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Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development

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A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2019) | Viewed by 75805

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Luis A. Sañudo-Fontaneda

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Guest Editor

Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering Group, Department of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Oviedo, 33600 Mieres, Spain
Interests: ancient stormwater engineering; civil engineering heritage; green stormwater infrastructure; highway engineering; low-impact development; sustainable drainage systems; stormwater control measures; sustainable construction; teaching innovation; urban and territorial planning; water-sensitive urban design
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. William F. Hunt

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

WNR Distinguished Professor, Biological & Agricultural Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7625, USA
Interests: Stormwater Management; Small Catchment Hydrology; Sustainable Drainage Systems; Green Infrastructure; Low Impact Development; Ecosystem Service Provision; Historical Context of Engineering; Water Quality, Ecology; Ecological Engineering; Natural Baselines; Basketball

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Human settlements, both in urban and rural environments, are fragile and susceptible to the impact of climate change which threatens the stability of communities across the globe. Rapid and, very often, non-controlled urbanization has increased the risk for flooding by impeding an ordinary natural water cycle. Moreover, urban streams carry more pollution to receiving waters and are at greater risk of degradation. Sustainable stormwater management is part of a strategic plan to achieve resilience against unpredictable changes such as flood and drought conditions. Green Stormwater Infrastructure (GSI) has become one of the main means for adapting urban, suburban, peri-urban and transportation corridors to climate change and minimize the effects of unchecked urbanization; additionally, GSI delivers ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, heat island mitigation, air quality protection, and increased biodiversity. A good example of the implementation of GSI are the Green Street programmes and Green Highways initiatives, both of which have been developed in many countries worldwide. This Special Issue aims to increase the knowledge in how GSI can (1) impact design and retrofitting activities in urban(izing) regions, (2) meet regulatory requirements, while considering climate change, and (3) provide wider benefits such as biodiversity enhancement, amenity and improvement of flood resilience and pollutant removal efficiency.

Dr. Luis A. Sañudo-Fontaneda
Prof. Dr. William F. Hunt
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Bioretention
Climate resiliency
Flood Risk
Ecosystem Service provision
Green Infrastructure
Green Streets
Maintenance of stormwater infrastructure
Low Impact Development (LID)
Participatory methods research
Planning and Policies
Policies to confer resilience
Processes of Adaptation to Climate Change
Rainwater Harvesting Techniques
Renewable Energy
Resilient Food and Water Systems
Sponge Cities
Stormwater Management Techniques
Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
Urban Drainage Retrofits
Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

13 pages, 3205 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Thermal Performance of Wet Swales Housing Ground Source Heat Pump Elements through Laboratory Modelling

by Carlos Rey-Mahía, Luis A. Sañudo-Fontaneda, Valerio C. Andrés-Valeri, Felipe Pedro Álvarez-Rabanal, Stephen John Coupe and Jorge Roces-García

Sustainability 2019, 11(11), 3118; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113118 - 03 Jun 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3296

Abstract

Land-use change due to rapid urbanization poses a threat to urban environments, which are in need of multifunctional green solutions to face complex future socio-ecological and climate scenarios. Urban regeneration strategies, bringing green infrastructure, are currently using sustainable urban drainage systems to exploit the provision of ecosystem services and their wider benefits. The link between food, energy and water depicts a technological knowledge gap, represented by previous attempts to investigate the combination between ground source heat pump and permeable pavement systems. This research aims to transfer these concepts into greener sustainable urban drainage systems like wet swales. A 1:2 scaled laboratory models were built and analysed under a range of ground source heat pump temperatures (20–50 °C). Behavioral models of vertical and inlet/outlet temperature difference within the system were developed, achieving high R², representing the first attempt to describe the thermal performance of wet swales in literature when designed alongside ground source heat pump elements. Statistical analyses showed the impact of ambient temperature and the heating source at different scales in all layers, as well as, the resilience to heating processes, recovering their initial thermal state within 16 h after the heating stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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33 pages, 29096 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multicriteria Planning Framework to Locate and Select Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) in Consolidated Urban Areas

by Sara Lucía Jiménez Ariza, José Alejandro Martínez, Andrés Felipe Muñoz, Juan Pablo Quijano, Juan Pablo Rodríguez, Luis Alejandro Camacho and Mario Díaz-Granados

Sustainability 2019, 11(8), 2312; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11082312 - 17 Apr 2019

