What Predicts Stable Mental Health in the 18–29 Age Group Compared to Older Age Groups? Results from the Stockholm Public Health Cohort 2002–2014
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Sampled Participants and Procedures
2.2. Study Variables
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Eckersley, R. Troubled youth: An island of misery in an ocean of happiness, or the tip of an iceberg of suffering? Early Interv. Psychiatry 2011, 5, 6–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Collishaw, S.; Maughan, B.; Natarajan, L.; Pickles, A. Trends in adolescent emotional problems in England: A comparison of two national cohorts twenty years apart. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 2010, 51, 885–894. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sweeting, H.; Young, R.; West, P. GHQ increases among Scottish 15 year olds 1987–2006. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2009, 44, 579–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Soest, T.; Wichstrøm, L. Secular Trends in Depressive Symptoms Among Norwegian Adolescents from 1992 to 2010. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 2014, 42, 403–415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Friberg, P.; Hagquist, C.; Osika, W. Self-perceived psychosomatic health in Swedish children, adolescents and young adults: An internet-based survey over time. BMJ Open 2012, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bor, W.; Dean, A.J.; Najman, J.; Hayatbakhsh, R. Are child and adolescent mental health problems increasing in the 21st century? A systematic review. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Potrebny, T.; Wiium, N.; Lundegard, M.M. Temporal trends in adolescents’ self-reported psychosomatic health complaints from 1980–2016: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0188374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Public Health Agency of Sweden. Mental Health. Available online: https://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se/the-public-health-agency-of-sweden/living-conditions-and-lifestyle/mental-health/ (accessed on 1 December 2018).
- Danish Health Authority. Den Nationale Sundhetsprofil 2017. Available online: https://www.sst.dk/da/udgivelser/2018/~/media/73EADC242CDB46BD8ABF9DE895A6132C.ashx (accessed on 1 December 2018).
- National Institute for Health and Welfare of Finland. Statistical Yearbook on Social Welfare and Health Care 2017. Available online: http://www.julkari.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/135959/URN_ISBN_978-952-302-970-5.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed on 1 December 2018).
- Allen, J.; Balfour, R.; Bell, R.; Marmot, M. Social determinants of mental health. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 2014, 26, 392–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rotenstein, L.S.; Ramos, M.A.; Torre, M.; Segal, J.B.; Peluso, M.J.; Guille, C.; Sen, S.; Mata, D.A. Prevalence of Depression, Depressive Symptoms, and Suicidal Ideation Among Medical Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JAMA 2016, 316, 2214–2236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ibrahim, A.K.; Kelly, S.J.; Adams, C.E.; Glazebrook, C. A systematic review of studies of depression prevalence in university students. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2013, 47, 391–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dyrbye, L.N.; Thomas, M.R.; Shanafelt, T.D. Systematic review of depression, anxiety, and other indicators of psychological distress among U.S. and Canadian medical students. Acad. Med. 2006, 81, 354–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hope, V.; Henderson, M. Medical student depression, anxiety and distress outside North America: A systematic review. Med. Educ. 2014, 48, 963–979. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Leahy, C.M.; Peterson, R.F.; Wilson, I.G.; Newbury, J.W.; Tonkin, A.L.; Turnbull, D. Distress levels and self-reported treatment rates for medicine, law, psychology and mechanical engineering tertiary students: Cross-sectional study. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2010, 44, 608–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Winzer, R.; Lindblad, F.; Sorjonen, K.; Lindberg, L. Positive versus negative mental health in emerging adulthood: A national cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health 2014, 14, 1238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- O’Connor, M.; Sanson, A.V.; Toumbourou, J.W.; Norrish, J.; Olsson, C.A. Does Positive Mental Health in Adolescence Longitudinally Predict Healthy Transitions in Young Adulthood? J. Happiness Stud. 2017, 18, 177–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Neve, J.E.; Oswald, A.J. Estimating the influence of life satisfaction and positive affect on later income using sibling fixed effects. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Moffitt, T.E.; Arseneault, L.; Belsky, D.; Dickson, N.; Hancox, R.J.; Harrington, H.; Houts, R.; Poulton, R.; Roberts, B.W.; Ross, S.; et al. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 2693–2698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Schaefer, J.D.; Caspi, A.; Belsky, D.W.; Harrington, H.; Houts, R.; Horwood, L.J.; Hussong, A.; Ramrakha, S.; Poulton, R.; Moffitt, T.E. Enduring mental health: Prevalence and prediction. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2017, 126, 212–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Havelka, M.; Lucanin, J.D.; Lucanin, D. Biopsychosocial model—The integrated approach to health and disease. Coll. Antropol. 2009, 33, 303–310. [Google Scholar]
- Social Determinants of Health: The Solid Facts, 2nd ed.; WHO Regional Office for Europe: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2003.
