the monitoring results. Visual search of larvae generated results in an adequate effort-benefit ratio when searching for lepidopteran larvae of common species feeding on nettles. Visual search for larvae living on host plants other than nettles was time-consuming and yielded much lower numbers of recorded larvae. Beating samples of bushes and trees yielded a higher number of species and individuals. This method is especially appropriate when hedgerows are sampled, and was judged to perform intermediate concerning the relationship between invested sampling effort and obtained results for lepidopteran larvae. In conclusion, transect counts of adult Crambid Moths and recording of lepidopteran larvae feeding on nettles are feasible additional modules for an environmental monitoring of GM crops. Monitoring larvae living on host plants other than nettles and beating samples of bushes and trees can be used as a supplementary tool if necessary or desired. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/400 Wed, 10 Aug 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-08-10 2 3 Article 400 411 2075-4450 Are Adult Crambid Snout Moths (Crambinae) and Larval Stages of Lepidoptera Suitable Tools for an Environmental Monitoring of Transgenic Crops? — Implications of a Field Test 2011-08-10 doi: 10.3390/insects2030400 Andreas Lang Matthias Dolek Bernhard Theißen Andreas Zapp http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/369 A prediction in phylogeographic studies is that patterns of lineage diversity and timing will be similar within the same landscape under the assumption that these lineages have responded to past environmental changes in comparable ways. Eight invertebrate taxa from four different orders were included in this study of mainland New Zealand and Chatham Islands lineages to explore outcomes of island colonization. These comprised two orthopteran genera, one an endemic forest-dwelling genus of cave weta (Rhaphidophoridae, Talitropsis) and the other a grasshopper (Acrididae, Phaulacridum) that inhabits open grassland; four genera of Coleoptera including carabid beetles (Mecodema), stag beetles (Geodorcus), weevils (Hadramphus) and clickbeetles (Amychus); the widespread earwig genus Anisolabis (Dermaptera) that is common on beaches in New Zealand and the Chatham Islands, and an endemic and widespread cockroach genus Celatoblatta (Blattodea). Mitochondrial DNA data were used to reconstruct phylogeographic hypotheses to compare among these taxa. Strikingly, despite a maximum age of the Chathams of ~4 million years there is no concordance among these taxa, in the extent of genetic divergence and partitioning between Chatham and Mainland populations. Some Chatham lineages are represented by insular endemics and others by haplotypes shared with mainland populations. These diverse patterns suggest that combinations of intrinsic (taxon ecology) and extrinsic (extinction and dispersal) factors can result in apparently very different biogeographic outcomes. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/369 Wed, 03 Aug 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-08-03 2 3 Article 369 399 2075-4450 Exploring Phylogeographic Congruence in a Continental Island System 2011-08-03 doi: 10.3390/insects2030369 Julia Goldberg Steven A. Trewick http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/354 Subsocial, xylophagous cockroaches of the genus Cryptocercus exhibit a disjunct distribution, with representatives in mature montane forests of North America, China, Korea and the Russian Far East. All described species are wingless and dependent on rotting wood for food and shelter at all stages of their life cycle; consequently, their distribution is tied to that of forests and strongly influenced by palaeogeographical events. Asian and American lineages form distinct monophyletic groups, comprised of populations with complex geographic substructuring. We review the phylogeny and distribution of Cryptocercus, and discuss splitting events inferred from molecular data. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/354 Tue, 19 Jul 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-07-19 2 3 Review 354 368 2075-4450 Biogeography and Phylogeny of Wood-feeding Cockroaches in the Genus Cryptocercus 2011-07-19 doi: 10.3390/insects2030354 Kiyoto Maekawa Christine A. Nalepa http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/343 The resurgence of bed bugs in major urban centres in North America has resulted in conflict between landlords and tenants. This is commonly focused on attribution of blame for source of infestation, on responsibility, on costs for preparation, treatment and losses, and for compensation as rent abatement and/or alternative temporary housing. In Ontario, Canada, these issues are often decided by adjudicators at the Landlord and Tenant Board hearing claims, counter-claims and defense by legal representation (lawyers and paralegals) as well as through mediation. Evidence in these hearings may include photographs, invoices for costs as well as testimony by tenants, landlords and “expert witnesses” who are most often pest control firms representing their landlord clients. A total of 44 Landlord and Tenant Board adjudicated cases available online were analyzed. The analysis included elements of the decisions such as adjudicator, claimant (landlord or tenant), basis of claim, review of evidence, amount of claim, amount awarded, and evaluation of the quality of the evidence. The results of the analysis of these findings are discussed. Recommendations for improvement of adjudicator decisions on the basis of knowledge of bed bug biology and Integrated Pest Management best practices are presented as well as the importance of education of tenants and landlords to a process of mutual trust, support and accountability. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/343 Tue, 19 Jul 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-07-19 2 3 Article 343 353 2075-4450 Analysis of 44 Cases before the Landlord and Tenant Board Involving Bed Bug Infestations in Ontario, Canada: Focus on Adjudicator Decisions Based on Entomological/Pest Management Evidence and Accountability under the Residential Tenancy Act and Other Applicable Legislation 2011-07-19 doi: 10.3390/insects2030343 Sam Bryks http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/336 I investigated the popularity of different lampyrid species (34 species) in Japanese culture as part of a study on cultural entomology. Popularity was assessed by the Google search volume for Japanese lampyrid species names in katakana and hiragana scripts, using the Keyword Tool of Google AdWords. The search volume of lampyrid species as “Genji-botaru” (Luciola cruciata Motschulsky), “Heike-botaru” (Luciola lateralis Motschulsky) and “Hime-botaru” (Hotaria parvula Kiesenwetter), in either or both katakana and hiragana syllabic scripts, was enormously high relative to other lampyrid species, indicating the biased attention of Japanese to these lampyrid species. In addition, search volumes for familial or common lampyrid name (“Hotaru”) was assessed and compared with that of 34 lampyrid species. This analyzing result showed that: (1) the search volumes for katakana and hiragana were 37.7 and 773.1 times higher for “Hotaru” than “Genji-botaru”, respectively; and (2) the search volume for all lampyrid species was clearly higher in katakana than hiragana, whereas the search volumes for “Hotaru” were clearly higher in hiragana than katakana. These results suggest that: (1) the Japanese public tends to perceive lampyrids with not a clear but an ambiguous taxonomic view; and (2) the attitude of the Japanese public toward lampyrids differs between those who perceive lampyrids with a clear taxonomic view (at species level) and with an ambiguous taxonomic view. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/336 Tue, 05 Jul 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-07-05 2 3 Article 336 342 2075-4450 Popularity of Different Lampyrid Species in Japanese Culture as Measured by Google Search Volume 2011-07-05 doi: 10.3390/insects2030336 Kenta Takada http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/326 Egg production was compared among three field-collected bed bug strains over the course of 13 feeding/oviposition cycles, each of which lasted ~10 days. No significant differences were found among bed bug strains in the mean number of eggs/female/day (~1.0 egg). However, significant differences were found among strains in their patterns of egg production throughout the study period. Specifically, differences were observed in the timing of peak egg production and the rapidity of egg production decline among the three strains. Egg production was also quantified for female bed bugs that were subjected to single or multiple traumatic insemination events over a period of six feeding/oviposition cycles. Significant differences were found in egg production between females exposed to single and multiple inseminations. Females mated only once produced 83.8 ± 4.5 (mean ± SE) eggs over six feeding cycles. Females exposed to multiple inseminations produced 61.0 ± 3.1 eggs, indicating that multiple traumatic inseminations may reduce female fecundity by as much as 27%. This study is the first to suggest that, in a new infestation (first ~6 weeks), a solitary, singly-mated female with access to regular blood meals is capable of producing greater numbers of offspring than the same female in the presence of a male. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/326 Tue, 05 Jul 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-07-05 2 3 Article 326 335 2075-4450 Reproductive Potential of Field-collected Populations of Cimex lectularius L. and the Cost of Traumatic Insemination 2011-07-05 doi: 10.3390/insects2030326 Andrea M. Polanco Dini M. Miller Carlyle C. Brewster http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/297 Phylogeography contributes to our knowledge of regional biotas by integrating spatial and genetic information. In New Zealand, comprising two main islands and hundreds of smaller ones, phylogeography has transformed the way we view our biology and allowed comparison with other parts of the world. Here we review studies on New Zealand terrestrial and freshwater invertebrates. We find little evidence of congruence among studies of different taxa; instead there are signatures of partitioning in many different regions and expansion in different directions. A number of studies have revealed unusually high genetic distances within putative species, and in those where other data confirm this taxonomy, the revealed phylogeographic structure contrasts with northern hemisphere continental systems. Some taxa show a signature indicative of Pliocene tectonic events encompassing land extension and mountain building, whereas others are consistent with range expansion following the last glacial maximum (LGM) of the Pleistocene. There is some indication that montane taxa are more partitioned than lowland ones, but this observation is obscured by a broad range of patterns within the sample of lowland/forest taxa. We note that several geophysical processes make similar phylogeographic predictions for the same landscape, rendering confirmation of the drivers of partitioning difficult. Future multi-gene analyses where applied to testable alternative hypotheses may help resolve further the rich evolutionary history of New Zealand’s invertebrates. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/297 Fri, 01 Jul 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-07-01 2 3 Review 297 325 2075-4450 The Invertebrate Life of New Zealand: A Phylogeographic Approach 2011-07-01 doi: 10.3390/insects2030297 Steven A. Trewick Graham P. Wallis Mary Morgan-Richards http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/273 We aimed to describe the main Arctic biogeographical patterns of the Collembola, and analyze historical factors and current climatic regimes determining Arctic collembolan species distribution. Furthermore, we aimed to identify possible dispersal routes, colonization sources and glacial refugia for Arctic collembola. We implemented a Gaussian Mixture Clustering method on species distribution ranges and applied a distance-based parametric bootstrap test on presence-absence collembolan species distribution data. Additionally, multivariate analysis was performed considering species distributions, biodiversity, cluster distribution and environmental factors (temperature