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 10355

Abstract

The implementation of sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) is increasing due to their advantages, which transcend runoff control. As a result, it is important to find the appropriate SUDS locations to maximize the benefits for the watershed. This study develops a multiscale methodology for consolidated urban areas that allows the analysis of environmental, social, and economic aspects of SUDS implementation according to multiple objectives (i.e., runoff management, water quality improvements, and amenity generation). This methodology includes three scales: (a) citywide, (b) local, and (c) microscale. The citywide scale involves the definition of objectives through workshops with the participation of the main stakeholders, and the development of spatial analyses to identify (1) priority urban drainage sub-catchments: areas that need intervention, and (2) strategic urban drainage sub-catchments: zones with the opportunity to integrate SUDS due the presence of natural elements or future urban redevelopment plans. At a local scale, prospective areas are analyzed to establish the potential of SUDS implementation. Microscale comprises the use of the results from the previous scales to identify the best SUDS placement. In the latter scale, the SUDS types and treatment trains are selected. The methodology was applied to the city of Bogotá (Colombia) with a population of nearly seven million inhabitants living in an area of approximately 400 km². Results include: (a) The identification of priority urban drainage sub-catchments, where the implementation of SUDS could bring greater benefits; (b) the determination of strategic urban drainage sub-catchments considering Bogotá’s future urban redevelopment plans, and green and blue-green corridors; and (c) the evaluation of SUDS suitability for public and private areas. We found that the most suitable SUDS types for public areas in Bogotá are tree boxes, cisterns, bioretention zones, green swales, extended dry detention basins, and infiltration trenches, while for private residential areas they are rain barrels, tree boxes, green roofs, and green swales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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13 pages, 3184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Performance Characterization of Roadside Bioretention Systems

by Rajendra Prasad Singh, Fei Zhao, Qian Ji, Jothivel Saravanan and Dafang Fu

Sustainability 2019, 11(7), 2040; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11072040 - 05 Apr 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3078

Abstract

In the current study, three roadside bioretention systems with different configurations were constructed to investigate their pollutant removal efficiency in different rainfall recurrence intervals. The bioretention systems (referred as units) (unit A: 700 mm height material without submerged zone; unit B: 400 mm height material with 300 mm submerged zone; unit C: 400 mm height material without submerged zone) were used to conduct the rainfall events with uniform 120 min rainfall duration for 2-, 5-, 10-, 15-, and 30-year recurrence intervals. Results reveal that the gradual increase of rainfall return period would have negative effects on TN and NH₄⁺-N removal. The higher filler layer may increase pollutant removal efficiency. Setting a submerged zone could improve the COD_Mn and TN removal compared to TP and NH₄⁺-N removal. The values for comprehensive reduction rate of pollutant load in the three bioretention systems were recorded as follows: 64% in SS, 50%~80% in TP, 69% in NH₄⁺-N, and 28%~53% in NO₃-N separately. These results provide greater understanding of the design and treatment performance of bioretention systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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12 pages, 2121 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Retrospective Comparison of Water Quality Treatment in a Bioretention Cell 16 Years Following Initial Analysis

by Jeffrey P. Johnson and William F. Hunt

Sustainability 2019, 11(7), 1945; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071945 - 02 Apr 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4644

Abstract

One of the most popular stormwater practices in (sub-)urban North Carolina is bioretention. While bioretention has been researched intensively to determine the most efficient designs, few long-term studies have attempted to assess the performance of older bioretention. However, previous research and design guidance for bioretention has predicted long-term water quality treatment. This study compared discharged concentrations and loads of nitrogen and phosphorus from a bioretention cell (1) post-construction and (2) following 17 years of treatment. A conventionally-drained bioretention cell with lateral underdrains in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA, was first monitored post-construction for 10-months from 2002–2003 and, again following continuous use, for 14 months from 2017–2018. Estimated mass load reductions during the initial monitoring period were 40% for total nitrogen (TN) and 65% for total phosphorus (TP). Mass load reductions were increased 17 years after construction, with reductions of 72% and 79% for TN and TP, respectively. Plant growth, death, and decay over the 17-year life of the bioretention cell are hypothesized to have contributed additional nitrogen assimilation and carbon to the fill media, serving as a catalyst for nitrogen treatment. Phosphorus removal remained relatively unchanged between the two monitoring periods. Filter media samples indicated the top 20 cm of filter media were nearing phosphorus saturation, but with 1.2 m of filter media, lower depths would most likely continue to provide treatment. If designed, built, and maintained correctly, bioretention appears to provide sustained treatment of stormwater runoff for nitrogen and phosphorus for nearly two decades, and likely longer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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20 pages, 45296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can We Really Have It All?—Designing Multifunctionality with Sustainable Urban Drainage System Elements

by Elisa Lähde, Ambika Khadka, Outi Tahvonen and Teemu Kokkonen

Sustainability 2019, 11(7), 1854; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071854 - 28 Mar 2019