- Viner, R.M.; Ozer, E.M.; Denny, S.; Marmot, M.; Resnick, M.; Fatusi, A.; Currie, C. Adolescence and the social determinants of health. Lancet 2012, 379, 1641–1652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marmot, M.G.; Wilkinson, R.G. Social Determinants of Health, 2nd ed.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2006; p. x. 366p. [Google Scholar]
- Fisher, M.; Baum, F. The social determinants of mental health: Implications for research and health promotion. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2010, 44, 1057–1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harpham, T.; Grant, E.; Thomas, E. Measuring social capital within health surveys: Key issues. Health Policy Plan. 2002, 17, 106–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mammen, G.; Faulkner, G. Physical activity and the prevention of depression: A systematic review of prospective studies. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2013, 45, 649–657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McMahon, E.M.; Corcoran, P.; O’Regan, G.; Keeley, H.; Cannon, M.; Carli, V.; Wasserman, C.; Hadlaczky, G.; Sarchiapone, M.; Apter, A.; et al. Physical activity in European adolescents and associations with anxiety, depression and well-being. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2017, 26, 111–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hall, W.D.; Patton, G.; Stockings, E.; Weier, M.; Lynskey, M.; Morley, K.I.; Degenhardt, L. Why young people’s substance use matters for global health. Lancet Psychiatry 2016, 3, 265–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Charlet, K.; Heinz, A. Harm reduction—A systematic review on effects of alcohol reduction on physical and mental symptoms. Addict. Biol. 2017, 22, 1119–1159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Neil, A.; Quirk, S.E.; Housden, S.; Brennan, S.L.; Williams, L.J.; Pasco, J.A.; Berk, M.; Jacka, F.N. Relationship Between Diet and Mental Health in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Am. J. Public Health 2014, 104, e31–e42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Opie, R.S.; O’Neil, A.; Itsiopoulos, C.; Jacka, F.N. The impact of whole-of-diet interventions on depression and anxiety: A systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Public Health Nutr. 2015, 18, 2074–2093. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khalid, S.; Williams, C.M.; Reynolds, S.A. Is there an association between diet and depression in children and adolescents? A systematic review. Br. J. Nutr. 2017, 116, 2097–2108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huppert, F.A.; Whittington, J.E. Evidence for the independence of positive and negative well-being: Implications for quality of life assessment. Br. J. Health Psychol. 2003, 8, 107–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Patel, V.; Goodman, A. Researching protective and promotive factors in mental health. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2007, 36, 703–707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hawkins, M.T.; Letcher, P.; Sanson, A.; Smart, D.; Toumbourou, J.W. Positive development in emerging adulthood. Aust. J. Psychol. 2009, 61, 89–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Connor, M.; Sanson, A.; Hawkins, M.T.; Letcher, P.; Toumbourou, J.W.; Smart, D.; Vassallo, S.; Olsson, C.A. Predictors of positive development in emerging adulthood. J. Youth Adolesc. 2011, 40, 860–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lindblad, F.; Backman, L.; Akerstedt, T. Immigrant girls perceive less stress. Acta Paediatr. 2008, 97, 889–893. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Whitley, R.; Wang, J.; Fleury, M.-J.; Liu, A.; Caron, J. Mental Health Status, Health Care Utilisation, and Service Satisfaction among Immigrants in Montreal: An Epidemiological Comparison. Can. J. Psychiatry Rev. Can. Psychiatr. 