http://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Latest open access articles published in Appl. Sci. at http://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/479 Compressible squeeze film damping is a phenomenon of great importance for micromachines. For example, for the optimal design of an electrostatically actuated micro-cantilever mass sensor that operates in air, it is essential to have a model for the system behavior that can be evaluated efficiently. An analytical model that is based upon a solution of the linearized Reynolds equation has been given by R.B. Darling. In this paper we explain how some infinite sums that appear in Darling’s model can be evaluated analytically. As an example of applications of these closed form representations, we compute an approximation for the critical frequency where the spring component of the reaction force on the microplate, due to the motion through the air, is equal to a certain given multiple of the damping component. We also show how some double series that appear in the model can be reduced to a single infinite series that can be approximated efficiently. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/479 Mon, 21 May 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-05-21 2 2 Article 479 484 2076-3417 Closed Form Representations of Some Series in Darling’s Model for Squeeze Film Damping with a Rectangular Plate 2012-05-21 doi: 10.3390/app2020479 Martin Gugat http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/465 The current report describes the development of a dual modality tomographic agent for both positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging (PET/MRI). The dual-modality agent in this study was based on a 124I (PET) radiolabeled tri-gadolinium endohedral metallofullerene Gd3N@C80 (MRI) nanoprobe platform. The outer surface of the fullerene cage of the Gd3N@C80 metallofullerenes was surface functionalized with carboxyl and hydroxyl groups (f-Gd3N@C80) using previously developed procedures and subsequently iodinated with 124I to produce 124I-f-Gd3N@C80 nanoprobe. Orthotopic tumor-bearing rats were infused intratumorally by convection-enhanced delivery (CED) with the 124I-f-Gd3N@C80 agent and imaged by MRI or micro PET. The anatomical positioning and distribution of the 124I-f-Gd3N@C80 agent were comparable between the MRI and PET scans. The 124I-f-Gd3N@C80­ dual-agent distribution and infusion site within the tumor was clearly evident in both T1- and T2-weighted MR images. The results demonstrate the successful preparation of a dual-modality imaging agent, 124I-f-Gd3N@C80, which could ultimately be used for simultaneous PET/MR imaging. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/465 Thu, 10 May 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-05-10 2 2 Communication 465 478 2076-3417 A Dual PET/MR Imaging Nanoprobe: 124I Labeled Gd3N@C80 2012-05-10 doi: 10.3390/app2020465 Jianqiao Luo John D. Wilson Jianyuan Zhang Jerry I. Hirsch Harry C. Dorn Panos P. Fatouros Michael D. Shultz http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/453 Superhydrophobic coatings, inspired by nature, are an emerging technology. These water repellent coatings can be used as solutions for corrosion, biofouling and even water and air drag reduction applications. In this work, synthesis of monodispersive silica nanoparticles of ~120 nm diameter has been realized via Stöber process and further functionalized using fluoroalkylsilane (FAS-17) molecules to incorporate the fluorinated groups with the silica nanoparticles in an ethanolic solution. The synthesized fluorinated silica nanoparticles have been spin coated on flat aluminum alloy, silicon and glass substrates. Functionalization of silica nanoparticles with fluorinated groups has been confirmed by Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) by showing the presence of C-F and Si-O-Si bonds. The water contact angles and surface roughness increase with the number of spin-coated thin films layers. The critical size of ~119 nm renders aluminum surface superhydrophobic with three layers of coating using as-prepared nanoparticle suspended solution. On the other hand, seven layers are required for a 50 vol.% diluted solution to achieve superhydrophobicity. In both the cases, water contact angles were more than 150°, contact angle hysteresis was less than 2° having a critical roughness value of ~0.700 µm. The fluorinated silica nanoparticle coated surfaces are also transparent and can be used as paint additives to obtain transparent coatings. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/453 Tue, 08 May 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-05-08 2 2 Article 453 464 2076-3417 Fluorine Based Superhydrophobic Coatings 2012-05-08 doi: 10.3390/app2020453 Jean-Denis Brassard D.K. Sarkar Jean Perron http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/443 Our simple Meisenheimer model for predicting the principal site for nucleophilic substitution in aromatic perfluorocarbons is further tested on a series of recently published reactions in liquid ammonia primarily from Malykhin and coworkers. The model accurately predicts the experimental results for all of the reactions reported further confirming its general applicability. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/443 Fri, 04 May 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-05-04 2 2 Article 443 452 2076-3417 Further Successes of the Meisenheimer Model 2012-05-04 doi: 10.3390/app2020443 Jon Baker Baker Max Muir http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/396 This article reviews the size-dependent structural properties of ion beam synthesized Co nanoparticles (NPs) and the influence of ion irradiation on the size, shape, phase and structure. The evolution of the aforementioned properties were determined using complementary laboratory- and advanced synchrotron-based techniques, including cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy, small-angle X-ray scattering and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Combining such techniques reveals a rich array of transformations particular to Co NPs. This methodology highlights the effectiveness of ion implantation and ion irradiation procedures as a means of fine tuning NP properties to best suit specific technological applications. Furthermore, our results facilitate a better understanding and aid in identifying the underlying physics particular to this potentially technologically important class of nanomaterials. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/396 Fri, 27 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-04-27 2 2 Review 396 442 2076-3417 Ion Beam Formation and Modification of Cobalt Nanoparticles 2012-04-27 doi: 10.3390/app2020396 David J. Sprouster Mark C. Ridgway http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/375 Planar metamaterials and many microwave circuits and antennas are designed by means of resonators with dimensions much smaller than the wavelength at their resonance frequency. There are many types of such electrically small resonators, and the main purpose of this paper is to compare them as building blocks for the implementation of microwave components. Aspects such as resonator size, bandwidth, their circuit models when they are coupled to transmission lines (as is usually required), as well as key applications, will be considered. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/375 Fri, 20 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-04-20 2 2 Article 375 395 2076-3417 Electrically Small Resonators for Planar Metamaterial, Microwave Circuit and Antenna Design: A Comparative Analysis 2012-04-20 doi: 10.3390/app2020375 Miguel Durán-Sindreu Jordi Naqui Ferran Paredes Jordi Bonache Ferran Martín http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/368 This article describes one-pot synthesis of new fluorinated hexahydroquinoline derivatives via unsymmetric Hantzsch reaction involving 5-trifluoromethyl-1,3-cyclohexanedione, aldehydes, acetoacetate ester, and ammonium acetate in trifluoroethanol (TFE). The reaction is simple and rapid with high yield. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/368 Wed, 18 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-04-18 2 2 Article 368 374 2076-3417 Synthesis of Some New Fluorinated Hexahydroquinoline and Acridinedione Derivatives in Trifluoroethanol 2012-04-18 doi: 10.3390/app2020368 Cosmas O. Okoro Mumiye A. Ogunwale Tasneem Siddiquee http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/351 The α,ω-dialkoxyfluoropolyethers (DA-FPEs) characterized by the structure RHO(CF2CF2O)n(CF2O)mRH have been developed as a new class of environmentally friendly hydrofluoroethers (HFEs) suitable as solvents, long-term refrigerants, cleaning fluids, and heat transfer fluids. Synthetic methodologies for DA-FPEs described here consist of radical-initiated oxypolymerization of olefin, peroxy-elimination reaction in peroxidic perfluoropolyethers (P-PFPEs) and further chemical modification of α,ω-diacylfluoride PFPE. The physical properties of selected α,ω-dimethoxyfluoropolyethers (DM-FPEs) have been evaluated and compared with analogous hydrofluoropolyethers (HFPEs) having -OCF2H as end-groups. Atmospheric implications and global warming potentials (GWPs) of selected DA-FPEs are also considered. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/351 Wed, 11 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-04-11 2 2 Review 351 367 2076-3417 An Environmentally Friendly Class of Fluoropolyether: α,ω-Dialkoxyfluoropolyethers 2012-04-11 doi: 10.3390/app2020351 Menghua Wu Walter Navarrini Gianfranco Spataro Francesco Venturini Maurizio Sansotera http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/342 Aggregation of magnetic nanoparticles immobilized in polymer gels was studied by ferromagnetic resonance and paramagnetic sensor techniques. Ferromagnetic resonance spectra of magnetic gels prepared in the presence of external magnetic field of 1.5 kG were compared to the spectra of gels synthesized in the absence of a magnetic field. Application of a magnetic field led to formation of linear aggregates of magnetic particles in the polymer matrix. The aggregates did not come apart after the field was switched off. The fraction of aggregated particles (of 62(6)%) and aspect ratio (elongation) of the aggregates (12.6(1.3)) was determined using paramagnetic sensor technique. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/342 Tue, 10 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-04-10 2 2 Article 342 350 2076-3417 Magnetic Nanoparticles Aggregation in Magnetic Gel Studied by Electron Magnetic Resonance (EMR) 2012-04-10 doi: 10.3390/app2020342 Olga N. Sorokina Alexander L. Kovarski Marina A. Lagutina Sergey A. Dubrovskii Fridrikh S. Dzheparov http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/327 A new polyfluorinated anti-staining coating material CF3O(CF2CF2O)xCF2-CONHCH2CH2CH2Si(OCH3)3 has been developed by utilizing the PERFECT method, which employs a liquid-phase direct fluorination reaction with elemental fluorine as a key step. Direct fluorination of a partially-fluorinated ester, which was prepared from a non-fluorinated poly(ethylene glycol) and a perfluorinated acyl fluoride, followed by methanolysis, gave the perfluorinated corresponding compound, which was led to the coating material for surface treating agents, and the methyl ester of the starting perfluorinated acyl fluoride. Application to the synthesis of a new perfluorinated bifunctional sulfonate monomer CF2=CFOCF2CF2CF2OCF(CF2SO2F)2 for polymer electrolyte membranes (PEMs) of fuel cells was also developed. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/327 Tue, 10 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-04-10 2 2 Article 327 341 2076-3417 Application of Liquid-Phase Direct Fluorination: Novel Synthetic Methods for a Polyfluorinated Coating Material and a Monomer of a Perfluorinated Polymer Electrolyte Membrane 2012-04-10 doi: 10.3390/app2020327 Takashi Okazoe Daisuke Shirakawa Koichi Murata http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/315 We have studied the internal magnetic order of 3-nm (Fe0.69Co0.31)0.6B0.4 amorphous nanoparticles. These nanoparticles were dispersed in a non-magnetic matrix (non-interacting nanoparticles) to contrast them with the powder samples, where strong interparticle interactions are present. In similar fashion to the bulk alloy, this system exhibits a saturation magnetization maximum as a function of Fe composition near 69 at% Fe for the powder and dispersed samples at all temperatures. The saturation magnetization (MS) of the dispersed sample shows anomalous behavior, revealing frustration in the internal magnetic order of the particles. Unexpectedly, the MS of the non-interacting sample at low temperatures is larger than the corresponding bulk alloy or the calculated value of MS for the same Fe-Co composition. By contrast, the powder sample has low MS values and it is approximately constant in temperature. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/315 Mon, 02 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-04-02 2 2 Article 315 326 2076-3417 Anomalous Magnetization Enhancement and Frustration in the Internal Magnetic Order on (Fe0.69Co0.31)B0.4 Nanoparticles 2012-04-02 doi: 10.3390/app2020315 Belén Molina-Concha Roberto D. Zysler Héctor Romero http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/303 The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method is widely used for the reproduction and amplification of specific DNA segments, and a novel PCR method using nanomaterials such as gold nanoparticles has recently been reported. This paper reports on the effects of superparamagnetic nanoparticles on PCR amplification without an external magnetic field, and clarifies the mechanism behind the effects of superparamagnetic particle clusters on PCR efficiency by estimating the structures of such clusters in PCR. It was found that superparamagnetic nanoparticles tend to inhibit PCR amplification depending on the structure of the magnetic nanoparticle clusters. The paper also clarifies that Taq polymerase is captured in the spaces formed among magnetic nanoparticle clusters, and that it is captured more efficiently as a result of their motion from heat treatment in PCR thermal cycles. Consequently, Taq polymerase that should be used in PCR is reduced in the PCR solution. These outcomes will be applied to novel PCR techniques using magnetic particles in an external magnetic field. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/303 Mon, 02 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-04-02 2 2 Article 303 314 2076-3417 Effects of Superparamagnetic Nanoparticle Clusters on the Polymerase Chain Reaction 2012-04-02 doi: 10.3390/app2020303 Toshiaki Higashi Hiroaki Minegishi Yutaka Nagaoka Takahiro Fukuda Akinobu Echigo Ron Usami Toru Maekawa Tatsuro Hanajiri http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/277 Silicon-[18F]fluorine (Si-18F) radiochemistry has recently emerged alongside other unconventional approaches such as aluminum-18F and boron-18F based labeling strategies, reshaping the landscape of modern 18F-radiochemistry. All these novel methodologies are driven by the demand for more convenient 18F-labeling procedures to further disseminate one of the most sophisticated imaging technologies, Positron Emission Tomography (PET). The PET methodology requires special radionuclides such as 18F (one of the most prominent examples) to be introduced into bioactive molecules. Si-18F radiochemistry contributed greatly towards the development of new radiopharmaceuticals for PET imaging. Herein, we describe the radiochemical basics of Si-18F bond formation, the application of Si-18F tracers for PET imaging, and additionally, the inherent chemical intricacies of this methodology. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/277 Wed, 28 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-03-28 2 2 Review 277 302 2076-3417 Silicon-[18F]Fluorine Radiochemistry: Basics, Applications and Challenges 2012-03-28 doi: 10.3390/app2020277 Carmen Wängler Alexey Kostikov Jun Zhu Joshua Chin Björn Wängler Ralf Schirrmacher http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/260 The synthesis of magnetically separable quasi-homogeneous base catalyst and heterogeneous base catalyst is described. The quasi-homogeneous catalyst is achieved by supporting silane monomers functionalized with different amine groups directly on the surface of magnetite nanoparticles. The heterogeneous catalyst is prepared via a sol-gel process in which silane monomers containing different amine groups are copolymerized with tetraethoxysilane in the presence of magnetite nanoparticles functionalized with ionic liquid moieties. The reactivity of the quasi-homogeneous and the heterogeneous base catalysts is compared in the nitroaldol condensation. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/260 Mon, 26 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2012-03-26 2 2 Article 260 276 2076-3417 Magnetically Separable Base Catalysts: Heterogeneous Catalysis vs. Quasi-Homogeneous Catalysis 2012-03-26 doi: 10.3390/app2020260 Raed Abu-Reziq Howard Alper http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/245 Nucleic acid-based fluorinated derivatives, e.g., nucleosides or oligonucleotides connected to highly fluorinated chains or labeled with one or more fluorine atoms, have been investigated recently due to their high potential for biomedical applications. This review deals with recent works on nucleoside and oligonucleotide fluorocarbon amphiphiles as well as with properties and applications of fluorine-labeled oligonucleotide analogues. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/2/245 Fri, 23 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-03-23 2 2 Review 245 259 2076-3417 Nucleic Acid Based Fluorinated Derivatives: New Tools for Biomedical Applications 2012-03-23 doi: 10.3390/app2020245 Christel Dolain Amit Patwa Guilhem Godeau Philippe Barthélémy http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/233 This paper reports significant improvements in the electrical performance of In0.53Ga0.47As metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFET) by a post-gate CF4/O2 plasma treatment. The optimum condition of CF4/O2 plasma treatment has been systematically studied and found to be 30 W for 3–5 min. Approximately 5× reduction in interface trap density from 2.8 × 1012 to 4.9 × 1011 cm−2eV−1 has been demonstrated with fluorine (F) incorporation. Subthreshold swing has been improved from 127 to 109 mV/dec. Effective channel mobility has been enhanced from 826 to 1,144 cm2/Vs. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/233 Mon, 19 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-03-19 2 1 Article 233 244 2076-3417 Optimization of Fluorine Plasma Treatment for Interface Improvement on HfO2/In0.53Ga0.47As MOSFETs 2012-03-19 doi: 10.3390/app2010233 Yen-Ting Chen Yanzhen Wang Fei Xue Fei Zhou Jack C. Lee http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/220 The scattering of the unpolarized beams of electrons by nanomagnets in the vicinity of some scattering angles leads to complete spin polarized electrons. This result is obtained with the help of the perturbation theory. The dipole-dipole interaction between the magnetic moment of the nanomagnet and the magnetic moment of electron is treated as perturbation. This interaction is not spherically symmetric. Rather it depends on the electron spin variables. It in turn results in spinor character of the scattering amplitudes. Due to the smallness of the magnetic interactions, the scattering length of this process is very small to be proved experimentally. To enhance the relevant scattering lengths, we considered the diffraction of unpolarized beams of electrons by linear chains of nanomagnets. By tuning the distance between the scatterers it is possible to obtain the diffraction maximum of the scattered electrons at scattering angles which corresponds to complete spin polarization of electrons. It is shown that the total differential scattering length is proportional to N2 (N is a number of scatterers). Even small number of nanomagnets in the chain helps to obtain experimentally visible enhancement of spin polarization of the scattered electrons. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/220 Tue, 06 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-03-06 2 1 Article 220 232 2076-3417 2D Spin-Dependent Diffraction of Electrons From Periodical Chains of Nanomagnets 2012-03-06 doi: 10.3390/app2010220 Teshome Senbeta Vadim N. Mal’nev http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/206 In this paper, we review recent progress and new challenges in the area of oxyfluoride perovskite, especially layered systems including Ruddlesden-Popper (RP), Dion-Jacobson (DJ) and Aurivillius (AV) type perovskite families. It is difficult to synthesize oxyfluoride perovskite using a conventional solid-state reaction because of the high chemical stability of the simple fluoride starting materials. Nevertheless, persistent efforts made by solid-state chemists have led to a major breakthrough in stabilizing such a mixed anion system. In particular, it is known that layered perovskite compounds exhibit a rich variety of O/F site occupation according to the synthesis used. We also present the synthetic strategies to further extend RP type perovskite compounds, with particular reference to newly synthesized oxyfluorides, Sr2CoO3F and Sr3Fe2O5+xF2−x (x ~ 0.44). http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/206 Tue, 06 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-03-06 2 1 Review 206 219 2076-3417 Oxyfluoride Chemistry of Layered Perovskite Compounds 2012-03-06 doi: 10.3390/app2010206 Yoshihiro Tsujimoto Kazunari Yamaura Eiji Takayama-Muromachi http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/192 Environmental concerns related to perfluoroctanoic acid (PFOA) led to a re-examination of the methods for imparting stain resistance and stain repellency to textiles. Non-PFOA fluoropolymer finishes have been formed on cotton knits by admicellar polymerization, a surface analogue of emulsion polymerization. Fabric samples were characterized by a drop test, contact angle measurements, SEM, elemental analysis and durability studies. Stain resistance and stain release properties were assessed by reflectance and AATCC tests with results comparing favorably with swatches from commercially available garments. Admicellar polymerization enabled the formation of durable finishes that exhibited high performance in stain resistance and stain repellency. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/192 Mon, 05 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-03-05 2 1 Article 192 205 2076-3417 Stain Resistance of Cotton Fabrics before and after Finishing with Admicellar Polymerization 2012-03-05 doi: 10.3390/app2010192 Srinivas Hanumansetty Jayanta Maity Rod Foster Edgar A. O’Rear http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/175 A new class of alkyl- and perfluoroalkyl-containing urea and amide derivatives was synthesized from amino acid derivatives. Most of these compounds showed excellent gelation behavior in organic solvents at low concentrations. A few organogelators selected from the initial screening were used for surface modification of fibrous substrates to create hydrophobic and oleophobic composites. The hydrophobic and oleophobic behaviors of these composites were ascribed to a combination of increased surface roughness and the alkyl/fluorinated functionalities present in the gelator backbone. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/175 Thu, 01 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-03-01 2 1 Article 175 191 2076-3417 Self-Assembled Fluorinated Organogelators for Surface Modification 2012-03-01 doi: 10.3390/app2010175 Anilkumar Raghavanpillai Vincent A. Franco http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/166 A manganese immobilization technology in a fluidized-bed reactor (FBR) was developed by using a waste iron oxide (i.e., BT-3) as catalyst which is a by-product from the fluidized-bed Fenton reaction (FBR-Fenton). It was found that BT-3 could easily reduce potassium permanganate (KMnO4) to MnO2. Furthermore, MnO2 could accumulate on the surface of BT-3 catalyst to form a new Fe-Mn oxide. Laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate the KMnO4-reduction mechanism, including the effect of KMnO4 concentration, BT-3 dosage, and operational solution pH. The results showed that the pH solution was a significant factor in the reduction of KMnO4. At the optimum level, pHf 6, KMnO4 was virtually reduced in 10 min. A pseudo-first order reaction was employed to describe the reduction rate of KMnO4. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/166 Thu, 01 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-03-01 2 1 Article 166 174 2076-3417 Reduction and Immobilization of Potassium Permanganate on Iron Oxide Catalyst by Fluidized-Bed Crystallization Technology 2012-03-01 doi: 10.3390/app2010166 Guang-Xia Li Yao-Hui Huaug Teng-Chien Chen Yu-Jen Shih Hui Zhang http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/160 Past work has demonstrated the value of a random walk theory (RWT) to solve multiple-scattering problems arising in numerous contexts. This paper’s goal is to investigate the application range of the RWT using Monte Carlo simulations and extending it to anisotropic media using scaling laws. Meanwhile, this paper also reiterates rules for converting RWT formulas to real physical dimensions, and corrects some errors which appear in an earlier publication. The RWT theory, validated by the Monte Carlo simulations and combined with the scaling law, is expected to be useful to study multiple scattering and to greatly reduce the computation cost. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/160 Thu, 01 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-03-01 2 1 Article 160 165 2076-3417 Scaling Law for Photon Transmission through Optically Turbid Slabs Based on Random Walk Theory 2012-03-01 doi: 10.3390/app2010160 Xuesong Li Lin Ma http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/139 Currently, quantitative real-time PCR (Q-PCR) of archival formalin-fixed, paraffin embedded (FFPE) tissue is a critical tool for research and is not well established in routine diagnostics. Therefore, continuous improvement in mathematics and statistics associated with interpreting final accurate and reproducible results are fundamental. This project describes and discusses specificity and sensitivity with respect to intra- and inter-assay variances by use of a commercial Human Reference RNA and individual RNA derived from colorectal cancer patients (n = 25). All patients were treated with 5-fluoruracil (5-FU) and a concomitant pelvic radiotherapy (50.4 Gy). Quality assessment of target tissue samples was evaluated by clinicopathological findings and optical density (OD) measurements. We analyzed the steady state messenger RNA (mRNA) expression level of a small panel of cancer relevant genes, excision repair cross-complementing group 1 (ERCC1), ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase subunit M1 (RRM1), thymidylate synthase (TYMS) and ß-2microglobulin (ß-2M) as endogenous control. The mRNA of a Human Reference RNA, tumor and non-neoplastic material was reverse transcribed into its complementary DNA (cDNA). cDNA was amplified based on dual-labeled TaqMan real-time fluorescence measurements. The real-time efficiency and therefore the output data can be influenced through the kind of calibrator used, the amount and quality of used RNA and by the degree of individual assay variability. Each sample presents an individual amplification curve. Thus, confirmation of primer specificity, one or more invariant endogenous controls, RNA and cDNA quality, as well as real-time PCR amplification efficiencies and linearity calculations from individual slopes or R2-values must be included in each study. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/139 Fri, 24 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-02-24 2 1 Article 139 159 2076-3417 Real-Time PCR Data Processing Shown by the Analysis of Colorectal Specific Candidate Genes, ERCC1, RRM1 and TS in Relation to β2M as Endogenous Control 2012-02-24 doi: 10.3390/app2010139 Melanie Demes Holger Bartsch Stefanie Scheil-Bertram Ralph Mücke Annette Fisseler-Eckhoff http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/129 The reaction of 2,4-diethoxy-6-trifluoromethyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran (1) with aromatic compounds in refluxing acetonitrile in the presence of p-toluenesulfonic acid gave the mixture of 4-aryl-2-trifluoromethyl-4H-pyrans (3) and 6-aryl-1,1,1-trifluorohexa-3,5-dien-2-ones (4). In contrast, the same reaction carried out in trifluoroacetic acid at ambient temperature afforded 4-aryl-2-ethoxy-6-trifluoromethyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrans (2) selectively. These two types of reactions giving quite different products under each condition were studied on the basis of DFT calculations. Moreover, the proposed mechanism for the reaction of 5-trifluoroacetyl-6-trifluoromethyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyran (5) with aromatic compounds affording butadiene derivatives (6) exclusively was also discussed based on the calculations and comparison with the reactivity of pyrylium intermediate (7). http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/129 Fri, 24 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-02-24 2 1 Article 129 138 2076-3417 Computational Study on the Acid Catalyzed Reactions of Fluorine-Containing 2,4-Dialkoxy-3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrans with Aromatic Compounds 2012-02-24 doi: 10.3390/app2010129 Norio Ota Yasuhiro Kamitori Ryusuke Shirai Mizuki Hatakenaka Etsuji Okada http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/114 The effect of variously fluorine-substituted β-methyl-β-nitrostyrenes on their antimicrobial activity was investigated. Their efficacy was determined by minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) in cultures of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria and a fungus. Highest activity against the Gram negative bacterium, E.coli, was achieved with 4-fluorine-aryl substituted β-methyl-β-nitrostyrenes, while most compounds gave excellent results against gram positive bacteria. Importantly, the addition of the β-methyl group profoundly enhanced the antibacterial activity of the compounds tested. The comparative KD values for the most potent compounds against E.coli were much lower than those required for the gram positive and fungus counterparts. This investigation illustrated that fluorine substituted nitropropenylarenes have enhanced antimicrobial activity suitable for antibiotic applications. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/114 Thu, 23 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-02-23 2 1 Article 114 128 2076-3417 A Study of Fluorinated β-Nitrostyrenes as Antimicrobial Agents 2012-02-23 doi: 10.3390/app2010114 King Lo Hugh Cornell Gina Nicoletti Neale Jackson Helmut Hügel http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/100 This paper presents a logic-based supervisor controller designed for trackers for a 1MW HCPV demo plant in Taiwan. A sun position sensor on the tracker is used to detect the sun position, as the sensor is sensitive to the intensity of sun light. The signal output of the sensor is partially affected by the cloud, which has a hard control position with the traditional PID control. Therefore we have used logic-based supervisor (LBS) control which permits switching the PID control to sun trajectory under sunny or cloudy conditions. To verify the stability of the proposed control, an experiment was performed and the results show that the proposed control can efficiently achieve stabilization of the trackers of the 1MW HCPV demo plant. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/100 Tue, 07 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-02-07 2 1 Article 100 113 2076-3417 The Logic-Based Supervisor Control for Sun-Tracking System of 1 MW HCPV Demo Plant: Study Case 2012-02-07 doi: 10.3390/app2010100 Hong-Yih Yeh Cheng-Dar Lee http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/61 Several fluorinated and trifluoromethylated indanone, tetralone and naphthone derivatives have been prepared via Claisen condensations and selective fluorinations in yields ranging from 22–60%. In addition, we report the synthesis of new, selectively fluorinated bindones in yields ranging from 72–92%. Of particular interest is the fluorination and trifluoroacetylation regiochemistry observed in these fluorinated products. We also note unusual transformations including a novel one pot, dual trifluoroacetylation, trifluoroacetylnaphthone synthesis via a deacetylation as well as an acetyl-trifluoroacetyl group exchange. Solid-state structural features exhibited by these compounds were investigated using crystallographic methods. Crystallographic results, supported by spectroscopic data, show that trifluoroacetylated ketones prefer a chelated cis-enol form whereas fluorinated bindone products exist primarily as the cross-conjugated triketo form. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/61 Wed, 01 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-02-01 2 1 Article 61 99 2076-3417 Novel Fluorinated Indanone, Tetralone and Naphthone Derivatives: Synthesis and Unique Structural Features 2012-02-01 doi: 10.3390/app2010061 Joseph C. Sloop Paul D. Boyle Augustus W. Fountain Cristina Gomez James L. Jackson William F. Pearman Robert D. Schmidt Jonathan Weyand http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/46 Perfluorinated graded-index polymer optical fibers (PFGI-POFs), fabricated by replacing the hydrogen atoms of standard polymethyl methacrylate-based POFs with fluorine atoms, have been extensively studied due to their relatively low propagation loss even at telecommunication wavelength. Recently, Brillouin scattering, which is one of the most significant nonlinear effects in optical fibers, has been successfully observed in PFGI-POFs at 1.55-μm wavelength. The Brillouin Stokes signal was, however, not large enough for practical applications or for detailed investigations of the Brillouin properties. In this paper, we review our recent work on Stokes signal enhancement. First, we induce stimulated Brillouin scattering based on the so-called pump-probe technique, and discuss its applicability to temperature sensors. Then, we investigate the influence of the core diameter and length of PFGI-POFs on Stokes signal, and observe the Brillouin linewidth narrowing effect. We believe our work is an important technological step toward the implementation of practical Brillouin-based devices and systems including distributed strain and temperature sensors. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/46 Tue, 31 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-01-31 2 1 Review 46 60 2076-3417 Enhancement of Brillouin Scattering Signal in Perfluorinated Graded-Index Polymer Optical Fibers 2012-01-31 doi: 10.3390/app2010046 Yosuke Mizuno Kentaro Nakamura http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/35 Birkhoff theory exhibits an analytical steady state liner collapse model of shaped charges followed by jetting process. It also provides the fundamental idea in study of shaped charges and has widened its application in many areas, including a configuration where the detonation front strikes the entire liner surface at the same time providing the α = β (liner apex angle α, and the liner collapse point angle β) condition in the literature. Upon consideration of the detonation front propagation along the lateral length of the core charge in LSCs (linear shaped charges), a further modification of the Birkhoff theory motivated by the unique geometrical condition of LSCs and the α = β condition is necessary to correctly describe the jetting behavior of LSCs which is different than that of CSCs (conical shaped charges). Based on such unique geometrical properties of LSCs, the original Birkhoff theory was modified and an analytical steady state LSCs model was built. The analytical model was then compared to the numerical simulation results created from Autodyn™ in terms of M/C ratio and apex angles in three different sized LSCs, and it exhibits favorable results in a limited range. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/35 Tue, 31 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-01-31 2 1 Article 35 45 2076-3417 Steady State Analytical Equation of Motion of Linear Shaped Charges Jet Based on the Modification of Birkhoff Theory 2012-01-31 doi: 10.3390/app2010035 Seokbin Lim http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/24 The generated resist based defects on the template in addition to the presence of particles and contaminants is critical for ultraviolet curing of nanoimprint lithographic fabrication. This procedure is proven to be suitable for advanced resist material design under the process conditions. Nanoimprint resist material containing an ultraviolet reactive fluorine surfactant was developed to modify the fundamental surface interactions between resists and the template for defect reduction in nanoimprint patterning replication. The developed acrylate type nanoimprint resist material containing 4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,10,11,11,11-heptadecafluoro-2-hydroxyundecyl acrylate as an ultraviolet reactive fluorine surfactant, indicated excellent patterning dimensional accuracy by minimizing surface free energy, and having the effect of improving the generated resist based defect numbers on the template, with a 500 nm contact hole and 2 μm line patterns, in the replication of 20 nanoimprint process cycles. This desirable concept using an ultraviolet reactive fluorine surfactant with an acrylate group in the acrylate type nanoimprint resist material is one of the most promising processes ready to be incorporated into mass fabrication in the next generation of electronic devices. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/24 Mon, 16 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-01-16 2 1 Article 24 34 2076-3417 Nanoimprint Resist Material Containing Ultraviolet Reactive Fluorine Surfactant for Defect Reduction in Lithographic Fabrication 2012-01-16 doi: 10.3390/app2010024 Satoshi Takei Atsushi Sekiguchi http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/13 Sampling of small molecules from both porous and non-porous surfaces poses a significant challenge across biological agents. Particle sizes of toxins are smaller than living organisms and can be extremely toxic at low level concentrations. A small number of studies evaluating sampling efficiencies of commercial off the shelf (COTS) materials have been performed with toxins and proteins. However, they have been limited to non-ricin stimulants with drastically different physical properties than their native counterparts. We have identified a commercially available non-toxic recombinant ricin, complete with both A and B subunits present, which can be recognized by antibodies commonly used to assay native ricin. In evaluating recovery efficiency, we deposited the recombinant ricin by both liquid deposition, and as a dry aerosol. Our studies demonstrated a significant difference in recovery efficiencies from liquid deposited ricin, ranging between 30% and 70%, than from an aerosol generated deposition ranging from below detectable levels to 22%, depending on the contaminated surface and swab material being used. This study demonstrates the necessity for accurate dissemination techniques of sampling technologies for the consideration of use in an environment where suspected toxin contamination is being evaluated. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/13 Fri, 13 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-01-13 2 1 Article 13 23 2076-3417 Surface Sampling of a Dry Aerosol Deposited Ricin 2012-01-13 doi: 10.3390/app2010013 Jason M. Edmonds Patricia J. Collett Rebecca L. Brown Kishna Mangaya http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/1 Some chiral β-amino alcohols have been evaluated as potential ligands for the ruthenium-catalyzed asymmetric transfer hydrogenation (ATH) of N-phosphinyl ketimines in isopropyl alcohol. The ruthenium complex prepared from [RuCl2(p-cymene)]2 and (1S,2R)-1-amino-2-indanol has shown to be an efficient catalyst for the ATH of several N-(diphenylphosphinyl)imines, affording the reduction products in very good isolated yields and enantiomeric excesses up to 82%. The inherent rigidity of the indane ring system present in the ligand seems to be very important to achieve good enantioselectivities. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/2/1/1 Mon, 09 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2012-01-09 2 1 Communication 1 12 2076-3417 Chiral β-Amino Alcohols as Ligands for the Ruthenium-Catalyzed Asymmetric Transfer Hydrogenation of N-Phosphinyl Ketimines 2012-01-09 doi: 10.3390/app2010001 Óscar Pablo David Guijarro Miguel Yus http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/1/1/13 Cellular life is reliant upon rapid and efficient responses to internal and external conditions. The basic molecular events associated with these processes are the structural transitions of the proteins (structural protein allostery) involved. From this view, the human hemoglobin (Hb) molecule (α2β2) holds a special position in this field. Hb has two types of αβ interface (i.e., α1β1 [and α2β2] and α1β2 [and α2β1]). The latter α1–β2 (and α2–β1) interface is known to be associated with cooperative O2 binding, and exhibits principal roles if the molecule goes from its deoxy to oxy quaternary structure. However, the role of the former α1–β1 (and α2–β2) interface has been unclear for a long time. In this regard, important and intriguing observations have been accumulating. A new role was attributed first as stabilizing the HbO2 tetramer against acidic autoxidation. That is, the α1–β1 (and α2–β2) interface produces a conformational constraint in the β chain whereby the distal (E7) histidine (His) residue is tilted slightly away from the bound O2 so as to prevent proton-catalyzed displacement of O2– by a solvent water molecule. The β chains thus acquire pH-dependent delayed autoxidation in the HbO2 tetramer. The next role was suggested by our studies searching for similar phenomena in normal human erythrocytes under mild heating. Tilting of the distal (E7) His in turn triggered degradation of the Hb molecule to hemichrome, and subsequent clustering of Heinz bodies within the erythrocyte. As Heinz body-containing red cells become trapped in the spleen, it was demonstrated that the α1–β1 (and α2–β2) interface may exert delicate control of the fate (removal) of its own erythrocyte. Herein we review and summarize the related results and current interpretation of the oxidative behavior of human Hb, emphasizing the correlation between hemichrome emergence and Heinz-body formation, and specifically discuss the new roles assigned to the α1–β1 (and α2–β2) interface. The α1–β1 (and α2–β2) interface seems to adequately differentiate between the two types of function (dual roles) from physiological to cellular. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/1/1/13 Thu, 17 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Applied Sciences 2011-11-17 1 1 Review 13 55 2076-3417 New Roles Assigned to the α1–β1 (and α2–β2) Interface of the Human Hemoglobin Molecule from Physiological to Cellular 2011-11-17 doi: 10.3390/app1010013 Yoshiaki Sugawara Mai Yamada Eriko Ueno Mai Okazaki Aya Okamoto Mariko Miyake Fusako Fukami Ai Yano http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/1/1/12 Applied sciences cover many interdisciplinary fields that put basic sciences to application and make big changes by taking the one not-so-small step from “knowing how” to “knowing how-to”, the serendipity of which is often intriguing. Applied sciences are so deeply entrenched in almost all aspects of our daily lives. To provide an advanced forum for scholars all over the world to discuss and communicate the cutting-edge development in this field, on behalf of the Editorial Board members, I am honored to introduce Applied Sciences, a scholarly, peer-reviewed open access journal. [...] http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/1/1/12 Fri, 16 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2011-09-16 1 1 Editorial 12 12 2076-3417 Applied Sciences—Connecting Theories with Practice 2011-09-16 doi: 10.3390/app1010012 Takayoshi Kobayashi http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/1/1/1 Previous studies were able to demonstrate different verbally stated affective responses to environments. In the present study we used objective measures of emotion. We examined startle reflex modulation as well as changes in heart rate and skin conductance while subjects virtually walked through six different areas of urban Paris using the StreetView tool of Google maps. Unknown to the subjects, these areas were selected based on their median real estate prices. First, we found that price highly correlated with subjective rating of pleasantness. In addition, relative startle amplitude differed significantly between the area with lowest versus highest median real estate price while no differences in heart rate and skin conductance were found across conditions. We conclude that interaction with environmental scenes does elicit emotional responses which can be objectively measured and quantified. Environments activate motivational and emotional brain circuits, which is in line with the notion of an evolutionary developed system of environmental preference. Results are discussed in the frame of environmental psychology and aesthetics. http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/1/1/1 Fri, 01 Jul 2011 00:00:00 CEST Applied Sciences 2011-07-01 1 1 Article 1 11 2076-3417 Objective Measures of Emotion During Virtual Walks through Urban Environments 2011-07-01 doi: 10.3390/app1010001 Moritz Geiser Peter Walla