and precipitation). No clear relation was found between current climatic regimes and species distribution in the Arctic. Gaussian Mixture Clustering found common elements within Siberian areas, Atlantic areas, the Canadian Arctic, a mid-Siberian cluster and specific Beringian elements, following the same pattern previously described, using a variety of molecular methods, for Arctic plants. Species distribution hence indicate the influence of recent glacial history, as LGM glacial refugia (mid-Siberia, and Beringia) and major dispersal routes to high Arctic island groups can be identified. Endemic species are found in the high Arctic, but no specific biogeographical pattern can be clearly identified as a sign of high Arctic glacial refugia. Ocean currents patterns are suggested as being an important factor shaping the distribution of Arctic Collembola, which is consistent with Antarctic studies in collembolan biogeography. The clear relations between cluster distribution and geographical areas considering their recent glacial history, lack of relationship of species distribution with current climatic regimes, and consistency with previously described Arctic patterns in a series of organisms inferred using a variety of methods, suggest that historical phenomena shaping contemporary collembolan distribution can be inferred through biogeographical analysis. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/273 Wed, 29 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-06-29 2 3 Article 273 296 2075-4450 A Holarctic Biogeographical Analysis of the Collembola (Arthropoda, Hexapoda) Unravels Recent Post-Glacial Colonization Patterns 2011-06-29 doi: 10.3390/insects2030273 María Luisa Ávila-Jiménez Stephen James Coulson http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/264 The stink bug, Megacopta cribraria, has an obligate relationship with a bacterial endosymbiont which allows it to feed on legumes. The insect is a pest of soybeans in Asia and was first reported in the Western Hemisphere in October 2009 on kudzu vine, Pueraria montana, in North Georgia, USA. By October 2010 M. cribraria had been confirmed in 80 counties in Georgia actively feeding on kudzu vine and soybean plants. Since the symbiosis may support the bug’s ecological expansions, a population genetic baseline for the symbiosis was developed from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and nuclear DNA (nuDNA) gene sequence collected from each insect and its primary g- proteobacterium and secondary a -proteobacterium endosymbionts. A single mitochondrial DNA haplotype was found in all insects sampled in Georgia and South Carolina identified as GA1. The GAI haplotype appears to be rapidly dispersing across Georgia and into contiguous states. Primary and secondary endosymbiont gene sequences from M. cribraria in Georgia were the same as those found in recently collected Megacopta samples from Japan. The implications of these data are discussed. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/3/264 Fri, 24 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-06-24 2 3 Article 264 272 2075-4450 Population Genetic Baseline of the First Plataspid Stink Bug Symbiosis (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Plataspidae) Reported in North America 2011-06-24 doi: 10.3390/insects2030264 Tracie M. Jenkins Jenkins Tyler D. Eaton http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/253 The occurrence of noninsect arthropods in popular music was examined in order to explore human attitudes toward these species, especially as compared to insects. Crustaceans were the most commonly referenced taxonomic group in artist names, album titles and cover art, followed by spiders and scorpions. The surprising prevalence of crustaceans may be related to the palatability of many of the species. Spiders and scorpions were primarily used for shock value, as well as totemic qualities of strength and ferocity. Spiders were the most abundant group among song titles, perhaps because of their familiarity to the general public. Three noninsect arthropod album titles were found from the early 1970s, then none appear until 1990. Older albums are difficult to find unless they are quite popular, and the resurgence of albums coincides with the rise of the internet. After 1990, issuance of such albums increased approximately linearly. Giant and chimeric album covers were the most common of themes, indicating the use of these animals to inspire fear and surprise. The lyrics of select songs are presented to illustrate the diversity of sentiments present, from camp spookiness to edibility. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/253 Thu, 26 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-05-26 2 2 Article 253 263 2075-4450 Noninsect Arthropods in Popular Music 2011-05-26 doi: 10.3390/insects2020253 Joseph R. Coelho http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/243 The effect of long-term feeding on Bt-maize by collembolans in the laboratory is virtually unestablished. That is why the aim of the present study was to test whether the reproduction, fecal pellet production or food preference of the collembolan F. candida is affected when fed on Bt-maize for several consecutive generations. The collembolans were fed with Bt-maize for 0, 6, 16 and 22 months and the number of eggs and fecal pellets were determined. The experiment was repeated seven months later with the same populations. Food preference tests were additionally performed. Significant differences were found in food consumption, egg production and food preference between populations in some cases, but no time-response effect was observed. In conclusion, several generations feeding of F. candida on Cry1Ab toxin containing Bt-maize seems not to be harmful to this collembolan species. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/243 Mon, 23 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-05-23 2 2 Article 243 252 2075-4450 Effects of Consumption of Bt-maize (MON 810) on the Collembolan Folsomia candida, Over Multiple Generations: A Laboratory Study 2011-05-23 doi: 10.3390/insects2020243 Gábor Bakonyi Anna Dolezsai Norbert Mátrai András Székács http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/232 Four bed bug strains (Cimex lectularius) with different levels of pyrethroid resistance were evaluated to determine their ability to survive extended periods of starvation. First instar bed bugs of all strains were the most vulnerable to starvation (13.8–36.3 days mean survival time). Fifth instars and adults survived the longest during starvation (41.5–142.6 days). Significant differences in survivorship during starvation were observed between resistant and susceptible strains of bed bugs. Overall, all immature and adult stages of the resistant bed bug strains had significantly shorter survival times than those of the susceptible strains (P < 0.05). http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/232 Wed, 11 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-05-11 2 2 Article 232 242 2075-4450 Survivorship During Starvation for Cimex lectularius L. 2011-05-11 doi: 10.3390/insects2020232 Andrea M. Polanco Dini M. Miller Carlyle C. Brewster http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/218 Studies on the population genetics, phylogenetic relationships, systematics and evolution of arthropods that inhabit necrotic tissue of cacti in the Sonoran Desert of North America are reviewed. These studies have focused upon several species of insects (orders Diptera and Coleoptera) and arachnids (order Pseudoscorpiones). For most taxa studied, little genetic structure and high dispersal ability are found in populations inhabiting the mainland and Baja California peninsula regions of the Sonoran Desert, consistent with the availability of the rotting cactus microhabitat which is patchily distributed and ephemeral. There is evidence, however, that the Gulf of California, which bisects the Sonoran Desert, has played a role in limiting gene flow and promoting speciation in several taxa, including histerid beetles, whereas other taxa, especially Drosophila nigrospiracula and D. mettleri, apparently are able to freely cross the Gulf, probably by taking advantage of the Midriff Islands in the northern Gulf as dispersal “stepping stones”. Genetic evidence has also been found for historical population expansions dating to the Pleistocene and late Pliocene in several taxa. Overall, these studies have provided important insights into how arthropods with different life history traits, but generally restricted to a necrotic cactus microhabitat, have evolved in an environmentally harsh and tectonically active region. In addition, they suggest some taxa for further, and more detailed, hypothesis driven studies of speciation. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/218 Thu, 05 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-05-05 2 2 Review 218 231 2075-4450 Phylogeography of the Cactophilic Drosophila and Other Arthropods Associated with Cactus Necroses in the Sonoran Desert 2011-05-05 doi: 10.3390/insects2020218 Edward Pfeiler Therese A. Markow http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/210 The scarcity of bed bugs in many countries over the last 50 years has resulted in a lack of modern research into the toxicology of this pest. Although bed bugs resurged in the late 1990s, published research related to insecticides has lagged behind and only began to appear in 2006. The difficulty in controlling bed bugs triggered the interest of both private and academic sectors to determine the value of currently available insecticides. What follows, is updated information on effectiveness of products, studies on insecticide susceptibility, identification of mechanisms of insecticide resistance and chemical strategies proposed to overcome resistance in modern bed bug populations. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/210 Thu, 05 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-05-05 2 2 Review 210 217 2075-4450 Moving From the Old to the New: Insecticide Research on Bed Bugs since the Resurgence 2011-05-05 doi: 10.3390/insects2020210 Alvaro Romero http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/195 The last 25 years or so has seen a huge resurgence of interest in speciation research. This has coincided with the development and widespread use of new tools in molecular genetics, especially DNA sequencing, to inform ecological and evolutionary questions. Here I review about a decade of work on the sister species of field crickets Gryllus texensis and G. rubens. This work has included analysis of morphology, behavior, and the mitochondrial DNA molecule. The molecular work in particular has dramatically re-shaped my interpretation of the speciational history of these taxa, suggesting that rather than ‘sister’ species we should consider these taxa as ‘mother-daughter’ species with G. rubens derived from within a subset of ancestral G. texensis. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/195 Wed, 04 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-05-04 2 2 Review 195 209 2075-4450 Speciation, Divergence, and the Origin of Gryllus rubens: Behavior, Morphology, and Molecules 2011-05-04 doi: 10.3390/insects2020195 David A. Gray http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/186 Groups of starved, virgin adult male or female bed bugs were stimulated to search for a host by the presence of a heated artificial feeder. Some of the bed bug groups were allowed to obtain a blood meal and some were not. After the removal of the feeder, bed bugs were observed throughout the scotophase to record their searching and aggregation behavior. Groups of male and female bed bugs that were unable to obtain a blood meal continued to search in the arena for the majority of the scotophase. Bed bugs that were able to obtain a blood meal returned to their shelter to aggregate 30 min after feeding. Overall, the proportion of bed bugs aggregating in shelters during the scotophase was significantly greater for those that had fed successfully than those that had not. However, all bed bugs, regardless of feeding status, began to return to shelters to aggregate 2 h prior to the photophase. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/186 Wed, 04 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-05-04 2 2 Article 186 194 2075-4450 Host Searching and Aggregation Activity of Recently Fed and Unfed Bed Bugs (Cimex lectularius L.) 2011-05-04 doi: 10.3390/insects2020186 Matthew D. Reis Dini M. Miller http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/173 Experimental life tables were constructed and analyzed for three strains of the common bed bug: a pyrethroid-susceptible laboratory strain (HS), a highly resistant field strain (RR), and a field strain with a declining level of resistance (KR). Egg to adult survival in the RR strain was 94% compared with 79% and 69% in the HS and KR strains, respectively. The RR strain also developed significantly faster from egg to adult (~35 days) than the other two strains (~40 days). Analysis of a survivorship and fecundity life table for the RR strain produced the following results. The average life expectancy for a newly laid egg was ~143 days, and that of a newly molted adult was ~127 days. Females produced an average of 0.64 daughter eggs/day with the highest weekly production during the fifth week of adult life. Analysis of daily reproductive parity showed that females produced 1–3 and 4–6 eggs on 79 and 21% of the days, respectively, when egg laying occurred. The net reproductive rate (R0) of the RR strain was ~35, which represents a 35-fold increase in the population per generation (~92 days). The intrinsic rate of increase, r, was 0.054 indicating that the population multiplies 1.1 times/female/day (λ) and doubles in size every 13 days. The stable age distribution (cx) was dominated by nymphs (54%), followed by eggs (34%) and adults (12%). Reproductive values (vx) for the strain increased from egg to the adult stage. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/173 Fri, 29 Apr 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-04-29 2 2 Article 173 185 2075-4450 Population Growth Potential of the Bed Bug, Cimex lectularius L.: A Life Table Analysis 2011-04-29 doi: 10.3390/insects2020173 Andrea M. Polanco Carlyle C. Brewster Dini M. Miller http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/151 Recent emergence of bed bugs (Cimex spp.) has prompted a significant expansion of research devoted to this pest. The ability to survive and recover from stress has significant implications on the distribution and survival of insects, and bed bugs are no exception. Research on bed bug stress tolerance has shown considerable progress and necessitates a review on this topic. Bed bugs have an extraordinary ability to resist dehydration between bloodmeals, and this represents a critical factor allowing their prolonged survival when no host is available. High relative humidities are detrimental to bed bugs, leading to reduced survival in comparison to those held at lower relative humidities. Continual exposure of bed bugs, eggs and mobile stages, to temperatures below freezing and short term exposure (=1 h) to temperatures below −16 to −18 °C results in mortality. The upper thermal limit for short term exposure of eggs, nymphs and adults is between 40–45 °C for the common (Cimex lectularius) and tropical (C. hemipterus) bed bugs. Long-term exposure to temperatures above 35 °C results in significant reduction in survival of mobile bed bugs. Eggs for C. lectularius and C. hemipterus are no longer viable when held below 10 °C or above 37 °C throughout embryogenesis. Blood feeding, although necessary for survival and reproduction, is discussed as a stress due to thermal and osmotic fluctuations that result from ingesting a warm bloodmeal from a vertebrate host. Cold, heat, water stress and blood feeding prompted the expression of heat shock proteins (Hsps). Pesticide application is a common human-induced stress for urban pests, and recent studies have documented pesticide resistance in many bed bug populations. High levels of traumatic insemination (mating) of bed bugs has been linked to reduced survival and fecundity along with possibly exposing individuals to microbial infections after cuticular penetration by the paramere (=male reproductive organ), thus represents a form of sexual stress. Additionally, less common stress types such as microbial infections that have been documented in bed bugs will be discussed. Overall, this review provides a current update of research related to bed bug stress tolerance and how their ability to resist stressful conditions has lead to their expansion and proliferation. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/151 Fri, 29 Apr 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-04-29 2 2 Review 151 172 2075-4450 Stress Tolerance of Bed Bugs: A Review of Factors That Cause Trauma to Cimex lectularius and C. Hemipterus 2011-04-29 doi: 10.3390/insects2020151 Joshua B. Benoit http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/128 The Quaternary climate cycles played an important role in shaping the distribution of biodiversity among current populations, even in warm-temperate zones, where land was not covered by ice sheets. We focused on the Castanopsis-type broadleaved evergreen forest community in Japan, which characterizes the biodiversity and endemism of the warm-temperate zone. A comparison of the phylogeographic patterns of three types of phytophagous weevils associated with Castanopsis (a host-specific seed predator, a generalist seed predator, and a host-specific leaf miner) and several other plant species inhabiting the forests revealed largely congruent patterns of genetic differentiation between western and eastern parts of the main islands of Japan. A genetic gap was detected in the Kii Peninsula to Chugoku-Shikoku region, around the Seto Inland Sea. The patterns of western-eastern differentiation suggest past fragmentation of broadleaved evergreen forests into at least two separate refugia consisting of the southern parts of Kyushu to Shikoku and of Kii to Boso Peninsula. Moreover, the congruent phylogeographic patterns observed in Castanopsis and the phytophagous insect species imply that the plant-herbivore relationship has been largely maintained since the last glacial periods. These results reinforce the robustness of the deduced glacial and postglacial histories of Castanopsis-associated organisms. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/128 Thu, 21 Apr 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-04-21 2 2 Review 128 150 2075-4450 Phylogeography of Phytophagous Weevils and Plant Species in Broadleaved Evergreen Forests: A Congruent Genetic Gap between Western and Eastern Parts of Japan 2011-04-21 doi: 10.3390/insects2020128 Kyoko Aoki Makoto Kato Noriaki Murakami http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/112 Madagascar has a rich fauna of dung beetles (Scarabaeinae and Aphodiinae) withalmost 300 species described to date. Like most other taxa in Madagascar, dung beetles exhibit an exceptionally high level of endemism (96% of the species). Here,we review the current knowledge of the origin and diversification of Malagasy dung beetles. Based on molecular phylogenies, the extant dung beetles originate from eight colonizations, of which four have given rise to extensive radiations. These radiations have occurred in wet forests, while the few extant species in the less successfulradiations occur in open and semi-open habitats. We discuss the likely mechanisms of speciation and the ecological characteristics of the extant communities, emphasizing the role of adaptation along environmental gradients and allopatric speciation in generating the exceptionally high beta diversity in Malagasy dung beetles. Phylogeographic analyses of selected species reveal complex patterns with evidence for genetic introgression between old taxa. The introduction of cattle to Madagascar 1500 years ago created a new abundant resource, onto which a few species haveshifted and thereby been able to greatly expand their geographical ranges. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/112 Wed, 20 Apr 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-04-20 2 2 Review 112 127 2075-4450 Origin and Diversification of Dung Beetles in Madagascar 2011-04-20 doi: 10.3390/insects2020112 Andreia Miraldo Helena Wirta Ilkka Hanski http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/96 Australia has experienced a sudden and unexpected resurgence in bed bug infestations from both Cimex lectularius L. and Cimex hemipterus F. A survey in 2006 revealed that infestations had increased across the nation by an average of 4,500% since the start of the decade. In response, a multi-disciplinary approach to combat the rise of this public health pest was implemented and involved the coordinated efforts of several organizations. The key components of the strategy included the introduction of a pest management standard ‘A Code of Practice for the Control of Bed Bug Infestations in Australia’ that defines and promotes ‘best practice’ in bed bug eradication, the development of a policy and procedural guide for accommodation providers, education of stakeholders in best management practices, and research. These strategies continue to evolve with developments that lead to improvements in ‘best practice’ while bed bugs remain problematic in Australia. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/96 Fri, 15 Apr 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-04-15 2 2 Review 96 111 2075-4450 Bed Bugs: The Australian Response 2011-04-15 doi: 10.3390/insects2020096 Stephen L. Doggett Christopher J. Orton David G. Lilly Richard C. Russell http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/83 The bed bug resurgence in North America, Europe, and Australia has elicited interest in investigating the causes of the widespread and increasing infestations and in developing more effective control strategies. In order to extend global perspectives on bed bug management, we reviewed bed bug literature in China by searching five Chinese language electronic databases. We conducted telephone interviews of staff from 77 Health and Epidemic Prevention Stations in six Chinese cities in November 2010. We also conducted telephone interviews of 68 pest control firms in two cities during March 2011. Two species of bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L. and Cimex hemipterus (F.)) are known to occur in China. These were common urban pests before the early1980s. Nationwide “Four-Pest Elimination” campaigns (bed bugs being one of the targeted pests) were implemented in China from 1960 to the early 1980s. These campaigns succeeded in the elimination of bed bug infestations in most communities. Commonly used bed bug control methods included applications of hot water, sealing of bed bug harborages, physical removal, and applications of residual insecticides (mainly organophosphate sprays or dusts). Although international and domestic travel has increased rapidly in China over the past decade (2000–2010), there have only been sporadic new infestations reported in recent years. During 1999–2009, all documented bed bug infestations were found in group living facilities (military dormitories, worker dormitories, and prisons), hotels, or trains. One city (Shenzhen city near Hong Kong) experienced significantly higher number of bed bug infestations. This city is characterized by a high concentration of migratory factory workers. Current bed bug control practices include educating residents, washing, reducing clutter, putting items under the hot sun in summer, and applying insecticides (pyrethroids or organophosphates). There have not been any studies or reports on bed bug insecticide resistance. Difficulties of control were noted in our surveys of dormitories in which crowded living, seasonal worker migration, and financial constraints contributed to control failures. This study supports the following conclusions: (1) the bed bug infestation in China dramatically decreased following the campaigns from 1960 to the early 1980s; (2) In our survey of Health and Epidemics Prevention Stations, no bed bug cases were reported in Beijing and Shanghai for the past 12 months, but complaints were reported in Guangzhou, Lanzhou, Urumqi, and Shenzhen; (3) Current bed bug infestations primarily are reported in crowded living environments or transient environments such as worker dormitories and military dormitories. These findings suggest that community-wide bed bug monitoring and control campaigns are necessary for effective control of bed bug infestations as a societal response. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/83 Mon, 11 Apr 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-04-11 2 2 Article 83 95 2075-4450 Bed Bug Infestations and Control Practices in China: Implications for Fighting the Global Bed Bug Resurgence 2011-04-11 doi: 10.3390/insects2020083 Changlu Wang Xiujun Wen http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/62 We review current phylogeographic knowledge from across the Antarctic terrestrial landscape with a focus on springtail taxa. We describe consistent patterns of high genetic diversity and structure among populations which have persisted in glacial refugia across Antarctica over both short (10 Mya) timescales. Despite a general concordance of results among species, we explain why location is important in determining population genetic patterns within bioregions. We complete our review by drawing attention to the main limitations in the field of Antarctic phylogeography, namely that the scope of geographic focus is often lacking within studies, and that large gaps remain in our phylogeographic knowledge for most terrestrial groups. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/2/62 Wed, 06 Apr 2011 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2011-04-06 2 2 Review 62 82 2075-4450 Extreme Glacial Legacies: A Synthesis of the Antarctic Springtail Phylogeographic Record 2011-04-06 doi: 10.3390/insects2020062 Angela McGaughran Mark I. Stevens Ian D. Hogg Antonio Carapelli http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/49 Chromosomal rearrangements can alter the rate and patterns of gene flow within or between species through a reduction in the fitness of chromosomal hybrids or by reducing recombination rates in rearranged areas of the genome. This concept, together with the observation that many species have structural variation in chromosomes, has led to the theory that the rearrangements may play a direct role in promoting speciation. Australian morabine grasshoppers (genus Vandiemenella, viatica species group) are an excellent model for studying the role of chromosomal rearrangement in speciation because they show extensive chromosomal variation, parapatric distribution patterns, and narrow hybrid zones at their boundaries. This species group stimulated development of one of the classic chromosomal speciation models, the stasipatric speciation model proposed by White in 1968. Our population genetic and phylogeographic analyses revealed extensive non-monophyly of chromosomal races along with historical and on-going gene introgression between them. These findings suggest that geographical isolation leading to the fixation of chromosomal variants in different geographic regions, followed by secondary contact, resulted in the present day parapatric distributions of chromosomal races. The significance of chromosomal rearrangements in the diversification of the viatica species group can be explored by comparing patterns of genetic differentiation between rearranged and co-linear parts of the genome. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/49 Fri, 18 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-03-18 2 1 Review 49 61 2075-4450 Chromosomal Speciation Revisited: Modes of Diversification in Australian Morabine Grasshoppers (Vandiemenella, viatica Species Group) 2011-03-18 doi: 10.3390/insects2010049 Takeshi Kawakami Roger K. Butlin Steven J. B. Cooper http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/36 Blood-feeding insects have evolved resistance to various insecticides (organochlorines, pyrethroids, carbamates, etc.) through gene mutations and increased metabolism. Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) are hematophagous ectoparasites that are poised to become one of the major pests in households throughout the United States. Currently, C. lectularius has attained a high global impact status due to its sudden and rampant resurgence. Resistance to pesticides is one factor implicated in this phenomenon. Although much emphasis has been placed on target sensitivity, little to no knowledge is available on the role of key metabolic players (e.g., cytochrome P450s and glutathione S-transferases) towards pesticide resistance in C. lectularius. In this review, we discuss different modes of resistance (target sensitivity, penetration resistance, behavioral resistance, and metabolic resistance) with more emphasis on metabolic resistance. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/36 Fri, 18 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-03-18 2 1 Review 36 48 2075-4450 Metabolic Resistance in Bed Bugs 2011-03-18 doi: 10.3390/insects2010036 Praveen Mamidala Susan C. Jones Omprakash Mittapalli http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/22 The reemergence of the bed bug, Cimex lectularius Linnaeus, has recently spawned a frenzy of public, media, and academic attention. In response to the growing rate of infestation, considerable work has been focused on identifying the various host cues utilized by the bed bug in search of a meal. Most of these behavioral studies examine movement within a confined environment, such as a Petri dish. This has prevented a more complete understanding of the insect’s host-seeking process. This work describes a novel method for studying host-seeking behavior, using various movement parameters, in a time-lapse photography system. With the use of human breath as an attractant, we qualitatively and quantitatively assessed how bed bugs navigate their environment between its harborage and the host. Levels of behavioral activity varied dramatically between bed bugs in the presence and absence of host odor. Bed bugs demonstrated not simply activation, but attraction to the chemical components of breath. Localized, stop-start host-seeking behavior or alternating periods of movement and pause were observed among bed bugs placed in the environment void of human breath, while those exposed to human breath demonstrated long range, stop-start host-seeking behavior. A more comprehensive understanding of bed bug host-seeking can lead to the development of traps and monitors that account for unique subtleties in their behavior. The time-lapse photography system uses a large, artificial environment and could also be employed to study other aspects of the insect’s behavioral patterns. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/22 Mon, 07 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-03-07 2 1 Article 22 35 2075-4450 Host-Seeking Behavior in the Bed Bug, Cimex lectularius 2011-03-07 doi: 10.3390/insects2010022 James T. Suchy Vernard R. Lewis http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/12 Maize is wind pollinated and produces huge amounts of pollen. In consequence, the Cry toxins expressed in the pollen of Bt maize will be dispersed by wind in the surrounding vegetation leading to exposure of non-target organisms (NTO). NTO like lepidopteran larvae may be affected by the uptake of Bt-pollen deposited on their host plants. Although some information is available to estimate pollen deposition on host plants, recorded data are based on indirect measurements such as shaking or washing off pollen, or removing pollen with adhesive tapes. These methods often lack precision and they do not include the necessary information such as the spatial and temporal variation of pollen deposition on the leaves. Here, we present a new method for recording in situ the amount and the distribution of Bt-maize pollen deposited on host plant leaves. The method is based on the use of a mobile digital microscope (Dino-Lite Pro, including DinoCapture software), which can be used in combination with a notebook in the field. The method was evaluated during experiments in 2008 to 2010. Maize pollen could be correctly identified and pollen deposition as well as the spatial heterogeneity of maize pollen deposition was recorded on maize and different lepidopteran host plants (Centaurea scabiosa, Chenopodium album, Rumex spp., Succina pratensis and Urtica dioica) growing adjacent to maize fields. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/12 Mon, 21 Feb 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-02-21 2 1 Article 12 21 2075-4450 A New Method for in Situ Measurement of Bt-Maize Pollen Deposition on Host-Plant Leaves 2011-02-21 doi: 10.3390/insects2010012 Frieder Hofmann Mathias Otto Ulrike Kuhn Steffi Ober Ulrich Schlechtriemen Rudolph Vögel http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/1 MON 810 maize was developed against Ostrinia nubilalis and is suggested to indirectly decrease Fusarium spp. infestation in maize ears. To evaluate this effect, co-occurrence of insect and fungal pests on MON 810 maize was studied. During 2009, exceptionally high maize ear infestation occurred in Julianna-major (Hungary). From investigation of some thousands of maize ears, the majority of the larval damage originated from Helicoverpa armigera larvae, while O. nubilalis larvae contributed significant damage only at a single plot. Fusarium verticillioides infection appeared only in a small portion (~20–30%) of the insect damaged cobs. H. armigera and O. nubilalis larvae feeding on F. verticillioides mycelia can distribute its conidia with their fecal pellets. MON 810 maize showed 100% efficacy against O. nubilalis in the stem, but lower efficacy against O. nubilalis and H. armigera in maize ears. The ~Cry1Ab toxin content of maize silk, the entry site of H. armigera, was lower than that in the leaves/stem/husk leaves of MON 810. Fusarium-infected MON 810 cobs are rarely found and only after larval damage by O. nubilalis. H. armigera larvae could not tolerate well F. verticillioides infected food and attempted to move out from the infected cobs. For further feeding they re-entered the maize ears through the 8–12 husk leaves, but in the case of the MON 810 variety, they usually could not reach the kernels. Apical damage on cobs resulted in only a minor (about one-tenth of the cob) decrease in yield. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/2/1/1 Thu, 20 Jan 2011 00:00:00 CET Insects 2011-01-20 2 1 Article 1 11 2075-4450 Relationships of Helicoverpa armigera, Ostrinia nubilalis and Fusarium verticillioides on MON 810 Maize 2011-01-20 doi: 10.3390/insects2010001 Béla Darvas Hajnalka Bánáti Eszter Takács Éva Lauber Árpád Szécsi András Székács http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/1/1/3 White pine weevil (Pissodes strobi, Peck.) is a native forest insect pest in the Pacific Northwest of North America that attacks species of spruce (Picea spp.) and pine (Pinus spp.). Young Sitka spruce [Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.] trees are particularly susceptible to weevil attack. Pockets of naturally occurring Sitka spruce resistance have been identified in high weevil hazard areas in coastal British Columbia. In this study, we characterize behavioral, physiological and reproductive responses of weevils to an extremely resistant Sitka spruce genotype (H898) in comparison to a highly susceptible genotype (Q903). The experiments relied on a large number of three-year-old clonally propagated trees and were therefore restricted to two contrasting Sitka spruce genotypes. When exposed to resistant trees, both male and female weevils were deterred during host selection and mating, females showed delayed or reduced ovary development, and successful reproduction of weevils was prevented on resistant trees. http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/1/1/3 Thu, 19 Aug 2010 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2010-08-19 1 1 Article 3 19 2075-4450 Behavioral and Reproductive Response of White Pine Weevil (Pissodes strobi) to Resistant and Susceptible Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis) 2010-08-19 doi: 10.3390/insects1010003 Jeanne A. Robert Jörg Bohlmann http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/1/1/1 Conventional thought would suggest that there are sufficient venues for the publication of entomological scientific inquiries and begs the question: “Why begin another outlet for insect-related scientific comment?” The open access journal Insects is a response to the pressing global thirst for information and an acknowledgement of the potential of electronic media. Dissemination of information is critical to growing the global knowledge base through easy and open access. This new journal is a celebration of the diversity of insects, other arthropods, and their relationship with humans in our shared environment. [...] http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/1/1/1 Fri, 02 Jul 2010 00:00:00 CEST Insects 2010-07-02 1 1 Editorial 1 2 2075-4450 Insects – An Open Access Journal of Entomology 2010-07-02 doi: 10.3390/insects1010001 Forschler