2017, 62, 570–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bas-Sarmiento, P.; Saucedo-Moreno, M.J.; Fernandez-Gutierrez, M.; Poza-Mendez, M. Mental Health in Immigrants Versus Native Population: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Arch. Psychiatr. Nurs. 2017, 31, 111–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harding, S.; Read, U.M.; Molaodi, O.R.; Cassidy, A.; Maynard, M.J.; Lenguerrand, E.; Astell-Burt, T.; Teyhan, A.; Whitrow, M.; Enayat, Z.E. The Determinants of young Adult Social well-being and Health (DASH) study: Diversity, psychosocial determinants and health. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2015, 50, 1173–1188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Berg, N.; Kiviruusu, O.; Karvonen, S.; Rahkonen, O.; Huurre, T. Pathways from problems in adolescent family relationships to midlife mental health via early adulthood disadvantages—A 26-year longitudinal study. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0178136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bovier, P.A.; Chamot, E.; Perneger, T.V. Perceived stress, internal resources, and social support as determinants of mental health among young adults. Qual. Life Res. 2004, 13, 161–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cater, A.K.; Andershed, A.K.; Andershed, H. Youth victimization in Sweden: Prevalence, characteristics and relation to mental health and behavioral problems in young adulthood. Child Abuse Negl. 2014, 38, 1290–1302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Assari, S.; Moghani Lankarani, M. Violence Exposure and Mental Health of College Students in the United States. Behav. Sci. 2018, 8, 53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kadra, G.; Dean, K.; Hotopf, M.; Hatch, S.L. Investigating Exposure to Violence and Mental Health in a Diverse Urban Community Sample: Data from the South East London Community Health (SELCoH) Survey. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e93660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Turanovic, J.J.; Pratt, T.C. Longitudinal Effects of Violent Victimization during Adolescence on Adverse Outcomes in Adulthood: A Focus on Prosocial Attachments. J. Pediatr. 2015, 166, 1062–1069.e1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Keyes, C.L.M.; Dhingra, S.S.; Simoes, E.J. Change in Level of Positive Mental Health as a Predictor of Future Risk of Mental Illness. Am. J. Public Health 2010, 100, 2366–2371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Svensson, A.C.; Fredlund, P.; Laflamme, L.; Hallqvist, J.; Alfredsson, L.; Ekbom, A.; Feychting, M.; Forsberg, B.; Pedersen, N.L.; Vagero, D.; et al. Cohort Profile: The Stockholm Public Health Cohort. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goldberg, D.; Williams, P. A User’s Guide to the General Health Questionnaire; Institute of Psychiatry: London, UK, 1988. [Google Scholar]
- Makikangas, A.; Feldt, T.; Kinnunen, U.; Tolvanen, A.; Kinnunen, M.; Pulkkinen, L. The factor structure and factorial invariance of the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) across time: Evidence from two community-based samples. Psychol. Assess. 2006, 18, 444–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rocha, K.B.; Perez, K.; Rodriguez-Sanz, M.; Borrell, C.; Obiols, J.E. Psychometric properties and normative values of General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) in Spanish population. Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol. 2011, 11, 125–139. [Google Scholar]
- Doi, Y.; Minowa, M. Factor structure of the 12-item General Health Questionnaire in the Japanese general adult population. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2003, 57, 379–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bowe, A. The cultural fairness of the 12-item General Health Questionnaire among diverse adolescents. Psychol. Assess. 2017, 29, 87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kashyap, G.C.; Singh, S.K. Reliability and validity of general health questionnaire (GHQ-12) for male tannery workers: A study carried out in Kanpur, India. BMC Psychiatry 2017, 17, 102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sconfienza, C. Mätning av Psykiskt Välbefinnande Bland Ungdomar i Sverige: Användning av GHQ-12 [Measuring Mental Well-Being among Young People in Sweden: Application of GHQ 12]; National Institute for Working Life: Solna, Sweden, 1998; p. 33. ISBN 91-7045-493-0. [Google Scholar]
