http://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Latest open access articles published in Energies at http://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies/ http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/462/ Electricity is perhaps the most versatile energy carrier in modern economies, and it is therefore fundamentally linked to human and economic development. Electricity growth has outpaced that of any other fuel, leading to ever-increasing shares in the overall mix. This trend is expected to continue throughout the following decades, as large—especially rural—segments of the world population in developing countries start to climb the “energy ladder” and become connected to power grids. Electricity therefore deserves particular attention with regard to its contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, which is reflected in the ongoing development of low-carbon technologies for power generation. The focus of this updated review of electricity-generating technologies is twofold: (a) to provide more technical information than is usually found in global assessments on critical technical aspects, such as variability of wind power, and (b) to capture the most recent findings from the international literature. This report covers eight technologies. Seven of these are generating technologies: hydro-, nuclear, wind, photovoltaic, concentrating solar, geothermal and biomass power. The remaining technology is carbon capture and storage. This selection is fairly representative for technologies that are important in terms of their potential capacity to contribute to a low-carbon world economy. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/462/ Thu, 18 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-03-18 3 3 Review 462 591 1996-1073 Current State of Development of Electricity-Generating Technologies: A Literature Review 2010-03-18 doi: 10.3390/en3030462 Lenzen http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/450/ For years, the interest of the UDR1 research group has focused on the development of a Hybrid Series (HS) vehicle, different from the standard one thanks to the use of a Gas Turbine set (GT) as a thermal engine. The reason for this choice resides in the opportunity to reduce weight and dimensions, in comparison to a traditional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). It is not possible to use the GT engine set directly for the vehicle traction, therefore the UDR1 HS configuration shows the GT set connected with the electric generator only. The result is that the traction is purely electric. The resulting engine configuration is a commonly defined Hybrid Series. Many efforts are spent in the definition of a generic scientific method to define the correct ratio (Degree of Hybridization) between the installed power of the battery pack and that of the GT electric generator, which simultaneously guarantees the life of the battery pack and the capacity of the vehicle to complete a common mission without lack of energy or stopping. This article reports a method to define the power ratio between battery pack and GT generator, applied to a recent commission for the development of a mini city bus. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/450/ Mon, 15 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-03-15 3 3 Article 450 461 1996-1073 Procedure for the Design of a Hybrid-Series Vehicle and the Hybridization Degree Choice 2010-03-15 doi: 10.3390/en3030450 Capata Coccia http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/335/ From the viewpoints of securing a stable supply of energy and protecting our global environment in the future, the integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power generation of various gasifying methods has been introduced in the world. Gasified fuels are chiefly characterized by the gasifying agents and the synthetic gas cleanup methods and can be divided into four types. The calorific value of the gasified fuel varies according to the gasifying agents and feedstocks of various resources, and ammonia originating from nitrogenous compounds in the feedstocks depends on the synthetic gas clean-up methods. In particular, air-blown gasified fuels provide low calorific fuel of 4 MJ/m3 and it is necessary to stabilize combustion. In contrast, the flame temperature of oxygen-blown gasified fuel of medium calorie between approximately 9–13 MJ/m3 is much higher, so control of thermal-NOx emissions is necessary. Moreover, to improve the thermal efficiency of IGCC, hot/dry type synthetic gas clean-up is needed. However, ammonia in the fuel is not removed and is supplied into the gas turbine where fuel-NOx is formed in the combustor. For these reasons, suitable combustion technology for each gasified fuel is important. This paper outlines combustion technologies and combustor designs of the high temperature gas turbine for various IGCCs. Additionally, this paper confirms that further decreases in fuel-NOx emissions can be achieved by removing ammonia from gasified fuels through the application of selective, non-catalytic denitration. From these basic considerations, the performance of specifically designed combustors for each IGCC proved the proposed methods to be sufficiently effective. The combustors were able to achieve strong results, decreasing thermal-NOx emissions to 10 ppm (corrected at 16% oxygen) or less, and fuel-NOx emissions by 60% or more, under conditions where ammonia concentration per fuel heating value in unit volume was 2.4 × 102 ppm/(MJ/m3) or higher. Consequently, principle techniques for combustor design for each IGCC were established by the present analytical and experimental research. Also, this paper contains some findings of the author’s previously published own works and engages in wide-ranging discussion into the future development of gasification technologies. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/335/ Fri, 12 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-03-12 3 3 Article 335 449 1996-1073 Gas Turbine Combustion and Ammonia Removal Technology of Gasified Fuels 2010-03-12 doi: 10.3390/en3030335 Hasegawa http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/313/ We present a review of the emerging class of hybrid solar cells based on organic-semiconductor (Group IV, III-V), nanocomposites, which states separately from dye synthesized, polymer-metal oxides and organic-inorganic (Group II-VI) nanocomposite photovoltaics. The structure of such hybrid cell comprises of an organic active material (p-type) deposited by coating, printing or spraying technique on the surface of bulk or nanostructured semiconductor (n-type) forming a heterojunction between the two materials. Organic components include various photosensitive monomers (e.g., phtalocyanines or porphyrines), conjugated polymers, and carbon nanotubes. Mechanisms of the charge separation at the interface and their transport are discussed. Also, perspectives on the future development of such hybrid cells and comparative analysis with other classes of photovoltaics of third generation are presented. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/313/ Fri, 05 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-03-05 3 3 Review 313 334 1996-1073 Organic / IV, III-V Semiconductor Hybrid Solar Cells 2010-03-05 doi: 10.3390/en3030313 Pang-Leen Ong Igor A. Levitsky http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/301/ In blended hybrid systems distinct micro- or nanostructured materials can be formed by phase separation. Network structures of particles or rods in a polymer matrix can be developed via self-assembly. We use this blending approach to compare active materials for application in solar cell devices. Blends were fabricated from either poly(hexylthiophene) P3HT or poly(triphenylamine) PTPA mixed with nanocrystalline TiO2 rods. In this manner, we compare two different hole conducting polymers in their performance in photovoltaic devices, while experimental conditions are kept identical. We find that the choice of solvent and photovoltaic characterization conducted in inert atmosphere is of importance for blends prepared from P3HT/TiO2 blends, but not for PTPA/TiO2 blends. Even though prepared with the same TiO2 rods, solar cells prepared from PTPA blends showed an enhanced efficiency when measured under ambient conditions. Furthermore, the PTPA/TiO2 showed higher long-term stability. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/301/ Fri, 05 Mar 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-03-05 3 3 Article 301 312 1996-1073 Comparison of Hybrid Blends for Solar Cell Application 2010-03-05 doi: 10.3390/en3030301 Maria C. Lechmann Dominik Koll Daniel Kessler Patrick Theato Wolfgang Tremel Jochen S. Gutmann http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/285/ Connected through single crystalline junctions, low dimensional materials such as nanowires and nanorods form complex nanostructures. These new materials exhibit mechanical strengths and electrical conductivities superior to their constituents while maintaining comparable surface areas, an attribute ideal for energetic applications. More efficient solar cells, higher capacity batteries and better performing photoelectrochemical cells have been built using these materials. This article reviews this exciting new class of materials and covers topics from controlled syntheses to applications in photovoltaics, chemical energy conversion and electrical charge storage. Mechanisms responsible for the improved performance are discussed. The prospect of their applications in a broader energy-related field is analyzed. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/285/ Fri, 26 Feb 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-02-26 3 3 Review 285 300 1996-1073 Complex Nanostructures: Synthesis and Energetic Applications 2010-02-26 doi: 10.3390/en3030285 Xiaohua Liu Yongjing Lin Sa Zhou Stafford Sheehan Dunwei Wang http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/277/ The NSTAB nonlinear stability code solves differential equations in conservation form, and the TRAN Monte Carlo test particle code tracks guiding center orbits in a fixed background, to provide simulations of equilibrium, stability, and transport in tokamaks and stellarators. These codes are well correlated with experimental observations and have been validated by convergence studies. Bifurcated 3D solutions of the 2D tokamak problem have been calculated that model persistent disruptions, neoclassical tearing modes (NTMs) and edge localized modes (ELMs) occurring in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), which does not pass the NSTAB simulation test for nonlinear stability. So we have designed a quasiaxially symmetric (QAS) stellarator with similar proportions as a candidate for the demonstration (DEMO) fusion reactor that does pass the test [1]. The configuration has two field periods and an exceptionally accurate 2D symmetry that furnishes excellent thermal confinement and good control of the prompt loss of alpha particles. Robust coils are found from a filtered form of the Biot-Savart law based on a distribution of current over a control surface for the coils and the current in the plasma defined by the equilibrium calculation. Computational science has addressed the issues of equilibrium, stability, and transport, so it remains to develop an effective plan to construct the coils and build a diverter. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/3/277/ Fri, 26 Feb 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-02-26 3 3 Article 277 284 1996-1073 The DEMO Quasisymmetric Stellarator 2010-02-26 doi: 10.3390/en3030277 Paul R. Garabedian Geoffrey B. McFadden http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/258/ For wind resource assessment projects, it is common practice to use a power-law relationship (U(z) ~ zα) and a fixed shear exponent (α = 1=7) to extrapolate the observed wind speed from a low measurement level to high turbine hub-heights. However, recent studies using tall-tower observations have found that the annual average shear exponents at several locations over the United States Great Plains (USGP) are significantly higher than 1=7. These findings highlight the critical need for detailed spatio-temporal characterizations of wind shear climatology over the USGP, where numerous large wind farms will be constructed in the foreseeable future. In this paper, a new generation numerical weather prediction model—the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, a fast and relatively inexpensive alternative to time-consuming and costly tall-tower projects, is utilized to determine whether it can reliably estimate the shear exponent and the magnitude of the directional shear at any arbitrary location over the USGP. Our results indicate that the WRF model qualitatively captures several low-level wind shear characteristics. However, there is definitely room for physics parameterization improvements for the WRF model to reliably represent the lower part of the atmospheric boundary layer. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/258/ Tue, 23 Feb 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-02-23 3 2 Article 258 276 1996-1073 The WRF Model Forecast-Derived Low-Level Wind Shear Climatology over the United States Great Plains 2010-02-23 doi: 10.3390/en3020258 Brandon Storm Sukanta Basu http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/241/ Probabilistic design of wind turbines requires definition of the structural elements to be included in the probabilistic basis: e.g., blades, tower, foundation; identification of important failure modes; careful stochastic modeling of the uncertain parameters; recommendations for target reliability levels and recommendation for consideration of system aspects. The uncertainties are characterized as aleatoric (physical uncertainty) or epistemic (statistical, measurement and model uncertainties). Methods for uncertainty modeling consistent with methods for estimating the reliability are described. It is described how uncertainties in wind turbine design related to computational models, statistical data from test specimens, results from a few full-scale tests and from prototype wind turbines can be accounted for using the Maximum Likelihood Method and a Bayesian approach. Assessment of the optimal reliability level by cost-benefit optimization is illustrated by an offshore wind turbine example. Uncertainty modeling is illustrated by an example where physical, statistical and model uncertainties are estimated. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/241/ Tue, 23 Feb 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-02-23 3 2 Article 241 257 1996-1073 Probabilistic Design of Wind Turbines 2010-02-23 doi: 10.3390/en3020241 John D. Sørensen Henrik S. Toft http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/216/ This paper has been put together to provide a single source document that not only reviews the historical development of gasification but also compares the process to combustion. It also provides a short discussion on integrated gasification and combined cycle processes. The major focus of the paper is to describe the twelve major gasifiers being marketed today. Some of these are already fully developed while others are in various stages of development. The hydrodynamics and kinetics of each are reviewed along with the most likely gas composition from each of the technologies when using a variety of fuels under different conditions from air blown to oxygen blown and atmospheric pressure to several atmospheres. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/216/ Tue, 23 Feb 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-02-23 3 2 Review 216 240 1996-1073 Gasification Processes Old and New: A Basic Review of the Major Technologies 2010-02-23 doi: 10.3390/en3020216 Ronald W. Breault http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/206/ Based on the application of the power batteries, this paper uses a statistical method to estimate the internal resistance and open-circuit voltage of Ni-MH battery. Battery status is monitored and simulated by battery pack test bench. Through using ideal battery model and fitting the data of measured voltage and current, the battery internal resistance and open-circuit voltage are estimated. The average relative error between battery statistic internal resistance and pulse internal resistance is less than 15% in different state of charge. Relative error is influenced by dispersion and symmetry of charge or discharge current. Average of absolute error in open-circuit voltage is about 5% respectively. The results show that it is feasible and accurate to estimate the parameters of Ni-MH battery by using statistical method. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/206/ Wed, 10 Feb 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-02-10 3 2 Article 206 215 1996-1073 Online Parameter Estimation of the Ni-MH Batteries Based on Statistical Methods 2010-02-10 doi: 10.3390/en3020206 Chang-hao Piao Wen-li Fu Gai-hui Lei Chong-du Cho http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/194/ In the last five years or so, biofuels have been given notable consideration worldwide as an alternative to fossil fuels, due to their potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by partial replacement of oil as a transport fuel. The production of biofuels using a sustainable approach, should consider local production of biofuels, obtained from local feedstocks and adapted to the socio-economical and environmental characteristics of the particular region where they are developed. Thus, decentralized energy from waste systems will exploit local biomass to optimize their production and consumption. Waste streams such as agricultural and wood residues, municipal solid waste, vegetable oils, and algae residues can all be integrated in energy from waste systems. An integral optimization of decentralized energy from waste systems should not be based on the optimization of each single process, but the overall optimization of the whole process. This is by obtaining optimal energy and environmental benefits, as well as collateral beneficial co-products such as soil fertilizers which will result in a higher food crop production and carbon dioxide fixation which will abate climate change. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/194/ Thu, 28 Jan 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-01-28 3 2 Article 194 205 1996-1073 Decentralized Energy from Waste Systems 2010-01-28 doi: 10.3390/en3020194 Blanca Antizar-Ladislao Juan L. Turrion-Gomez http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/171/ We review several examples of how spectrally-selective photonic structures may be used to improve solar cell systems. Firstly, we introduce different spectrally-selective structures that are based on interference effects. Examples shown include Rugate filter, edge filter and 3D photonic crystals such as artificial opals. In the second part, we discuss several examples of photovoltaic (PV) concepts that utilize spectral selectivity such as fluorescence collectors, upconversion systems, spectrum splitting concepts and the intermediate reflector concept. The potential of spectrally selective filters in the context of solar cells is discussed. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/171/ Wed, 27 Jan 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-01-27 3 2 Review 171 193 1996-1073 Spectrally-Selective Photonic Structures for PV Applications 2010-01-27 doi: 10.3390/en3020171 Marius Peters Jan Christoph Goldschmidt Philipp Löper Bernhard Groß Johannes Üpping Frank Dimroth Ralf B. Wehrspohn Benedikt Bläsi http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/155/ The growing demand for petroleum, accompanied by the declining petroleum reserves and the concerns over energy security, has intensified the interest in direct coal liquefaction (DCL), particularly in countries such as China which is rich in coal resources, but short of petroleum. In addition to a general introduction on the mechanisms and processes of DCL, this paper overviews some recent advances in DCL technology with respect to the influencing factors for DCL reactions (temperature, solvent, pressure, atmospheres, etc.), the effects of coal pre-treatments for DCL (swelling, thermal treatment, hydrothermal treatment, etc.), as well as recent development in multi-staged DCL processes, DCL catalysts and co-liquefaction of coal with biomass. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/2/155/ Wed, 27 Jan 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-01-27 3 2 Review 155 170 1996-1073 Recent Advances in Direct Coal Liquefaction 2010-01-27 doi: 10.3390/en3020155 Hengfu Shui Zhenyi Cai Chunbao (Charles) Xu http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/135/ Since its appearance in 1991, the Li ion battery has been the major power source driving the rapid digitalization of our daily life; however, much of the processes and mechanisms underpinning this newest battery chemistry remains poorly understood. As in any electrochemical device, the major challenge comes from the electrolyte/electrode interfaces, where the discontinuity in charge distribution and extreme disequality in electric forces induce diversified processes that eventually determine the kinetics of Li+ intercalation chemistry. This article will summarize the most recent efforts on the fundamental understanding of the interphases in Li ion devices. Emphasis will be placed on the formation chemistry of the so-called “SEI” on graphitic anode, the effect of solvation sheath structure of Li+ on the intercalation energy barrier, and the feasibility of tailoring a desired interphase. Biologically inspired approaches to an ideal interphase will also be briefly discussed. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/135/ Tue, 26 Jan 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-01-26 3 1 Review 135 154 1996-1073 Electrolytes and Interphasial Chemistry in Li Ion Devices 2010-01-26 doi: 10.3390/en3010135 Kang Xu http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/43/ Biodiesel, or alkyl ester, is an alternative renewable, biodegradable, and non-toxic diesel fuel produced by the catalytic transesterification of vegetable oil. Here we characterize a system for continuous transesterification of vegetable oil using five continuous stirring tank reactors (5CSTRs). We tested residence times of 16–43min, stirring speeds of 200–800rpm, a catalyst concentration (KOH) of 0.25–1 wt% of oil (in gram), different total flow rates of the oil and MeOH, and on the production performance of the 5 stage continuous reactor for transesterification of vegetable oil. Using a molar ratio of oil:methanol of 1:7 and a reaction temperature of 65 °C, we show that a high stirring speed increased the reaction rate, but an excessive stir speed decreased the reaction rate and conversion to biodiesel. Furthermore, a higher catalyst percentage significantly increased the reaction rate and production capacity. A catalyst percentage of 1 wt% of oil gave the best conversion; 99.04 ± 0.05%. The resulting biodiesel esters were characterized for their physical and fuel properties including density, viscosity, iodine volume, acid volume, cloud point, pure point, gross heat of combustion, and volatility. The purity and conversion of the biodiesel was analyzed by HPLC. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/43/ Fri, 15 Jan 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-01-15 3 1 Article 43 56 1996-1073 Continuous Low Cost Transesterification Process for the Production of Coconut Biodiesel 2010-01-15 doi: 10.3390/en3010043 Gajendra Kumar D. Kumar Shailandra Singh S. Kothari Sumit Bhatt Chandra P. Singh http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/57/ In single-chamber solid oxide fuel cells (SC-SOFCs), both anode and cathode are situated in a common gas chamber and are exposed to a mixture of fuel and oxidant. The working principle is based on the difference in catalytic activity of the electrodes for the respective anodic and cathodic reactions. The resulting difference in oxygen partial pressure between the electrodes leads to the generation of an open circuit voltage. Progress in SC-SOFC technology has enabled the generation of power outputs comparable to those of conventional SOFCs. This paper provides a detailed review of the development of SC-SOFC technology. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/57/ Fri, 15 Jan 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-01-15 3 1 Review 57 134 1996-1073 Single-Chamber Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology—From Its Origins to Today’s State of the Art 2010-01-15 doi: 10.3390/en3010057 Melanie Kuhn Teko W. Napporn http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/23/ Enzyme based bioelectronics have attracted increasing interest in recent years because of their applications on biomedical research and healthcare. They also have broad applications in environmental monitoring, and as the power source for portable electronic devices. In this review, the technology developed for fabrication of enzyme electrodes has been described. Different enzyme immobilisation methods using layered structures with self-assembled monolayers (SAM) and entrapment of enzymes in polymer matrixes have been reviewed. The performances of enzymatic biofuel cells are summarised. Various approaches on further development to overcome the current challenges have been discussed. This innovative technology will have a major impact and benefit medical science and clinical research, healthcare management, energy production from renewable sources. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/23/ Mon, 11 Jan 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-01-11 3 1 Review 23 42 1996-1073 Enzymatic Biofuel Cells—Fabrication of Enzyme Electrodes 2010-01-11 doi: 10.3390/en3010023 Eileen Hao Yu Keith Scott http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/1/ We surveyed more than 1,000 randomly sampled, out-of-state tourists at Delaware, USA beaches in 2007. After providing respondents with wind turbine project photo-simulations at several distances, we inquired about the effect development would have on visitation. Approximately one-quarter stated that they would switch beaches if an offshore wind project was located 10 km from the coast, with avoidance diminishing with greater distance from shore. Stated avoidance is less than: avoidance with a fossil fuel power plant located the same distance inland; attraction to a beach with offshore wind turbines; and the percentage stating they would likely pay to take a boat tour. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/3/1/1/ Fri, 08 Jan 2010 00:00:00 CET Energies 2010-01-08 3 1 Article 1 22 1996-1073 The Effect of Wind Power Installations on Coastal Tourism 2010-01-08 doi: 10.3390/en3010001 Meredith Blaydes Lilley Jeremy Firestone Willett Kempton http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1201/ CO2, N2O, and CH4 are the three most widespread Greenhouse Gases (GHGs). Electricity consumption and the related CO2-equivalent gas emissions resulting from oil and gas combustion for the six countries that comprise the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf [Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Qatar; also referred to as the Gulf Cooperation Council, GCC)] have been compared. The analysis of the relevant data shows that GCC countries contribute significantly to the global CO2 emissions, and that the majority of their emissions are concentrated in the energy extraction and conversion sectors, mainly from oil drilling and electricity production. Some analysis is offered as to the reasons behind the excessive increase in the electrical demand that is obviously linked to a non-rational pattern of electricity consumption. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1201/ Wed, 16 Dec 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-12-16 2 4 Article 1201 1213 1996-1073 Electricity Consumption and GHG Emissions in GCC Countries 2009-12-16 doi: 10.3390/en20401201 Mohammed Redha Qader http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1192/ This research set out to explore and develop a route relating the recycling of urban and industrial wastes to land to produce agricultural crops with energy crops in the rotation, using the green leaf to “harvest” sunlight and to examine the sequestration of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen in a sustainable closed loop. Further, to establish if the pollution, particularly of nitrogen and phosphates (often associated with cultivations and use of mineral fertilisers) could be reduced or eliminated, so as to be able to develop systems which could contribute to the reversal of global warming. Finally, to probe whether practical operators on the ground could understand the technology, use it, and express what they were doing in a way acceptable to a wider society. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1192/ Thu, 03 Dec 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-12-03 2 4 Article 1192 1200 1996-1073 The Technology of Waste, Biofuels and Global Warming in Viable Closed Loop, Sustainable Operations 2009-12-03 doi: 10.3390/en20401192 William R. Butterworth http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1170/ This paper presents the performance of an advanced cascading adsorption cycle that utilizes a driven heat source temperature between 90–130 ºC. The cycle consists of four beds that contain silica gel as an adsorber fill. Two of the beds work in a single stage cycle that is driven by an external heat source, while the other two beds work in a mass recovery cycle that is driven by waste heat of sensible and adsorption heat of the high temperature cycle. The performances, in terms of the coefficient of performance (COP) and the specific cooling power (SCP), are compared with conventional cascading-without-mass-recovery and single-stage cycles. The paper also presents the effect of the adsorbent mass on performance. The results show that the proposed cycle with mass recovery produces as high of a COP as the COP that is produced by the conventional cascading cycle. However, it produces a lower SCP than that of the single-stage cycle. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1170/ Mon, 30 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-30 2 4 Article 1170 1191 1996-1073 High Performance Cascading Adsorption Refrigeration Cycle with Internal Heat Recovery Driven by a Low Grade Heat Source Temperature 2009-11-30 doi: 10.3390/en20401170 Aep Saepul Uyun Takahiko Miyazaki Yuki Ueda Atsushi Akisawa http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1151/ The island of Lolland is a showcase example of a remote local community being able to stand up to the challenges of facing environmental and social consequences of climate change while creating economic opportunities. This island has had many years of experience in implementing renewable energy (RE) projects as a way to combating peripheral poverty and promoting economic growth in a relatively remote area. The development strategy lies within the unique concept of Lolland Community Testing Facilities (CTF), which creates a forum between the private sector, research institutions and local political authorities by exploiting synergies among green investments and providing an international testing and demonstration platform for renewable energy technology and products. The present paper aims at giving an overview of integrated longer term energy planning based on Lolland CTF, its components and main features, while highlighting those critical characteristics that could make the CTF model successful and relevant for RE-based local development worldwide. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1151/ Fri, 27 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-27 2 4 Article 1151 1169 1996-1073 Creating Synergies from Renewable Energy Investments, a Community Success Story from Lolland, Denmark 2009-11-27 doi: 10.3390/en20401151 Silvia Magnoni Andrea M. Bassi http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1130/ Lowering the operating temperature of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) to the intermediate range (500–700 ºC) has become one of the main SOFC research goals. High operating temperatures put numerous requirements on materials selection and on secondary units, limiting the commercial development of SOFCs. The present review first focuses on the main effects of reducing the operating temperature in terms of materials stability, thermo-mechanical mismatch, thermal management and efficiency. After a brief survey of the state-of-the-art materials for SOFCs, attention is focused on emerging oxide-ionic conductors with high conductivity in the intermediate range of temperatures with an introductory section on materials technology for reducing the electrolyte thickness. Finally, recent advances in cathode materials based on layered mixed ionic-electronic conductors are highlighted because the decreasing temperature converts the cathode into the major source of electrical losses for the whole SOFC system. It is concluded that the introduction of alternative materials that would enable solid oxide fuel cells to operate in the intermediate range of temperatures would have a major impact on the commercialization of fuel cell technology. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1130/ Wed, 25 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-25 2 4 Review 1130 1150 1996-1073 Strategies for Lowering Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Operating Temperature 2009-11-25 doi: 10.3390/en20401130 Albert Tarancón http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1118/ Electromagnetic interference (EMI) can both affect and be transmitted by mega-watt wind turbines. This paper provides a general overview on EMI with respect to mega-watt wind turbines. Possibilities of measuring all types of electromagnetic interference are shown. Electromagnetic fields resulting from a GSM transmitter mounted on a mega-watt wind turbine will be analyzed in detail. This cellular system operates as a real-time communication link. The method-of-moments is used to analytically describe the electro-magnetic fields. The electromagnetic interference will be analyzed under the given boundary condition with a commercial simulation tool. Different transmitter positions are judged on the basis of their radiation patterns. The principal EMI mechanisms are described and taken into consideration. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1118/ Fri, 20 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-20 2 4 Article 1118 1129 1996-1073 Electromagnetic Interference on Large Wind Turbines 2009-11-20 doi: 10.3390/en20401118 Florian Krug Bastian Lewke http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1107/ Production of fatty acid esters from stearic, oleic, and palmitic acids and short-chain alcohols (methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol) for the production of biodiesel was investigated in this work. A series of montmorillonite-based clays catalysts (KSF, KSF/0, KP10, and K10) were used as acidic catalysts. The influence of the specific surface area and the acidity of the catalysts on the esterification rate were investigated. The best catalytic activities were obtained with KSF/0 catalyst. The esterification reaction has been carried out efficiently in a semi-continuous reactor at 150°C temperature higher than the boiling points of water and alcohol. The reactor used enabled the continuous removal of water and esterification with hydrated alcohol (ethanol 95%) without affecting the original activity of the clay. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1107/ Thu, 19 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-19 2 4 Article 1107 1117 1996-1073 Esterification of Fatty Acids with Short-Chain Alcohols over Commercial Acid Clays in a Semi-Continuous Reactor 2009-11-19 doi: 10.3390/en20401107 Soumaya Bouguerra Neji Mahmoud Trabelsi Mohamed H. Frikha http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1057/ At present, despite the great advances in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) technology over the past two decades through intensive research and development activities, their large-scale commercialization is still hampered by their higher materials cost and lower reliability and durability. In this review, water management is given special consideration. Water management is of vital importance to achieve maximum performance and durability from PEMFCs. On the one hand, to maintain good proton conductivity, the relative humidity of inlet gases is typically held at a large value to ensure that the membrane remains fully hydrated. On the other hand, the pores of the catalyst layer (CL) and the gas diffusion layer (GDL) are frequently flooded by excessive liquid water, resulting in a higher mass transport resistance. Thus, a subtle equilibrium has to be maintained between membrane drying and liquid water flooding to prevent fuel cell degradation and guarantee a high performance level, which is the essential problem of water management. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art studies of water management, including the experimental methods and modeling and simulation for the characterization of water management and the water management strategies. As one important aspect of water management, water flooding has been extensively studied during the last two decades. Herein, the causes, detection, effects on cell performance and mitigation strategies of water flooding are overviewed in detail. In the end of the paper the emphasis is given to: (i) the delicate equilibrium of membrane drying vs. water flooding in water management; (ii) determining which phenomenon is principally responsible for the deterioration of the PEMFC performance, the flooding of the porous electrode or the gas channels in the bipolar plate, and (iii) what measures should be taken to prevent water flooding from happening in PEMFCs. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1057/ Tue, 17 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-17 2 4 Review 1057 1106 1996-1073 A Review of Water Management in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells 2009-11-17 doi: 10.3390/en20401057 Mengbo Ji Zidong Wei http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1042/ Within the context of Finite-Time Thermodynamics (FTT) a simplified thermal power plant model (the so-called Novikov engine) is analyzed under economical criteria by means of the concepts of profit function and the costs involved in the performance of the power plant. In this study, two different heat transfer laws are used, the so called Newton’s law of cooling and the Dulong-Petit’s law of cooling. Two FTT optimization criteria for the performance analysis are used: the maximum power regime (MP) and the so-called ecological criterion. This last criterion leads the engine model towards a mode of performance that appreciably diminishes the engine’s wasted energy. In this work, it is shown that the energy-unit price produced under maximum power conditions is cheaper than that produced under maximum ecological (ME) conditions. This was accomplished by using a typical definition of profits function stemming from economics. The MP-regime produces considerably more wasted energy toward the environment, thus the MP energy-unit price is subsidized by nature. Due to this fact, an ecological tax is proposed, which could be a certain function of the price difference between the MP and ME modes of power production. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1042/ Tue, 10 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-10 2 4 Article 1042 1056 1996-1073 A Proposal of Ecologic Taxes Based on Thermo-Economic Performance of Heat Engine Models 2009-11-10 doi: 10.3390/en20401042 Marco A. Barranco-Jiménez Israel Ramos-Gayosso Marco A. Rosales Fernando Angulo-Brown http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1031/ Large penetration of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) impacts Energy Supply Industry (ESI) in many aspects leading to a fundamental change in electric power systems. It raises a number of technical challenges to the Transmission System Operators (TSOs), Distribution System Operators (DSOs) and Wind Turbine Generators (WTG) constructors. This paper aims to present in a thorough and coherent way the redrawn picture for Energy Systems under these conditions. Topics related to emergent technical challenges, technical solutions required and finally the impact on ESI due to large wind power penetration, are analyzed. Finally, general conclusions are extracted about the ESI current and future state and general directions are recommended. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1031/ Mon, 09 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-09 2 4 Review 1031 1041 1996-1073 Impacts of Large Scale Wind Penetration on Energy Supply Industry 2009-11-09 doi: 10.3390/en20401031 John Kabouris Fotis D. Kanellos http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1009/ This paper provides an overview of recent studies on energy storage in bifunctional TiO2 composite materials under UV and visible light. The working mechanism, property improvements and applications of these bifunctional TiO2 composite systems are introduced, respectively. The latest results obtained in our laboratory, especially a new process for photoelectric conversion and energy storage in TiO2/Cu2O bilayer films under visible light, are also presented. Hopefully this review will stimulate more fundamental and applied research on this subject in the future. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1009/ Fri, 06 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-06 2 4 Review 1009 1030 1996-1073 Energy Storage in Bifunctional TiO2 Composite Materials under UV and Visible Light 2009-11-06 doi: 10.3390/en20401009 Liangbin Xiong Jialin Li Ying Yu http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1007/ It is customary for a new Editor to address the audience of the Journal he is called to contribute to, to define or redefine its aims and scope and to state or restate its scientific and strategic priorities. In my case, this task is made much easier by the excellent relationship that has been established, in the two months since my nomination, with the Editorial Staff and with the Editorial Board of Energies. [...] http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/1007/ Thu, 05 Nov 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-11-05 2 4 Editorial 1007 1008 1996-1073 Energies—A Trans-Disciplinary Journal 2009-11-05 doi: 10.3390/en20401007 Enrico Sciubba http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/976/ Direct coal liquefaction has been studied and practiced since the 1930s. It was used in Germany during World War II to produce synthetic fuels when there was no oil allowed into the country. Since then, it has been studied in the United States and many different technologies have been investigated. Since the US is rich in coal resources, this is one way to be energy independent. Most of the development activity occurred in the 1980s and numerous technologies were studied, the most notable of these being H-Coal, Exxon Donor Solvent, Solvent Refined Coal, and Two Stage Liquefaction. The key elements of these technologies, particularly the reaction/reactor scheme, are discussed in this review. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/976/ Thu, 29 Oct 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-10-29 2 4 Article 976 1006 1996-1073 Reaction Engineering of Direct Coal Liquefaction 2009-10-29 doi: 10.3390/en20400976 Ken K. Robinson http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/957/ A new inclined plates extractor-separator is developed for operation with immiscible liquids in which extraction and separation is achieved in one unit contrary to mixer settlers. The inclined plates extractor-separator combines turbulent jets for contacting, and an inclined plate for separation of the two phases. The inclined plates extractor-separator does not have any moving part inside the vessel. This feature makes it free from the mechanical problems associated with conventional apparatus. The proposed inclined plates extractor-separator was operated in batch mode under various operating conditions to evaluate its performance on the basis of extraction efficiency. Water (light phase) was used as solvent to extract ethyl acetate from a heavy phase pool of tetrachloroethylene and ethyl acetate. The ethyl acetate content was analysed using chromatography. A hydrodynamic study was carried out using high speed photography to understand the mechanisms occurring during mass transfer across the two phases. Furthermore, it was found that the proposed inclined plate extractor-separator reduces the overall operating time by 67% and consumes only 13% of the power in comparison to a mixer-settler. A hydraulic power consumption comparison with a mixer settler and a gullwing extractor-separator is also presented. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/957/ Tue, 27 Oct 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-10-27 2 4 Article 957 975 1996-1073 Development of an Inclined Plate Extractor-Separator for Immiscible Liquids 2009-10-27 doi: 10.3390/en20400957 Shahid Munir Syed Sheraz Daood Syed Zahoor ul Hassan Rizvi Muhammad Arif Butt http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/944/ Highly selective Pd electrocatalysts were synthesized by the formic acid (FA) method and evaluated as cathodes for DEGFC applications. In rotating disc measurements in acid medium, the Pd/C cathode showed important catalytic activity for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR). In the presence of ethylene glycol (EG, C2H6O2), Pd/C exhibited a noteworthy electrochemical behavior and full tolerance to the organic molecule. No current density peaks associated to the EG oxidation reaction emerged and the shift in onset potential for the ORR (Eonset) toward more negative potentials was negligible on this cathode. As a comparison, commercial Pt/C was tested under the same conditions showing a poor selectivity for the ORR when EG was present. The detrimental effect of EG on the Pt electrocatalysts resulted in high intensity current density peaks due to the oxidation of EG and a significant shift in Eonset. The evaluation of Pd/C in a DEGFC operating at 80 °C demonstrated its good performance as cathode material. Given these results, it is expected that highly efficient Pd-based cathodes can find application in DEGFCs. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/944/ Tue, 27 Oct 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-10-27 2 4 Article 944 956 1996-1073 Synthesis and Evaluation of Highly Tolerant Pd Electrocatalysts as Cathodes in Direct Ethylene Glycol Fuel Cells (DEGFC) 2009-10-27 doi: 10.3390/en20400944 F. Javier Rodríguez Varela Sergio Fraire Luna Oumarou Savadogo http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/915/ Wind turbines in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area (Alameda/Contra Costa Counties, California, USA) generate about 730 GWh of electricity annually, but have been killing thousands of birds each year, including <2,000 raptors and hundreds of burrowing owls. We have developed collision hazard maps and hazard ratings of wind turbines to guide relocation of existing wind turbines and careful repowering to modern turbines to reduce burrowing owl fatalities principally, and other birds secondarily. Burrowing owls selected burrow sites lower on slopes and on smaller, shallower slopes than represented by the average 10 × 10 m2 grid cell among 187,908 grid cells sampled from 2,281,169 grid cells comprising a digital elevation model (DEM) of the study area. Fuzzy logic and discriminant function analysis produced likelihood surfaces encompassing most burrowing owl burrows within a fraction of the study area, and the former corresponded with burrowing owl fatalities and the latter with other raptor fatalities. Our ratings of wind turbine hazard were more predictive of burrowing owl fatalities, but would be more difficult to implement. Careful repowering to modern wind turbines would most reduce fatalities of burrowing owls and other birds while adding about 1,000 GWh annually toward California’s 33% Renewable Portfolio Standard. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/915/ Fri, 23 Oct 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-10-23 2 4 Article 915 943 1996-1073 Map-Based Repowering and Reorganization of a Wind Resource Area to Minimize Burrowing Owl and Other Bird Fatalities 2009-10-23 doi: 10.3390/en20400915 K. Shawn Smallwood Lee Neher Douglas A. Bell http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/900/ In a previous paper we presented the results of our investigations on the application of externally imposed temperature fields for the improvement of the non-Newtonian properties of raw oil in the well and also on the possible use of electric and magnetic fields in the water flooding process of the oil layer. In this article, some additional results are presented with regards to the application of external pressure fields to the same purpose, with the goal of increasing the well output and improve the efficiency of gaslift wells and oil pipelines. The possibility of regulating the gas-liquid system saturation pressure is discussed as well, to expand the opportunity of varying the well operating regime. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/900/ Wed, 14 Oct 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-10-14 2 4 Article 900 914 1996-1073 Physical Basis for Creating Energy and Resource-Saving Rheo-Technology in Oil Production 2009-10-14 doi: 10.3390/en20400900 Tulparkhan Sh. Salavatov Emin A. Panakhov http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/873/ Transition metal carbides (TMCs) and transition metal nitrides (TMNs) have attracted attention as promising electrocatalysts that could replace noble metals of high price and limited supply. Relative to parent metals, TMC and TMN behave like noble metals for electrochemical reactions such as oxidation of hydrogen, CO and alcohols, and reduction of oxygen. When TMC and TMN are combined with other metals, the electrocatalytic synergy is often observed in electrochemical reactions. Thus, combinations with a minute amount of Pt or even non-Pt metals give performance comparable to heavily loaded Pt-based electrocatalysts for low temperature fuel cells. It appears that TMC based electrocatalysts are more active as anode catalysts for oxidation of fuels, whereas TMN based catalysts are more active for cathode catalysts for oxygen reduction and more stable. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/873/ Tue, 13 Oct 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-10-13 2 4 Review 873 899 1996-1073 Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides as Electrode Materials for Low Temperature Fuel Cells 2009-10-13 doi: 10.3390/en20400873 Dong Jin Ham Jae Sung Lee http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/851/ Vapex (vapor extraction of heavy oil and bitumen) is a promising recovery technology because it consumes low energy, and is very environmentally-friendly. The dispersion of solvents into heavy oil and bitumen is a crucial transport property governing Vapex. The accurate determination of solvent dispersion in Vapex is essential to effectively predict the amount and time scale of oil recovery as well to optimize the field operations. In this work, a novel technique is developed to experimentally determine the concentration-dependent dispersion coefficient of a solvent in Vapex process. The principles of variational calculus are utilized in conjunction with a mass transfer model of the experimental Vapex process. A computational algorithm is developed to optimally compute solvent dispersion as a function of its concentration in heavy oil. The developed technique is applied to Vapex utilizing propane as a solvent. The results show that dispersion of propane is a unimodal function of its concentration in bitumen. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/851/ Mon, 12 Oct 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-10-12 2 4 Article 851 872 1996-1073 A Novel Technique to Determine Concentration-Dependent Solvent Dispersion in Vapex 2009-10-12 doi: 10.3390/en20400851 Hadil Abukhalifeh Ali Lohi Simant Ranjan Upreti http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/839/ We compare the demand of a large electricity consumer with supply given by wind farms installed at two distant geographic locations. Obviously such situation is rather unrealistic, however our main goal is a quantitative characterization of the intermittency of wind electricity. The consumption pattern consists of marked daily and weekly cycles interrupted by periods of holidays. In contrast, wind electricity production has neither short-time nor seasonal periodicities. We show that wind power integration over a restricted area cannot provide a stable baseload supply, independently of the excess capacity. Further essential result is that the statistics are almost identical for a weekly periodic pattern of consumption and a constant load of the same average value. The length of both adequate supply and shortfall intervals exhibits a scale-free (power-law) frequency distribution, possible consequences are shortly discussed. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/839/ Wed, 30 Sep 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-09-30 2 4 Article 839 850 1996-1073 Contrasting Electricity Demand with Wind Power Supply: Case Study in Hungary 2009-09-30 doi: 10.3390/en20400839 Péter Kiss László Varga Imre M. Jánosi http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/816/ This study presents a parameterization of the interaction between wind turbines and the atmosphere and estimates the global and regional atmospheric energy losses due to such interactions. The parameterization is based on the Blade Element Momentum theory, which calculates forces on turbine blades. Should wind supply the world’s energy needs, this parameterization estimates energy loss in the lowest 1 km of the atmosphere to be ~0.007%. This is an order of magnitude smaller than atmospheric energy loss from aerosol pollution and urbanization, and orders of magnitude less than the energy added to the atmosphere from doubling CO2. Also, the net heat added to the environment due to wind dissipation is much less than that added by thermal plants that the turbines displace. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/816/ Wed, 30 Sep 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-09-30 2 4 Article 816 838 1996-1073 Investigating the Effect of Large Wind Farms on Energy in the Atmosphere 2009-09-30 doi: 10.3390/en20400816 Magdalena R. V. Sta. Maria Mark Z. Jacobson http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/805/ This study investigates the impacts of climate change on energy requirements in the Mediterranean. Energy requirements, especially for space heating and cooling, are closely linked to several weather variables, mainly air temperature. The analysis is based on daily temperature outputs from several regional climate models run at a resolution of 25 km × 25 km in the framework of EU project ENSEMBLES using the A1B emissions scenario. The impacts of changes in temperature on energy requirements are investigated using the concept of degree days, defined as the difference of mean air temperature from a base temperature. Base temperature should be chosen to coincide with the minimum energy consumption. In this way, changes in heating and cooling requirements between the reference and the future period are calculated and areas about to undergo large changes identified. These changes are calculated between a 30-year reference period 1961–1990 and a near future period 2021–2050 taking the ensemble mean of all regional climate models. The near-term future has been chosen instead of the frequently used end-of-the-century period to assist policy makers in their planning. In general, a decrease in energy requirements is projected under future milder winters and an increase under hotter summers. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/4/805/ Wed, 30 Sep 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-09-30 2 4 Article 805 815 1996-1073 Changing Energy Requirements in the Mediterranean Under Changing Climatic Conditions 2009-09-30 doi: 10.3390/en20400805 Christos Giannakopoulos Panos Hadjinicolaou Christos Zerefos George Demosthenous http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/789/ Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been investigated in recent years as a catalyst support for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Improved catalyst activities were observed and attributed to metal-support interactions. We report a study on the kinetics of methanol electro-oxidation on CNT supported Pt-Ru alloy nanoparticles. Alloy catalysts with different compositions, Pt53Ru47/CNT, Pt69Ru31/CNT and Pt77Ru23/CNT, were prepared and investigated in detail. Experiments were conducted at various temperatures, electrode potentials, and methanol concentrations. It was found that the reaction order of methanol electro-oxidation on the PtRu/CNT catalysts was consistent with what has been reported for PtRu alloys with a value of 0.5 in methanol concentrations. However, the electro-oxidation reaction on the PtRu/CNT catalysts displayed much lower activation energies than that on the Pt-Ru alloy catalysts unsupported or supported on carbon black (PtRu/CB). This study provides an overall kinetic evaluation of the PtRu/CNT catalysts and further demonstrates the beneficial role of CNTs. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/789/ Wed, 16 Sep 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-09-16 2 3 Article 789 804 1996-1073 Methanol Electro-Oxidation on Pt-Ru Alloy Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotubes 2009-09-16 doi: 10.3390/en20300789 Liang Li Yangchuan Xing http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/769/ Natural gas is the main energy resource for buildings in Argentina. Since 2002, subsidies have kept the prices of this fuel between 9 and 26 times lower than regular prices in other countries. The lowest prices are the result of climate-related subsidies. In cold areas, heating uses several times more energy than locations in Europe with a similar climate. A potential for consumption reductions of up to 70% suggests a very low building thermal performance. The main barriers to finding a solution are the heavy subsidies and public unawareness. Users, government officials, and construction professionals do not identify the very low thermal efficiency. Energy policies to encourage improvements are proposed. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/769/ Tue, 08 Sep 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-09-08 2 3 Article 769 788 1996-1073 Energy Subsidies in Argentina Lead to Inequalities and Low Thermal Efficiency 2009-09-08 doi: 10.3390/en20300769 Alejandro D. González http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/738/ This paper aims to contribute to the development of valuation models for long-term investments while keeping an eye on market prices. The adopted methodology is rooted on the existence of markets for futures and options on commodities related to energy investments. These markets are getting ever-increasingly liquid with ever-longer maturities while trading contracts. We discuss the advantages of this approach relative to other alternatives such as the Net Present Value (NPV) or the Internal Rate of Return (IRR), despite a limited increase in the complexity of the models involved. More specifically, using the valuation methods well-known to energy-finance academics, the paper shows how to: break down an investment into its constituent parts, apply to each of them the corresponding risk premium, value annuities on assets with a deterministic or stochastic behavior, and value the options that are available to its owner, in order to get an overall value of the investment project. It also includes an application to improvement in coal consumption, where futures markets are used to get a numerical estimate of the parameters that are required for valuation. The results are then compared with those from traditional methodologies. Conclusions for this type of investments under uncertainty are derived. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/738/ Fri, 04 Sep 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-09-04 2 3 Review 738 768 1996-1073 Valuation of Long-Term Investments in Energy Assets under Uncertainty 2009-09-04 doi: 10.3390/en20300738 Luis M. Abadie http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/714/ An EOR study has been performed applying miscible CO2 flooding and compared with that for water flooding. Three different oils are used, reference oil (n-decane), model oil (n-C10, SA, toluene and 0.35 wt % asphaltene) and crude oil (10 wt % asphaltene) obtained from the Middle East. Stearic acid (SA) is added representing a natural surfactant in oil. For the non-asphaltenic oil, miscible CO2 flooding is shown to be more favourable than that by water. However, it is interesting to see that for first years after the start of the injection (< 3 years) it is shown that there is almost no difference between the recovered oils by water and CO2, after which (> 3 years) oil recovery by gas injection showed a significant increase. This may be due to the enhanced performance at the increased reservoir pressure during the first period. Maximum oil recovery is shown by miscible CO2 flooding of asphaltenic oil at combined temperatures and pressures of 50 °C/90 bar and 70 °C/120 bar (no significant difference between the two cases, about 1%) compared to 80 °C/140 bar. This may support the positive influence of the high combined temperatures and pressures for the miscible CO2 flooding; however beyond a certain limit the oil recovery declined due to increased asphaltene deposition. Another interesting finding in this work is that for single phase oil, an almost linear relationship is observed between the pressure drop and the asphaltene deposition regardless of the flowing fluid pressure. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/714/ Wed, 02 Sep 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-09-02 2 3 Article 714 737 1996-1073 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) by Miscible CO2 and Water Flooding of Asphaltenic and Non-Asphaltenic Oils 2009-09-02 doi: 10.3390/en20300714 Edwin A. Chukwudeme Aly A. Hamouda http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/697/ In this research, a water-water heat pump system using waste water as a heat source, a type that is not often used in Turkey and the World, was experimentally modeled. The experiments were performed under the conditions of simulated waste water temperature values of 20 °C, 30 °C and 40 °C. Inlet and outlet water temperatures of the evaporator and condenser, water flow rates in the evaporator and condenser circuits, pressures at the compressor inlet and outlet and power consumption of the system were measured. The heating coefficients of performance were calculated based on the measurements. It was found that the maximum temperature in the energy storage tank was about 50.6 °C. For the heat source temperatures of 20 °C, 30 °C and 40 °C, the heating coefficients of the performance of the system became 3.36, 3.43 and 3.69, respectively, 6 min. after the start time of the experiments and then they were decreased to 1.87, 1.83 and 1.77 with increasing water temperature in the condenser tank. The mean uncertainty value of the measurement parameters was found to be about ±2.47%. Finally, for the purpose of meeting hot water need as well as floor heating system requirements, it is seen that energy quality level of a waste low grade temperature heat source can be increased by using a heat pump system. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/697/ Fri, 28 Aug 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-08-28 2 3 Article 697 713 1996-1073 Investigation of the Performance of a Heat Pump Using Waste Water as a Heat Source 2009-08-28 doi: 10.3390/en20300697 Ali Kahraman Alaeddin Çelebi http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/695/ I have stated in my recent review article that no direct observation of multiple exciton generation (MEG) in the shape of photocurrent extracted from a semiconductor had been made yet. [...] http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/695/ Wed, 26 Aug 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-08-26 2 3 Addendum 695 696 1996-1073 Tanabe, K. A Review of Ultrahigh Efficiency III-V Semiconductor Compound Solar Cells: Multijunction Tandem, Lower Dimensional, Photonic Up/Down Conversion and Plasmonic Nanometallic Structures. Energies, 2009, 2, 504-530. 2009-08-26 doi: 10.3390/en20300695 Katsuaki Tanabe http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/662/ This paper deals with the economics of gasification facilities in general and IGCC power plants in particular. Regarding the prospects of these systems, passing the technological test is one thing, passing the economic test can be quite another. In this respect, traditional valuations assume constant input and/or output prices. Since this is hardly realistic, we allow for uncertainty in prices. We naturally look at the markets where many of the products involved are regularly traded. Futures markets on commodities are particularly useful for valuing uncertain future cash flows. Thus, revenues and variable costs can be assessed by means of sound financial concepts and actual market data. On the other hand, these complex systems provide a number of flexibility options (e.g., to choose among several inputs, outputs, modes of operation, etc.). Typically, flexibility contributes significantly to the overall value of real assets. Indeed, maximization of the asset value requires the optimal exercise of any flexibility option available. Yet the economic value of flexibility is elusive, the more so under (price) uncertainty. And the right choice of input fuels and/or output products is a main concern for the facility managers. As a particular application, we deal with the valuation of input flexibility. We follow the Real Options approach. In addition to economic variables, we also address technical and environmental issues such as energy efficiency, utility performance characteristics and missions (note that carbon constraints are looming). Lastly, a brief introduction to some stochastic processes suitable for valuation purposes is provided. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/662/ Tue, 25 Aug 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-08-25 2 3 Article 662 694 1996-1073 The Economics of Gasification: A Market-Based Approach 2009-08-25 doi: 10.3390/en20300662 Luis M. Abadie José M. Chamorro http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/646/ The well known “Hubbert curve” assumes that the production curve of a crude oil in a free market economy is “bell shaped” and symmetric. The model was first applied in the 1950s as a way of forecasting the production of crude oil in the US lower 48 states. Today, variants of the model are often used for describing the worldwide production of crude oil, which is supposed to reach a global production peak (“peak oil”) and to decline afterwards. The model has also been shown to be generally valid for mineral resources other than crude oil and also for slowly renewable biological resources such as whales. Despite its widespread use, Hubbert’s modelis sometimes criticized for being arbitrary and its underlying assumptions are rarely examined. In the present work, we use a simple model to generate the bell shaped curve curve using the smallest possible number of assumptions, taking also into account the “Energy Return to Energy Invested” (EROI or EROEI) parameter. We show that this model can reproduce several historical cases, even for resources other than crude oil, and provide a useful tool for understanding the general mechanisms of resource exploitation and the future of energy production in the world’s economy. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/646/ Thu, 13 Aug 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-08-13 2 3 Article 646 661 1996-1073 A Simple Interpretation of Hubbert’s Model of Resource Exploitation 2009-08-13 doi: 10.3390/en20300646 Ugo Bardi Alessandro Lavacchi http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/623/ Recognizing the importance of energy as a vital component in economic development, the Taiwanese government has been continuously revising its energy policy, seeking to balance economic development, energy supply, and environmental protection (3E). Some measures, in an attempt to achieve the 3E balance, were previously implemented in Taiwan; nevertheless, some unresolved issues departing from certain core principles of Taiwan’s sustainable energy policy and an international initiative for a low carbon society remain. The aim of this paper is to examine the energy supply and demand structure of Taiwan and the present status of individual energy carriers (including coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity). In addition, it investigates the current energy policy framework and its implementation in Taiwan, identifies unresolved issues regarding sustainable energy development, and formulates key policy solutions for certain identifiable problems to enable the achievement of a liberalized, orderly, efficient, and clean energy supply and demand system. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/623/ Mon, 10 Aug 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-08-10 2 3 Article 623 645 1996-1073 Energy Policy in Taiwan: Historical Developments, Current Status and Potential Improvements 2009-08-10 doi: 10.3390/en20300623 Yun-Hsun Huang Jung-Hua Wu http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/595/ We have produced annual estimates of national and global gas flaring and gas flaring efficiency from 1994 through 2008 using low light imaging data acquired by the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). Gas flaring is a widely used practice for the disposal of associated gas in oil production and processing facilities where there is insufficient infrastructure for utilization of the gas (primarily methane). Improved utilization of the gas is key to reducing global carbon emissions to the atmosphere. The DMSP estimates of flared gas volume are based on a calibration developed with a pooled set of reported national gas flaring volumes and data from individual flares. Flaring efficiency was calculated as the volume of flared gas per barrel of crude oil produced. Global gas flaring has remained largely stable over the past fifteen years, in the range of 140 to 170 billion cubic meters (BCM). Global flaring efficiency was in the seven to eight cubic meters per barrel from 1994 to 2005 and declined to 5.6 m3 per barrel by 2008. The 2008 gas flaring estimate of 139 BCM represents 21% of the natural gas consumption of the USA with a potential retail market value of $68 billion. The 2008 flaring added more than 278 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) into the atmosphere. The DMSP estimated gas flaring volumes indicate that global gas flaring has declined by 19% since 2005, led by gas flaring reductions in Russia and Nigeria, the two countries with the highest gas flaring levels. The flaring efficiency of both Russia and Nigeria improved from 2005 to 2008, suggesting that the reductions in gas flaring are likely the result of either improved utilization of the gas, reinjection, or direct venting of gas into the atmosphere, although the effect of uncertainties in the satellite data cannot be ruled out. It is anticipated that the capability to estimate gas flaring volumes based on satellite data will spur improved utilization of gas that was simply burnt as waste in previous years. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/595/ Fri, 07 Aug 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-08-07 2 3 Article 595 622 1996-1073 A Fifteen Year Record of Global Natural Gas Flaring Derived from Satellite Data 2009-08-07 doi: 10.3390/en20300595 Christopher D. Elvidge Daniel Ziskin Kimberly E. Baugh Benjamin T. Tuttle Tilottama Ghosh Dee W. Pack Edward H. Erwin Mikhail Zhizhin http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/582/ Bipolar plates (BPs) are one of the most important components in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) due to the numerous functions they perform. The objective of the research work described in this paper was to develop a simplified and validated method based on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), aimed at the analysis and study of the influence of geometrical parameters of BPs on the operation of a cell. A complete sensibility analysis of the influence of dimensions and shape of the BP can be obtained through a simplified CFD model without including the complexity of other components of the PEMFC. This model is compared with the PEM Fuel Cell Module of the FLUENT software, which includes the physical and chemical phenomena relevant in PEMFCs. Results with both models regarding the flow field inside the channels and local current densities are obtained and compared. The results show that it is possible to use the simple model as a standard tool for geometrical analysis of BPs, and results of a sensitivity analysis using the simplified model are presented and discussed. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/582/ Fri, 31 Jul 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-07-31 2 3 Article 582 594 1996-1073 A Simulation Tool for Geometrical Analysis and Optimization of Fuel Cell Bipolar Plates: Development, Validation and Results 2009-07-31 doi: 10.3390/en20300582 Alfredo Iranzo Felipe Rosa Javier Pino http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/556/ A review was conducted on the use of thermochemical biomass gasification for producing biofuels, biopower and chemicals. The upstream processes for gasification are similar to other biomass processing methods. However, challenges remain in the gasification and downstream processing for viable commercial applications. The challenges with gasification are to understand the effects of operating conditions on gasification reactions for reliably predicting and optimizing the product compositions, and for obtaining maximal efficiencies. Product gases can be converted to biofuels and chemicals such as Fischer-Tropsch fuels, green gasoline, hydrogen, dimethyl ether, ethanol, methanol, and higher alcohols. Processes and challenges for these conversions are also summarized. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/556/ Tue, 21 Jul 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-07-21 2 3 Review 556 581 1996-1073 Thermochemical Biomass Gasification: A Review of the Current Status of the Technology 2009-07-21 doi: 10.3390/en20300556 Ajay Kumar David D. Jones Milford A. Hanna http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/545/ In this paper, measurements of the CO2 gasification kinetics for two types of Shenfu coal chars, which were respectively prepared by slow and rapid pyrolysis at temperatures of 950 °C and 1,400 °C, were performed by an isothermal thermo-gravimetric analysis under ambient pressure and elevated temperature conditions. Simultaneously, the applicability of the kinetic model for the CO2 gasification reaction of Shenfu coal chars was discussed. The results showed: (i) the shrinking un-reacted core model was not appropriate to describe the gasification reaction process of Shenfu coal chars with CO2 in the whole experimental temperature range; (ii) at the relatively low temperatures, the modified volumetric model was as good as the random pore model to simulate the CO2 gasification reaction of Shenfu coal chars, while at the elevated temperatures, the modified volumetric model was superior to the random pore model for this process; (iii) the integral expression of the modified volumetric model was more favorable than the differential expression of that for fitting the experimental data. Moreover, by simply introducing a function: A = A★exp(ft), it was found that the extensive model of the modified volumetric model could make much better predictions than the modified volumetric model. It was recommended as a convenient empirical model for comprehensive simulation of Shenfu coal char gasification with under conditions close to those of entrained flow gasification. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/545/ Mon, 20 Jul 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-07-20 2 3 Article 545 555 1996-1073 A Study on the Applicability of Kinetic Models for Shenfu Coal Char Gasification with CO2 at Elevated Temperatures 2009-07-20 doi: 10.3390/en20300545 Youqing Wu Shiyong Wu Jinsheng Gao http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/531/ The performance of an advanced three-bed adsorption chiller with a mass recovery cycle has been experimentally investigated in the present study. The temperature and pressure of various components of the chiller were monitored to observe the dynamic behaviour of the chiller. The performances in terms of the coefficient of performance (COP) and specific cooling power (SCP) were compared with a conventional single stage. The results show that the proposed cycle produces COP and SCP values superior to those of the conventional single stage cycle for heat source temperature below 75 °C. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/531/ Fri, 17 Jul 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-07-17 2 3 Article 531 544 1996-1073 Experimental Investigation of a Three-Bed Adsorption Refrigeration Chiller Employing an Advanced Mass Recovery Cycle 2009-07-17 doi: 10.3390/en20300531 Aep Saepul Uyun Takahiko Miyazaki Yuki Ueda Atsushi Akisawa http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/504/ Solar cells are a promising renewable, carbon-free electric energy resource to address the fossil fuel shortage and global warming. Energy conversion efficiencies around 40% have been recently achieved in laboratories using III-V semiconductor compounds as photovoltaic materials. This article reviews the efforts and accomplishments made for higher efficiency III-V semiconductor compound solar cells, specifically with multijunction tandem, lower-dimensional, photonic up/down conversion, and plasmonic metallic structures. Technological strategies for further performance improvement from the most efficient (Al)InGaP/(In)GaAs/Ge triple-junction cells including the search for 1.0 eV bandgap semiconductors are discussed. Lower-dimensional systems such as quantum well and dot structures are being intensively studied to realize multiple exciton generation and multiple photon absorption to break the conventional efficiency limit. Implementation of plasmonic metallic nanostructures manipulating photonic energy flow directions to enhance sunlight absorption in thin photovoltaic semiconductor materials is also emerging. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/504/ Mon, 13 Jul 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-07-13 2 3 Review 504 530 1996-1073 A Review of Ultrahigh Efficiency III-V Semiconductor Compound Solar Cells: Multijunction Tandem, Lower Dimensional, Photonic Up/Down Conversion and Plasmonic Nanometallic Structures 2009-07-13 doi: 10.3390/en20300504 Katsuaki Tanabe http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/490/ Economies are fueled by energy produced in excess of the amount required to drive the energy production process. Therefore any successful society’s energy resources must be both abundant and exploitable with a high ratio of energy return on energy invested (EROI). Unfortunately most of the data kept on costs of oil and gas operations are in monetary, not energy, terms. Fortunately we can convert monetary values into approximate energy values by deriving energy intensities for monetary transactions from those few nations that keep both sets of data. We provide a preliminary assessment of EROI for the world’s most important fuels, oil and gas, based on time series of global production and estimates of energy inputs derived from monetary expenditures for all publicly traded oil and gas companies and estimates of energy intensities of those expenditures. We estimate that EROI at the wellhead was roughly 26:1 in 1992, increased to 35:1 in 1999, and then decreased to 18:1 in 2006. These trends imply that global supplies of petroleum available to do economic work are considerably less than estimates of gross reserves and that EROI is declining over time and with increased annual drilling levels. Our global estimates of EROI have a pattern similar to, but somewhat higher than, the United States, which has better data on energy costs but a more depleted resource base. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/490/ Mon, 13 Jul 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-07-13 2 3 Article 490 503 1996-1073 A Preliminary Investigation of Energy Return on Energy Investment for Global Oil and Gas Production 2009-07-13 doi: 10.3390/en20300490 Nathan Gagnon Charles A.S. Hall Lysle Brinker http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/477/ According to the Electricity Directive, suppliers of electricity must disclose their electricity portfolio with regards to energy source and environmental impact. This paper gives some examples of disclosure systems and residual electricity mixes in Norway, Sweden and Finland, compared to an approach based on a common regional disclosure. Disclosures based on the E-TRACK standard are presented, as well as the variation in CO2 emissions from different residual mixes. The results from this study clearly show that there is a need for a harmonised, transparent and reliable system for the accounting of electricity disclosure in Europe. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/3/477/ Wed, 01 Jul 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-07-01 2 3 Review 477 489 1996-1073 Calculation of Residual Electricity Mixes when Accounting for the EECS (European Electricity Certificate System) — the Need for a Harmonised System 2009-07-01 doi: 10.3390/en20300477 Hanne Lerche Raadal Cecilia Askham Nyland Ole Jørgen Hanssen http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/456/ This article follows the development of early UCG (underground coal gasification) ideas. Historical facts are discussed mainly from the technological perspective and early experiments in UCG are analyzed. Our search for the first successful UCG experiment brings to light a new finding, which was commonly overlooked in previous reviews. We also outline the key role that engineer and inventor A. G. Betts played in introducing technologies utilizing unmined coal; his original ideas are visible in the first successful UCG experiments and in modern UCG technology. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/456/ Wed, 24 Jun 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-06-24 2 2 Article 456 476 1996-1073 Early Ideas in Underground Coal Gasification and Their Evolution 2009-06-24 doi: 10.3390/en20200456 Alexander Y. Klimenko http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/445/ The reported patent-pending system comprises a novel biohydrogen reactor with a gravity settler for decoupling of SRT from HRT. The biohydrogenator was operated for 100 days at 37 °C, hydraulic retention time 8 h and solids retention time ranging from 2.2–2.5 days. The feed was a corn-syrup waste generated as a byproduct from an industrial facility for bioethanol production located in southwestern Ontario, Canada. The system was initially started up with a synthetic feed containing glucose at concentration of 8 g/L and other essential inorganics. Anaerobicaly-digested sludge from the St. Mary’s wastewater treatment plant (St. Mary, Ontario, Canada) was used as the seed, and was heat treated at 70 °C for 30 min to inhibit methanogens. After 10 days, when the hydrogen production was steady, the corn-syrup waste was introduced to the system. Glucose was the main constituent in the corn-syrup; its concentration was varied over a period of 90 days from 8 to 25 g/L. The change in glucose concentration was used to study the impact of variable organic loading on the stability of hydrogen production in the biohydrogenator. Hydrogen production rate increased from 10 L H2/L·d to 34 L H2/L·d with the increase of organic loading rate (OLR) from 26 to 81 gCOD/L·d, while a maximum hydrogen yield of 430 mL H2/gCOD was achieved in the system with an overall average of 385 mL H2/gCOD. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/445/ Wed, 24 Jun 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-06-24 2 2 Article 445 455 1996-1073 Biological Hydrogen Production from Corn-Syrup Waste Using a Novel System 2009-06-24 doi: 10.3390/en20200445 Hisham Hafez George Nakhla Hesham El Naggar http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/427/ A two dimensional numerical model of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) with electrode functional layers is presented. The model incorporates the partial differential equations for mass transport, electric conduction and electrochemical reactions in the electrode functional layers, the anode support layer, the cathode current collection layer and at the electrode/electrolyte interfaces. A dusty gas model is used in modeling the gas transport in porous electrodes. The model is capable of providing results in good agreement with the experimental I-V relationship. Numerical examples are presented to illustrate the applications of this numerical model as a tool for the design and optimization of SOFCs. For a stack assembly of a pitch width of 2 mm and an interconnect-electrode contact resistance of 0.025 Ωcm2, a typical SOFC stack cell should consist of a rib width of 0.9 mm, a cathode current collection layer thickness of 200–300 μm, a cathode functional layer thickness of 20–40 μm, and an anode functional layer thickness of 10–20 μm in order to achieve optimal performance. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/427/ Tue, 23 Jun 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-06-23 2 2 Article 427 444 1996-1073 A Microscale Modeling Tool for the Design and Optimization of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 2009-06-23 doi: 10.3390/en20200427 Shixue Liu Wei Kong Zijing Lin http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/411/ Current limiting fuses are widely used to protect the thyristors in DC drive systems. One very important problem is the choice of the correct voltage rating for fuses protecting regenerative DC drives, where many types of fault may occur, which makes fuse protection difficult. In the event of a commutation failure while regenerating, the fuses need to interrupt the loop supplied by the AC and DC voltages acting in series, which is the most difficult case for protection by fuses. In this paper a detailed study of the complete interruption process has been investigated by modeling of arcing process of the fuse protection against the regenerative circuit internal commutation fault. The effect of varying the motor time constant, supply impedance, number of fuses used to clear the fault and DC machine rating on the total transient response is studied. The model of a 200 A fuse is employed in this study. Fuses in series with both the semiconductor devices (F1) and fuses in AC lines (F2) are considered. Comparison was made between arc energy produced for fuses protecting the regenerative circuit if failure occurs, with the arc energy produced in a standard AC test in order to investigate the required voltage rating for the fuse. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/411/ Tue, 16 Jun 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-06-16 2 2 Article 411 426 1996-1073 Influence of System Parameters on Fuse Protection Use in Regenerative DC Drives 2009-06-16 doi: 10.3390/en20200411 Mohammed Redha Qader Hedaia Al-Asooly Isa Salman Qamber http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/377/ Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) have the advantage of being able to operate with fuels other than hydrogen. In particular, liquid fuels are especially attractive for powering portable applications such as small power generators or auxiliary power units, in which case the direct utilization of the fuel would be convenient. Although liquid fuels are easier to handle and transport than hydrogen, their direct use in SOFC can lead to anode deactivation due to carbon formation, especially on traditional nickel/yttria stabilized zirconia (Ni/YSZ) anodes. Significant advances have been made in anodic materials that are resistant to carbon formation but often these materials are less electrochemically active than Ni/YSZ. In this review the challenges of using liquid fuels directly in SOFC, in terms of gas-phase and catalytic reactions within the anode chamber, will be discussed and the alternative anode materials so far investigated will be compared. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/377/ Fri, 12 Jun 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-06-12 2 2 Review 377 410 1996-1073 Direct Utilization of Liquid Fuels in SOFC for Portable Applications: Challenges for the Selection of Alternative Anodes 2009-06-12 doi: 10.3390/en20200377 Massimiliano Cimenti Josephine M. Hill http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/362/ The transesterification reactions of four different vegetable oils (sunflower, rapeseed, olive oil and used frying oil) with ethanol, using sodium hydroxide as catalyst, were studied. The ester preparation involved a two-step transesterification reaction, followed by purification. The effects of the mass ratio of catalyst to oil (0.25 – 1.5%), the molar ratio of ethanol to oil (6:1 – 12:1), and the reaction temperature (35 – 90 °C) were studied for the conversion of sunflower oil to optimize the reaction conditions in both stages. The rest of the vegetable oils were converted to ethyl esters under optimum reaction parameters. The optimal conditions for first stage transesterification were an ethanol/oil molar ratio of 12:1, NaOH amount (1% wt/wt), and 80 °C temperature, whereas the maximum yield of ethyl esters reached 81.4% wt/wt. In the second stage, the yield of ethyl esters was improved by 16% in relation with the one-stage transesterification, which was obtained under the following optimal conditions: catalyst concentration 0.75% and ethanol/oil molar ratio 6:1. The fuel properties of the esters were measured according to EN test methods. Based on the experimental results one can see that the ethyl esters do not differ significantly from methyl esters. Moreover, the results showed that the values of density, viscosity, and higher heating value of ethyl esters were similar to those of automotive and heavy duty engine diesel fuel. However, the CFPP values were higher, which may contribute to potential difficulties in cold starts. On the other hand, the flash points, which were higher than those of diesel fuel constituted a safety guarantee from the point of view of handling and storage. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/362/ Fri, 05 Jun 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-06-05 2 2 Article 362 376 1996-1073 Transesterification of Vegetable Oils with Ethanol and Characterization of the Key Fuel Properties of Ethyl Esters 2009-06-05 doi: 10.3390/en20200362 George Anastopoulos Ypatia Zannikou Stamoulis Stournas Stamatis Kalligeros http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/340/ The objectives of this study are to combine historical observations and state-of-the-art numerical models (MM5/CALMET system) to map the spatial distribution of wind resources in high resolution, and to help foster a deeper understanding of the wind power potential over southern China (Guangdong). Hourly wind fields were simulated for three entire years (2004-2006). It found that almost 70% of the time, the wind speed along the coast of Guangdong is over 5 m/s, which is deemed a baseline magnitude for typical wind turbines. Spatial plots of the wind speed and power and their variations over Guangdong Province for the three years are also presented. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/340/ Wed, 03 Jun 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-06-03 2 2 Article 340 361 1996-1073 Mesoscale Simulation of Year-to-Year Variation of Wind Power Potential over Southern China 2009-06-03 doi: 10.3390/en20200340 Steve H.L. Yim Jimmy C.H. Fung Alexis K.H. Lau http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/320/ The rapid upward shift in ethanol demand has raised concerns about ethanol’s impact on the price level and volatility of agricultural commodities. The popular press attributes much of this volatility in commodity prices to a price bubble in ethanol fuel and recent deflation. Market economics predicts not only a softening of demand to high commodity prices but also a positive supply response. This volatility in ethanol and commodity prices are investigated using cointegration, vector error corrections (VECM), and multivariate generalized autoregressive conditional heteroskedascity (MGARCH) models. In terms of derived demand theory, results support ethanol and oil demands as derived demands from vehicle-fuel production. Gasoline prices directly influence the prices of ethanol and oil. However, of greater significance for the fuel versus food security issue, results support the effect of agricultural commodity prices as market signals which restore commodity markets to their equilibriums after a demand or supply event (shock). Such shocks may in the short-run increase agricultural commodity prices, but decentralized freely operating markets will mitigate the persistence of these shocks. Results indicate in recent years there are no long-run relations among fuel (ethanol, oil and gasoline) prices and agricultural commodity (corn and soybean) prices. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/320/ Tue, 02 Jun 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-06-02 2 2 Article 320 339 1996-1073 Ethanol, Corn, and Soybean Price Relations in a Volatile Vehicle-Fuels Market 2009-06-02 doi: 10.3390/en20200320 Zibin Zhang Luanne Lohr Cesar Escalante Michael Wetzstein http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/307/ The available wind power resource worldwide at altitudes between 500 and 12,000 m above ground is assessed for the first time. Twenty-eight years of wind data from the reanalyses by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction and the Department of Energy are analyzed and interpolated to study geographical distributions and persistency of winds at all altitudes. Furthermore, intermittency issues and global climate effects of large-scale extraction of energy from high-altitude winds are investigated. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/307/ Tue, 26 May 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-05-26 2 2 Article 307 319 1996-1073 Global Assessment of High-Altitude Wind Power 2009-05-26 doi: 10.3390/en20200307 Cristina L. Archer Ken Caldeira http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/269/ In this article, the U.S. and southern Canadian natural gas supply market is considered. An important model for oil and natural gas supply is the Hubbert curve. Not all regions of the world are producing oil or natural gas following a Hubbert curve, even when price and market conditions are accounted for. One reason is that institutions are affecting supply. We investigate the possible effects of oil and gas market institutions in North America on natural gas supply. A multi-cycle Hubbert curve with inflection points similar to the Soviet Union’s oil production multi-cycle Hubbert curve is used to determine North American natural gas discovery rates and to analyze how market specific institutions caused the inflection points. In addition, we analyze the latest shale natural gas projections critically. While currently, unconventional resources of natural gas suggest that North American natural gas production will increase without bound, the model here suggests a peak in North American natural gas supplies could happen in 2013. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/269/ Fri, 22 May 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-05-22 2 2 Article 269 306 1996-1073 North American Natural Gas Supply Forecast: The Hubbert Method Including the Effects of Institutions 2009-05-22 doi: 10.3390/en20200269 Douglas B. Reynolds Marek Kolodziej http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/258/ Recently, hydrogen production from biomass has become an attractive technology for power generation. The main objective pursued in this work is to investigate the hydrogen production potential from agricultural wastes (coconut coir and palm kernel shell) by applying the air gasification technique. An experimental study was conducted using a bench-scale fluidized bed gasifier with 60 mm diameter and 425 mm height. During the experiments, the fuel properties and the effects of operating parameters such as gasification temperatures (700 to 900°C), fluidization ratio (2 to 3.33 m/s), static bed height (10 to 30 mm) and equivalence ratio (0.16 to 0.46) were studied. It was concluded that substantial amounts of hydrogen gas (up to 67 mol%) could be produced utilizing agricultural residues such as coconut and palm kernel shell by applying this fluidization technique. For both samples, the rise of temperature till 900°C favored further hydrocarbon reactions and allowed an increase of almost 67 mol% in the release of hydrogen. However, other parameters such as fluidizing velocity and feed load showed only minor effects on hydrogen yield. In conclusion, agricultural waste can be assumed as an alternative renewable energy source to the fossil fuels, and the environmental pollution originating from the disposal of agricultural residues can be partially reduced. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/258/ Tue, 19 May 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-05-19 2 2 Article 258 268 1996-1073 Air Gasification of Agricultural Waste in a Fluidized Bed Gasifier: Hydrogen Production Performance 2009-05-19 doi: 10.3390/en20200258 W. A. Wan Ab Karim Ghani Reza Alipour Moghadam M. A. Mohd Salleh A. B. Alias http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/243/ An analysis of the Medium Voltage (MV)electricity power distribution network operated by Cameroon’s AES-SONEL company shows that losses are very high due to energy which is produced but not distributed and that the duration of power interruptions as a result of these faults is long due to the time used in searching for the faults. Given that quick detection of faults is a sure means of improving availability and productivity in any company, we hereby propose a system of real-time diagnosis of the faults on AES-SONEL’s electric power distribution network. After an inventory of typical faults on electric power networks and the proposal of a tool for their identification, we propose a system for the detection and localization of these various failures. The implementation of the system on a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) enables the performance of the system to be assessed. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/243/ Mon, 27 Apr 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-04-27 2 2 Article 243 257 1996-1073 Fault Diagnosis on Medium Voltage (MV) Electric Power Distribution Networks: The Case of the Downstream Network of the AES-SONEL Ngousso Sub-Station 2009-04-27 doi: 10.3390/en20200243 Thomas Tamo Tatietse Joseph Voufo http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/226/ Anaerobic digestion is an optimal way to treat organic waste matter, resulting in biogas and residue. Utilization of the residue as a crop fertilizer should enhance crop yield and soil fertility, promoting closure of the global energy and nutrient cycles. Consequently, the requirement for production of inorganic fertilizers will decrease, in turn saving significant amounts of energy, reducing greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere, and indirectly leading to global economic benefits. However, application of this residue to agricultural land requires careful monitoring to detect amendments in soil quality at the early stages. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/226/ Thu, 16 Apr 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-04-16 2 2 Review 226 242 1996-1073 Closing the Global Energy and Nutrient Cycles through Application of Biogas Residue to Agricultural Land – Potential Benefits and Drawback 2009-04-16 doi: 10.3390/en20200226 Veronica Arthurson http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/202/ The study demonstrated the optimal operation criteria of a gas turbine cogeneration system based on the analytical solution of a linear programming model. The optimal operation criteria gave the combination of equipment to supply electricity and steam with the minimum energy cost using the energy prices and the performance of equipment. By the comparison with a detailed optimization result of an existing cogeneration plant, it was shown that the optimal operation criteria successfully provided a direction for the system operation under the condition where the electric power output of the gas turbine was less than the capacity http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/202/ Thu, 16 Apr 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-04-16 2 2 Article 202 225 1996-1073 The Optimal Operation Criteria for a Gas Turbine Cogeneration System 2009-04-16 doi: 10.3390/en20200202 Yasushi Ishida Masaaki Bannai Takahiko Miyazaki Yasushi Harada Ryuichi Yokoyama Atsushi Akisawa http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/190/ A self-supported direct borohydride-hydrogen peroxide fuel cell system with internal manifolds and an auxiliary control unit is reported. The system, while operating under ambient conditions, delivers a peak power of 40 W with about 2 W to run the auxiliary control unit. A critical cause and effect analysis, on the data for single cells and stack, suggests the optimum concentrations of fuel and oxidant to be 8 wt. % NaBH4 and 2 M H2O2, respectively in extending the operating time of the system. Such a fuel cell system is ideally suited for submersible and aerospace applications where anaerobic conditions prevail. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/190/ Tue, 14 Apr 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-04-14 2 2 Article 190 201 1996-1073 A Self-Supported Direct Borohydride-Hydrogen Peroxide Fuel Cell System 2009-04-14 doi: 10.3390/en20200190 Prashant S. Khadke Pitchumani Sethuraman Palanivelu Kandasamy Sridhar Parthasarathi Ashok K. Shukla http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/180/ An optimal design strategy of a network of fixed bed reactors for Methanol Production (MP) is proposed in this study. Both methanol production and profit spanning a production period of eight years have been set as objective functions to find the optimal production network. The conservation of mass and energy laws on a heterogeneous model of a single industrial methanol reactor was first developed. The model was solved numerically and was validated with industrial plant data. Different reactor network arrangements were then simulated in order to find an optimal superstructure. It was found that a structure of four reactors (two in series in parallel with another two in series) provide maximum production rate. The application of the more realistic objective function of profit showed that a configuration of two parallel reactors is the best configuration. This optimal structure produces 92 tons/day more methanol than a single reactor. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/2/180/ Tue, 07 Apr 2009 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2009-04-07 2 2 Article 180 189 1996-1073 Optimal Fixed Bed Reactor Network Configuration for the Efficient Recycling of CO2 into Methanol 2009-04-07 doi: 10.3390/en20200180 Ali Elkamel Gholam Reza Zahedi Chris Marton Ali Lohi http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/150/ Hydrogen and fuel cells should reduce costs and increase reliability and durability to compete in the energy market. A considerable long term effort is necessary for research, development and demonstration of adequate solutions; important programs in this sense are carried out in the main industrialized countries, with the involvement of many industries, research structures and stakeholders. In such framework a relevant role is played in Italy by ENEA (Italian Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Environment). In the paper the main aspects related to the possible hydrogen role in the future society are addressed, according to ENEA perspectives. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/150/ Tue, 24 Mar 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-03-24 2 1 Article 150 179 1996-1073 Hydrogen as Future Energy Carrier: The ENEA Point of View on Technology and Application Prospects 2009-03-24 doi: 10.3390/en20100150 Mario Conte Francesco Di Mario Agostino Iacobazzi Antonio Mattucci Angelo Moreno Marina Ronchetti http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/134/ In this study, the energy utilization and environmental aspects of the rice processing industries in Bangladesh was analyzed. Rice husk, a milling by-product of rice, is used as a source of thermal energy to produce steam for parboiling of raw rice. The rice is mostly dried on a concrete floor under the sunshine. In mechanical drying, rice husks are used as a source of primary energy. In Bangladesh, the annual estimated energy used in 2000 for the drying of rice by sunshine was 10.7 million GJ and for drying and parboiling by rice husks it was 48.2 million GJ. These amounts will increase to 20.5 and 92.5 million GJ in 2030, respectively. Electrical energy consumption for mechanical drying and milling of rice was calculated as 1.83 million GJe and 3.51 million GJe in 2000 and in 2030, respectively. Biogenic carbon dioxide emission from burning of rice husk is renewed every year by the rice plant. Both the biogenic and non-biogenic carbon dioxide emissions in 2000 were calculated as 5.7 and 0.4 million tonnes, respectively, which will increase to 10.9 and 0.7 million tonnes in 2030. The demand of energy for rice processing increases every year, therefore, energy conservation in rice processing industries would be a viable option to reduce the intensity of energy by increasing the efficiency of rice processing systems which leads to a reduction in emissions and an increased supply of rice husk energy to other sectors as well. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/134/ Thu, 12 Mar 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-03-12 2 1 Article 134 149 1996-1073 Energy Utilization and Environmental Aspects of Rice Processing Industries in Bangladesh 2009-03-12 doi: 10.3390/en20100134 Mohammed Ahiduzzaman Abul K. M. Sadrul Islam http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/120/ The Republic of Ireland, like many other countries is trying to diversify energy sources to counteract environmental, political and social concerns. Bioethanol from domestically grown agricultural crops is an indigenously produced alternative fuel that can potentially go towards meeting the goal of diversified energy supply. The Republic of Ireland’s distribution of existing soils and agricultural land-uses limit arable crop land to around 10% of total agricultural area. Demand for land to produce arable crops is expected to decrease, which could open the opportunity for bioethanol production. Bioethanol production plants are required to be of a sufficient scale in order to compete economically with other fuel sources, it is important therefore to determine if enough land exists around potential ethanol plant locations to meet the potential demands for feedstock. This study determines, through the use of a developed GIS based model, the potential quantities of feedstock that is available in the hinterlands of nine locations in the Republic of Ireland. The results indicate that three locations can meet all its feedstock demands using indigenously grown sugarbeet, while only one location can meet its demands using a combination of indigenous wheat and straw as the two locally sourced feedstocks. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/120/ Mon, 09 Mar 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-03-09 2 1 Article 120 133 1996-1073 Potential Bioethanol Feedstock Availability Around Nine Locations in the Republic of Ireland 2009-03-09 doi: 10.3390/en20100120 Rory Deverell Kevin McDonnell Ger Devlin http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/97/ The present work is an experimental study of steady state convective heat transfer of de-ionized water with a low volume fraction (0.003% by volume) of copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles dispersed to form a nanofluid that flows through a copper tube. The effect of mass flow rate ranging from (0.0113 kg/s to 0.0139 kg/s) and the effect of inlet temperatures at 100C and 17 0C on the heat transfer coefficient are studied on the entry region under laminar flow condition. The results have shown 8% enhancement of the convective heat transfer coefficient of the nanofluid even with a low volume concentration of CuO nanoparticles. The heat transfer enhancement was increased considerably as the Reynolds number increased. Possible reasons for the enhancement are discussed. Nanofluid thermo-physical properties and chaotic movement of ultrafine particles which accelerate the energy exchange process are proposed to be the main reasons for the observed heat transfer enhancement. A correlation for convective heat transfer coefficient of nanofluids, based on transport property and D/x for 8 mm tube has been evolved. The correlation predicts variation in the local Nusselt number along the flow direction of the nanofluid. A good agreement (±10%) is seen between the experimental and predicted results. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/97/ Fri, 06 Mar 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-03-06 2 1 Article 97 119 1996-1073 Experimental Study on Forced Convective Heat Transfer with Low Volume Fraction of CuO/Water Nanofluid 2009-03-06 doi: 10.3390/en20100097 Lazarus Godson Asirvatham Nandigana Vishal Senthil Kumar Gangatharan Dhasan Mohan Lal http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/71/ The connection between PEM fuel cells and common DC-DC converters is examined. The analysis is model-based and done for boost, buck and buck-boost converters. In a first step, the effect of the converter ripples upon the PEM fuel cell is shown. They introduce oscillations in the fuel cell. Their appearance is explained, discussed and possibilities for their suppression are given. After that, the overall behaviors of the coupled fuel cell-converter systems are analyzed. It is shown, that neither stationary multiplicities nor oscillations can be introduced by the couplings and therefore separate control approaches for both the PEMFC and the DC-DC converters are applicable. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/71/ Wed, 04 Mar 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-03-04 2 1 Article 71 96 1996-1073 Analysis of the Coupling Behavior of PEM Fuel Cells and DC-DC Converters 2009-03-04 doi: 10.3390/en2010071 Markus Grötsch Michael Mangold Achim Kienle http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/57/ The objective of this study was to observe the combustion process of extracted rapeseed (ER) grist in a stationary fluidized bed combustor (SFBC) and evaluate the chemical compositions of the flue gas emissions. The experimental tests of ER combustion in the 90 to 200 kW (Kilowatt) SFB combustion test facility show that the optimal ER combustion temperature is within the range from 850 to 880° C. Temperature and the concentration of exhausted emissions (e.g. O2, CO, CO2, NO, NO2, SO2, Corg) were measured with dedicated sensors distributed within the combustor, along its height and in the flue gas duct. The experimental results showed that with respect to German emission limits the concentration of SO2 and NOx in the flue gas were high whereas that of CO was low. This study furthermore is applicable for the abundant biomass residue resources in Vietnam (rice husk, rice straw, bagasse, cassava residues, coconut shell etc.), which have similar chemical compositions to ER. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/57/ Thu, 19 Feb 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-02-19 2 1 Article 57 70 1996-1073 Experimental Investigations of Extracted Rapeseed Combustion Emissions in a Small Scale Stationary Fluidized Bed Combustor 2009-02-19 doi: 10.3390/en20100057 Nguyen Dinh Tung Dieter Steinbrecht Tristan Vincent http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/48/ Terrestrial transport biofuels differ in their ability to replace fossil fuels. When both the conversion of solar energy into biomass and the life cycle inputs of fossil fuels are considered, ethanol from sugarcane and biodiesel from palm oil do relatively well, if compared with ethanol from corn, sugar beet or wheat and biodiesel from rapeseed. When terrestrial biofuels are to replace mineral oil-derived transport fuels, large areas of good agricultural land are needed: about 5x108 ha in the case of biofuels from sugarcane or oil palm, and at least 1.8-3.6x109 ha in the case of ethanol from wheat, corn or sugar beet, as produced in industrialized countries. Biofuels from microalgae which are commercially produced with current technologies do not appear to outperform terrestrial plants such as sugarcane in their ability to displace fossil fuels. Whether they will able to do so on a commercial scale in the future, is uncertain. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/48/ Thu, 19 Feb 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-02-19 2 1 Article 48 56 1996-1073 Microalgal and Terrestrial Transport Biofuels to Displace Fossil Fuels 2009-02-19 doi: 10.3390/en20100048 Lucas Reijnders http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/25/ Economic production and, more generally, most global societies, are overwhelmingly dependant upon depleting supplies of fossil fuels. There is considerable concern amongst resource scientists, if not most economists, as to whether market signals or cost benefit analysis based on today’s prices are sufficient to guide our decisions about our energy future. These suspicions and concerns were escalated during the oil price increase from 2005 – 2008 and the subsequent but probably related market collapse of 2008. We believe that Energy Return On Investment (EROI) analysis provides a useful approach for examining disadvantages and advantages of different fuels and also offers the possibility to look into the future in ways that markets seem unable to do. The goal of this paper is to review the application of EROI theory to both natural and economic realms, and to assess preliminarily the minimum EROI that a society must attain from its energy exploitation to support continued economic activity and social function. In doing so we calculate herein a basic first attempt at the minimum EROI for current society and some of the consequences when that minimum is approached. The theory of the minimum EROI discussed here, which describes the somewhat obvious but nonetheless important idea that for any being or system to survive or grow it must gain substantially more energy than it uses in obtaining that energy, may be especially important. Thus any particular being or system must abide by a “Law of Minimum EROI”, which we calculate for both oil and corn-based ethanol as about 3:1 at the mine-mouth/farm-gate. Since most biofuels have EROI’s of less than 3:1 they must be subsidized by fossil fuels to be useful. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/25/ Fri, 23 Jan 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-01-23 2 1 Review 25 47 1996-1073 What is the Minimum EROI that a Sustainable Society Must Have? 2009-01-23 doi: 10.3390/en20100025 Charles A. S. Hall Stephen Balogh David J.R. Murphy http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/1/ Detailed energy outputs and inputs were assessed for the following crops, cultured in the U.S. and developing countries: corn, wheat, rice, soy, potato, cassava, tomato, citrus and apple. In addition, the labor input for each crop was analyzed. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/2/1/1/ Fri, 16 Jan 2009 00:00:00 CET Energies 2009-01-16 2 1 Article 1 24 1996-1073 Energy Inputs in Food Crop Production in Developing and Developed Nations 2009-01-16 doi: 10.3390/en20100001 David Pimentel http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/3/120/ Since the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol, carbon trading has been in continuous expansion. In this paper, we review the origins of carbon trading in order to understand how carbon trading works in Europe and, specifically, the functioning of the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) and the workings of several spot, futures and options markets where European Union Allowances are traded. As well, the linking of the EU ETS with the other United Nations carbon markets is also studied. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/3/120/ Wed, 17 Dec 2008 00:00:00 CET Energies 2008-12-17 1 3 Review 120 153 1996-1073 What You Should Know About Carbon Markets 2008-12-17 doi: 10.3390/en1030120 Maria Mansanet-Bataller Ángel Pardo http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/3/105/ The shift to a bio-based economy for the Netherlands is not only required because of climate change, but also for industrial strategy reasons. Traditional strongholds of the Dutch economy like the Rotterdam harbour, the agricultural sector (including the greenhouse sector, and food and feed industries) and the petrochemical industry will be affected by the new economic realities, and it is precisely to these sectors that a bio-based economy will offer new opportunities. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/3/105/ Wed, 12 Nov 2008 00:00:00 CET Energies 2008-11-12 1 3 Review 105 119 1996-1073 Opportunities for a Bio-based Economy in the Netherlands 2008-11-12 doi: 10.3390/en1030105 Johan Sanders Diederik van der Hoeven http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/3/93/ The interaction of guest molecules ranging from pentan-1-ol to octan-1-ol with α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) in water of has been studied calorimetrically at 283.15, 288.15, 293.15, 298.15 and 308.15 K with an isoperibolic titration calorimeter designed in our laboratory. The calorimetric method employed allows the determination of the thermodynamic parameters characterizing the binding process, ΔG°m, ΔH°m, ΔS°mand ΔCp°, namely free energy, enthalpy, and calorific capacity. These results show that in the temperature range investigated, the entropy change increased with chain length. This is in line with what is expected for a hydrophobic dehydration process. However, that effect is not expected to lead to the more pronounced negative CH2-increment observed for nc > 5 or 6. As for many other ligand binding processes, we can observe a significant enthalpy - entropy compensation for this system, both with respect to temperature and structure. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/3/93/ Thu, 16 Oct 2008 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2008-10-16 1 3 Article 93 104 1996-1073 Isoperibolic Titration Calorimetry as a Tool for the Prediction of Thermodynamic Properties of Cyclodextrins 2008-10-16 doi: 10.3390/en1030093 Juan Carlos Moreno-Piraján Liliana Giraldo http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/2/79/ The production of biodiesel from low-cost raw materials which generally contain high amounts of free fatty acids (FFAs) is a valuable alternative that would make their production costs more competitive than petroleum-derived fuel. Currently, the production of biodiesel from this kind of raw materials comprises a two-stage process, which requires an initial acid-catalyzed esterification of the FFA, followed by a basecatalyzed transesterification of the triglycerides. Commonly, the acid H2SO4 is the catalyst on the first step of this process. It must be said, however, that major drawbacks such as substantial reactor corrosion and the great generation of wastes, including the salts formed due to neutralization of the mineral acid, are negative and virtually unsurmountable aspects of this protocol. In this paper, tin(II) chloride dihydrate (SnCl2·2H2O), an inexpensive Lewis acid, was evaluated as catalyst on the ethanolysis of oleic acid, which is the major component of several fat and vegetable oils feedstocks. Tin chloride efficiently promoted the conversion of oleic acid into ethyl oleate in ethanol solution and in soybean oil samples, under mild reaction conditions. The SnCl2 catalyst was shown to be as active as the mineral acid H2SO4. Its use has relevant advantages in comparison to mineral acids catalysts, such as less corrosion of the reactors and as well as avoiding the unnecessary neutralization of products. Herein, the effect of the principal parameters of reaction on the yield and rate of ethyl oleate production has been investigated. Kinetic measurements revealed that the esterification of oleic acid catalyzed by SnCl2·2H2O is first-order in relation to both FFAs and catalyst concentration. Experimentally, it was verified that the energy of activation of the esterification reaction of oleic acid catalyzed by SnCl2 was very close those reported for H2SO4. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/2/79/ Wed, 24 Sep 2008 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2008-09-24 1 2 Article 79 92 1996-1073 Esterification of Oleic Acid for Biodiesel Production Catalyzed by SnCl2: A Kinetic Investigation 2008-09-24 doi: 10.3390/en1020079 Abiney L. Cardoso Soraia Cristina Gonzaga Neves Marcio J. da Silva http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/2/41/ The rapidly growing world population and rising consumption of biofuels are increasing demand for both food and biofuels. This exaggerates both food and fuel shortages. Using food crops such as corn grain to produce ethanol raises major nutritional and ethical concerns. Nearly 60% of humans in the world are currently malnourished, so the need for grains and other basic foods is critical. Growing crops for fuel squanders land, water and energy resources vital for the production of food for human consumption. Using corn for ethanol increases the price of U.S. beef, chicken, pork, eggs, breads, cereals, and milk more than 10% to 30%. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/2/41/ Tue, 16 Sep 2008 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2008-09-16 1 2 Review 41 78 1996-1073 Biofuel Impacts on World Food Supply: Use of Fossil Fuel, Land and Water Resources 2008-09-16 doi: 10.3390/en1010041 David Pimentel Alison Marklein Megan A. Toth Marissa Karpoff Gillian S. Paul Robert McCormack Joanna Kyriazis Tim Krueger http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/19/ It is customary, for convenience, to use relative permeability data produced at room temperature. This paper shows that this practice underestimates oil recovery rates and ultimate recovery from chalk rocks for high temperature reservoirs. Above a certain temperature (80°C in this work) a reduction of oil recovery was observed. The reduction in oil recovery is reflected by the shift of relative permeability data towards more oil-wet at high temperature (tested here 130°C). However, both IFT and contact angle measurements indicate an increase in water wetness as temperature increases, which contradict the results obtained by relative permeability experiments. This phenomenon may be explained based on the total interaction potential, which basically consists of van der Waals attractive and short-range Born repulsive and double layer electrostatic forces. The fluid/rock interactions is shown to be dominated by the repulsive forces above 80°C, hence increase fine detachment enhancing oil trapping. In other words the indicated oil wetness by relative permeability is misleading. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/19/ Sun, 06 Jul 2008 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2008-07-06 1 1 Article 19 34 1996-1073 Effect of Temperature, Wettability and Relative Permeability on Oil Recovery from Oil-wet Chalk 2008-07-06 doi: 10.3390/en1010019 Aly A. Hamouda Omid Karoussi http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/38/ n/a http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/38/ Fri, 20 Jun 2008 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2008-06-20 1 1 Editorial 38 40 1996-1073 Energies and Policies 2008-06-20 doi: 10.3390/en1010038 Edwin Kessler http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/35/ Crops for biofuels squanders cropland, water, and energy resources vital for food production needed for people. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/35/ Tue, 17 Jun 2008 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2008-06-17 1 1 Other 35 37 1996-1073 Corn and Cellulosic Ethanol Cause Major Problems 2008-06-17 doi: 10.3390/en1010035 David Pimentel Marcia Pimentel http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/3/ As crude oil price reach a new high, the need for developing alternate fuels has become acute. Alternate fuels should be economically attractive in order to compete with currently used fossil fuels. In this work, biodiesel (ethyl ester) was prepared from waste cooking oil collected from a local restaurant in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Ethyl alcohol with sodium hydroxide as a catalyst was used for the transesterification process. The fatty acid composition of the final biodiesel esters was determined by gas chromatography. The biodiesel was characterized by its physical and fuel properties including density, viscosity, acid value, flash point, cloud point, pour point, cetane index, water and sediment content, total and free glycerin content, diglycerides and monoglycerides, phosphorus content and sulfur content according to ASTM standards. The viscosity of the biodiesel ethyl ester was found to be 5.03 mm2/sec at 40oC. The viscosity of waste cooking oil measured in room temperature (at 21° C) was 72 mm2/sec. From the tests, the flash point was found to be 164oC, the phosphorous content was 2 ppm, those of calcium and magnesium were 1 ppm combined, water and sediment was 0 %, sulfur content was 2 ppm, total acid number was 0.29 mgKOH/g, cetane index was 61, cloud point was -1oC and pour point was -16oC. Production of biodiesel from waste cooking oils for diesel substitute is particularly important because of the decreasing trend of economical oil reserves, environmental problems caused due to fossil fuel use and the high price of petroleum products in the international market. http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/3/ Thu, 10 Apr 2008 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2008-04-10 1 1 Article 3 18 1996-1073 Waste Cooking Oil as an Alternate Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 2008-04-10 doi: 10.3390/en1010003 Arjun B. Chhetri K. Chris Watts M. Rafiqul Islam http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/1/ n/a http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/1/1/1/ Mon, 07 Apr 2008 00:00:00 CEST Energies 2008-04-07 1 1 Editorial 1 2 1996-1073 Distinguishability, Information and Useful Energies 2008-04-07 doi: 10.3390/en1010001 Shu-Kun Lin