- Lundin, A.; Hallgren, M.; Theobald, H.; Hellgren, C.; Torgen, M. Validity of the 12-item version of the General Health Questionnaire in detecting depression in the general population. Public Health 2016, 136, 66–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kosidou, K.; Dalman, C.; Lundberg, M.; Hallqvist, J.; Isacsson, G.; Magnusson, C. Socioeconomic status and risk of psychological distress and depression in the Stockholm Public Health Cohort: A population-based study. J. Affect. Disord. 2011, 134, 160–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hawkins, M.T.; Letcher, P.; Sanson, A.; O’Connor, M.; Toumbourou, J.W.; Olsson, C. Stability and Change in Positive Development During Young Adulthood. J. Youth Adolesc. 2011, 40, 1436–1452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hawkins, M.T.; Villagonzalo, K.-A.; Sanson, A.V.; Toumbourou, J.W.; Letcher, P.; Olsson, C.A. Associations Between Positive Development in Late Adolescence and Social, Health, and Behavioral Outcomes in Young Adulthood. J. Adult Dev. 2012, 19, 88–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conner, T.S.; Brookie, K.L.; Richardson, A.C.; Polak, M.A. On carrots and curiosity: Eating fruit and vegetables is associated with greater flourishing in daily life. Br. J. Health Psychol. 2015, 20, 413–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Conner, T.S.; Brookie, K.L.; Carr, A.C.; Mainvil, L.A.; Vissers, M.C. Let them eat fruit! The effect of fruit and vegetable consumption on psychological well-being in young adults: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0171206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mujcic, R.; Oswald, A.J. Evolution of Well-Being and Happiness After Increases in Consumption of Fruit and Vegetables. Am. J. Public Health 2016, 106, 1504–1510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Emerson, S.D.; Carbert, N.S. An apple a day: Protective associations between nutrition and the mental health of immigrants in Canada. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paul, K.I.; Moser, K. Unemployment impairs mental health: Meta-analyses. J. Vocat. Behav. 2009, 74, 264–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cvetkovski, S.; Reavley, N.J.; Jorm, A.F. The prevalence and correlates of psychological distress in Australian tertiary students compared to their community peers. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2012, 46, 457–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gariepy, G.; Honkaniemi, H.; Quesnel-Vallee, A. Social support and protection from depression: Systematic review of current findings in Western countries. Br. J. Psychiatry 2016, 209, 284–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fagg, J.; Curtis, S.; Stansfeld, S.A.; Cattell, V.; Tupuola, A.M.; Arephin, M. Area social fragmentation, social support for individuals and psychosocial health in young adults: Evidence from a national survey in England. Soc. Sci. Med. 2008, 66, 242–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Power, M.J. Stress-buffering efffects of social support—A longitudinal study. Motiv. Emot. 1988, 12, 197–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boerma, T.; Hosseinpoor, A.R.; Verdes, E.; Chatterji, S. A global assessment of the gender gap in self-reported health with survey data from 59 countries. BMC Public Health 2016, 16, 675. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Patel, V.; Saxena, S.; Lund, C.; Thornicroft, G.; Baingana, F.; Bolton, P.; Chisholm, D.; Collins, P.Y.; Cooper, J.L.; Eaton, J.; et al. The Lancet Commission on global mental health and sustainable development. Lancet 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, M.L.; Kaufmann, C.N.; Palmer, B.W.; Depp, C.A.; Martin, A.S.; Glorioso, D.K.; Thompson, W.K.; Jeste, D.V. Paradoxical Trend for Improvement in Mental Health with Aging: A Community-Based Study of 1546 Adults Aged 21–100 Years. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2016, 77, e1019–e1025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Happell, B.; Koehn, S. Effect of aging on the perceptions of physical and mental health in an Australian population. Nurs. Health Sci. 2011, 13, 27–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gevaert, J.; Moortel, D.; Wilkens, M.; Vanroelen, C. What’s up with the self-employed? A cross-national perspective on the self-employed’s work-related mental well-being. SSM Popul. Health 2018, 4, 317–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilkinson, R.G.; Pickett, K. The Spirit Level: Why Greater Equality Makes Societies Stronger, 1st ed.; Bloomsbury Press: New York, NY, USA, 2009; p. xv. 330p. [Google Scholar]
- Fiorillo, D.; Lavadera, G.L.; Nappo, N. Social participation and self-rated psychological health: A longitudinal study on BHPS. SSM Popul. Health 2017, 3, 266–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Determinants | 18–29 Years | ≥30 Years | Interaction between the Determinant and the 18–29 Year and ≥30 Year Age Groups | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | 95% CI | Sig. | OR | 95% CI | Sig. | OR | 95% CI | Sig. | |
Gender | |||||||||
Male (Reference: female) | 1.91 | 1.54–2.36 | 0.000 *** | 1.64 | 1.51–1.78 | 0.000 *** | 1.00 | 0.81–1.24 | 0.975 |
Country of birth | 0.111 | 0.474 | 0.266 | ||||||
Sweden | 1.86 | 1.07–3.26 | 0.029 * | 1.02 | 0.80–1.29 | 0.901 | 1.60 | 0.88–2.88 | 0.121 |
Other Nordic Countries | 1.46 | 0.52–4.09 | 0.476 | 1.15 | 0.87–1.51 | 0.330 | 1.07 | 0.37–3.07 | 0.898 |
Other Europe | 1.26 | 0.54–2.95 | 0.597 | 1.07 | 0.79–1.45 | 0.656 | 1.13 | 0.46–2.77 | 0.784 |
Outside Europe (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Occupational status | 0.005 ** | 0.000 *** | 0.056 | ||||||
Employed | 2.63 | 1.46–4.76 | 0.001 *** | 1.70 | 1.29–2.24 | 0.000 *** | 1.39 | 0.73–2.65 | 0.318 |
Own business | 1.79 | 0.78–4.08 | 0.170 | 2.25 | 1.67–3.04 | 0.000 *** | 0.78 | 0.33–1.85 | 0.570 |
Student/Trainee | 1.93 | 1.06–3.53 | 0.033 * | 0.97 | 0.64–1.46 | 0.877 | 1.89 | 0.92–3.90 | 0.085 |
Leave of absence/Parental leave | 2.54 | 1.15–5.63 | 0.021 * | 1.07 | 0.74–1.56 | 0.716 | 2.04 | 0.86–4.85 | 0.107 |
Outside labor market | 2.22 | 0.97–5.12 | 0.060 | 2.21 | 1.66–2.93 | 0.000 *** | 0.95 | 0.40–2.28 | 0.908 |
Unemployed (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Financial strain | 0.007 ** | 0.000 *** | 0.003 ** | ||||||
No financial strain | 1.56 | 1.07–2.28 | 0.021 * | 2.79 | 2.25–3.47 | 0.000 *** | 0.53 | 0.35–0.80 | 0.002 ** |
Some financial strain | 1.16 | 0.79–1.71 | 0.448 | 1.66 | 1.32–2.10 | 0.000 *** | 0.67 | 0.43–1.04 | 0.072 |
Major financial strain (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Housing | 0.983 | 0.429 | 0.443 | ||||||
Own | 0.98 | 0.74–1.30 | 0.877 | 1.20 | 0.90–1.60 | 0.207 | 0.78 | 0.53–1.15 | 0.213 |
Rented | 0.97 | 0.73–1.30 | 0.858 | 1.18 | 0.88–1.58 | 0.273 | 0.83 | 0.56–1.25 | 0.377 |
Lodger/Dormitory/Other (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Emotional support | 0.000 *** | 0.000 *** | 0.072 | ||||||
High emotional support | 1.95 | 1.08–3.53 | 0.027 ** | 1.91 | 1.62–2.27 | 0.000 *** | 0.93 | 0.55–1.57 | 0.779 |
Moderate emotional support | 1.14 | 0.63–2.05 | 0.672 | 1.49 | 1.27–1.74 | 0.000 *** | 0.70 | 0.40–1.22 | 0.204 |
Low emotional support (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Instrumental support | 0.373 | 0.001 ** | 0.206 | ||||||
High instrumental support | 1.03 | 0.41–2.58 | 0.954 | 1.45 | 1.19–1.78 | 0.000 *** | 0.66 | 0.29–1.52 | 0.329 |
Moderate instrumental support | 0.84 | 0.34–2.09 | 0.711 | 1.29 | 1.06–1.57 | 0.009 * | 0.55 | 0.23–1.29 | 0.167 |
Low instrumental support (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Interpersonal trust | 0.001 ** | 0.033 * | 0.018 * | ||||||
Strong interpersonal trust | 1.33 | 0.96–1.83 | 0.084 | 1.23 | 1.04–1.44 | 0.014 * | 1.02 | 0.73–1.43 | 0.909 |
Fair interpersonal trust | 0.87 | 0.65–1.16 | 0.345 | 1.14 | 0.98–1.33 | 0.089 | 0.75 | 0.55–1.03 | 0.072 |
Weak interpersonal trust (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Community trust | 0.864 | 0.044 * | 0.699 | ||||||
Strong community trust | 1.01 | 0.81–1.27 | 0.927 | 1.11 | 1.02–1.21 | 0.019 * | 0.91 | 0.72–1.15 | 0.432 |
Fair community trust | 1.07 | 0.83–1.38 | 0.598 | 1.08 | 0.98–1.19 | 0.112 | 1.00 | 0.76–1.31 | 0.996 |
Weak community trust (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Societal participation | |||||||||
Yes (Reference: did not participate) | 0.94 | 0.75–1.19 | 0.611 | 0.97 | 0.90–1.05 | 0.496 | 0.93 | 0.74–1.16 | 0.505 |
Voting | |||||||||
Yes (Reference: did not vote) | 0.86 | 0.61–1.21 | 0.384 | 0.98 | 0.84–1.16 | 0.847 | 0.95 | 0.66–1.37 | 0.773 |
Nutrition—consumption of breakfast | 0.548 | 0.829 | 0.994 | ||||||
Daily consumption of breakfast | 1.26 | 0.81–1.96 | 0.303 | 1.06 | 0.87–1.31 | 0.561 | 1.03 | 0.64–1.64 | 0.912 |
Weekly consumption of breakfast | 1.17 | 0.73–1.87 | 0.513 | 1.04 | 0.83–1.32 | 0.717 | 1.03 | 0.61–1.72 | 0.921 |
Seldom consumption of breakfast (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Nutrition—consumption of fruit and berries | 0.071 | 0.168 | 0.900 | ||||||
Daily consumption of fruit and berries | 1.39 | 1.05–1.84 | 0.021 * | 1.13 | 1.00–1.28 | 0.060 | 1.07 | 0.81–1.42 | 0.649 |
Weekly consumption of fruit and berries | 1.25 | 0.94–1.67 | 0.127 | 1.09 | 0.95–1.25 | 0.207 | 1.04 | 0.77–1.42 | 0.784 |
Rare consumption of fruit and berries (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Physical activity | 0.438 | 0.000 *** | 0.030 * | ||||||
Regular physical activity | 0.99 | 0.68–1.44 | 0.960 | 1.54 | 1.31–1.80 | 0.000 *** | 0.65 | 0.44–0.94 | 0.023 * |
Moderate physical activity | 0.87 | 0.63–1.20 | 0.395 | 1.34 | 1.19–1.51 | 0.000 *** | 0.65 | 0.47–0.90 | 0.010 * |
Sedentary physical behavior (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
Tobacco smoking | |||||||||
No (Reference: Daily smoking) | 0.72 | 0.51–1.01 | 0.058 | 0.95 | 0.85–1.07 | 0.396 | 0.70 | 0.50–0.97 | 0.033 * |
Hazardous alcohol consumption | |||||||||
No (Reference: Hazardous alcohol consumption) | 0.93 | 0.75–1.16 | 0.522 | 1.11 | 1.02–1.21 | 0.012 * | 0.846 | 0.68–1.06 | 0.138 |
Victim of threat and violence | 0.447 | 0.000 *** | 0.736 | ||||||
Not victim of threat and violence | 1.09 | 0.50–2.39 | 0.823 | 1.25 | 0.82–1.90 | 0.306 | 0.80 | 0.33–1.92 | 0.621 |
Victim of threat | 0.80 | 0.33–1.92 | 0.611 | 0.74 | 0.46–1.21 | 0.229 | 1.04 | 0.39–2.83 | 0.934 |
Victim of violence | 0.86 | 0.34–2.20 | 0.754 | 1.11 | 0.64–1.92 | 0.709 | 0.79 | 0.27–2.32 | 0.673 |
Victim of threat and violence (Reference) | 1 | 1 | 1 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Winzer, R.; Sorjonen, K.; Lindberg, L. What Predicts Stable Mental Health in the 18–29 Age Group Compared to Older Age Groups? Results from the Stockholm Public Health Cohort 2002–2014. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2859. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122859
Winzer R, Sorjonen K, Lindberg L. What Predicts Stable Mental Health in the 18–29 Age Group Compared to Older Age Groups? Results from the Stockholm Public Health Cohort 2002–2014. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(12):2859. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122859
Chicago/Turabian StyleWinzer, Regina, Kimmo Sorjonen, and Lene Lindberg. 2018. "What Predicts Stable Mental Health in the 18–29 Age Group Compared to Older Age Groups? Results from the Stockholm Public Health Cohort 2002–2014" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 12: 2859. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122859