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6672

Abstract

Multifunctionality is seen as one of the key benefits delivered by sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS). It has been promoted by both scientific research and practical guidelines. However, interrelations between different benefits are vaguely defined, thus highlighting a lack of knowledge on ways they could be promoted in the actual design process. In this research, multifunctionality has been studied with the help of scenario analysis. Three stormwater scenarios involving different range of SUDS elements have been designed for the case area of Kirstinpuisto in the city of Turku, Finland. Thereafter, the alternative design scenarios have been assessed with four criteria related to multifunctionality (water quantity, water quality, amenity, and biodiversity). The results showed that multifunctionality could be analyzed in the design phase itself, and thus provided knowingly. However, assessing amenity and biodiversity values is more complex and in addition, we still lack proper methods. As the four criteria have mutual interconnections, multifunctionality should be considered during the landscape architectural design, or else we could likely lose some benefits related to multifunctionality. This reinforces emerging understanding that an interdisciplinary approach is needed to combine ecological comprehension together with the system thinking into SUDS design, locating them not as individual elements or as a part of the treatment train, but in connection with wider social ecological framework of urban landscape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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14 pages, 4684 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A GIS-Based Framework Creating Green Stormwater Infrastructure Inventory Relevant to Surface Transportation Planning

by Xiaofan Xu, Dylan S. P. Schreiber, Qing Lu and Qiong Zhang

Sustainability 2018, 10(12), 4710; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124710 - 11 Dec 2018

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5136

Abstract

The stormwater runoff that carries pollutants from the land adjacent to road transportation systems may impair the water environment and threaten the ecosystem and human health. A proper management approach like green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) can help control flooding and the runoff pollutants. One barrier for GSI analysis relevant to system-level surface transportation planning is the lack of the inventory of GSI in many U.S. cities. This study aims to develop a GIS-based framework for creating GSI inventory in a time and labor efficient way, different from the traditional survey-based method. The new proposed framework consists of three steps, including road categorization, GSI mapping, and GSI type identification using the GIS data, high-resolution land-cover image, and Google Earth street view pictures. The new approach was tested in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and also applied in Tampa, Florida. The results showed that the new GIS-based framework can achieve similar accuracy to the survey-based method while saving time and labor. The GSI inventory created in the study demonstrated the usefulness of the proposed framework for analyzing the status of GSI implementation and identifying gaps for future planning in terms of potential locations and underrepresented GSI types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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16 pages, 1871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accelerated Exploration for Long-Term Urban Water Infrastructure Planning through Machine Learning

by Junyu Zhang, Dafang Fu, Christian Urich and Rajendra Prasad Singh

Sustainability 2018, 10(12), 4600; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124600 - 05 Dec 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2509

Abstract

In this study, the neural network method (Multi-Layer Perceptron, MLP) was integrated with an explorative model, to study the feasibility of using machine learning to reduce the exploration time but providing the same support in long-term water system adaptation planning. The specific network structure and training pattern were determined through a comprehensive statistical trial-and-error (considering the distribution of errors). The network was applied to the case study in Scotchman’s Creek, Melbourne. The network was trained with the first 10% of the exploration data, validated with the following 5% and tested on the rest. The overall root-mean-square-error between the entire observed data and the predicted data is 10.5722, slightly higher than the validation result (9.7961), suggesting that the proposed trial-and-error method is reliable. The designed MLP showed good performance dealing with spatial randomness from decentralized strategies. The adoption of MLP-supported planning may overestimate the performance of candidate urban water systems. By adopting the safety coefficient, a multiplicator or exponent calculated by observed data and predicted data in the validation process, the overestimation problem can be controlled in an acceptable range and have few impacts on final decision making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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16 pages, 3454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Scalable Green Infrastructure—The Case of Domestic Private Gardens in Vuores, Finland

by Outi Tahvonen

Sustainability 2018, 10(12), 4571; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124571 - 03 Dec 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3929

Abstract

The planning, implementation, and everyday use of the built environment interweave the green and grey components of urban fabric tightly together. Runoff from grey and impermeable surfaces causes stormwater that is managed in permeable surfaces that simultaneously act as habitats for vegetation. Green infrastructure (GI) is one of the concepts that is used to perceive, manage, and guide the components of urban green spaces. Furthermore, GI pays special attention to stormwater management and urban vegetation at several scales at the same time. This study concentrated on scalable GI in domestic private gardens. A set of garden designs in Vuores, Finland were analyzed and developed by Research by Design. The aim was to study how garden scale choices and designs can enhance GI at the block and neighbourhood scales to rethink design practices to better integrate water and vegetation throughout the scales. As a result, we propose a checklist for designers and urban planners that ensures vegetation-integrated stormwater management to enhance habitat diversity in block scale and possibility to use blocks of private plots for ecological networks. The prerequisite for garden designers is to be capable to balance between water, vegetation, and soil, and their processes and flows in detail the scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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15 pages, 3634 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Hydrological Performance of Green Roofs at Building and City Scales under Mediterranean Conditions

by Ignacio Andrés-Doménech, Sara Perales-Momparler, Adrián Morales-Torres and Ignacio Escuder-Bueno

Sustainability 2018, 10(9), 3105; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093105 - 31 Aug 2018

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6482

Abstract

Green roofs are one specific type of sustainable urban drainage system (SUDS); they aim to manage runoff at the source by storing water in its different layers, delaying the hydrological response, and restoring evapotranspiration. Evidence of their performance in the Mediterranean is still scarce. The main objective of this paper is to analyse the hydrological performance of green roofs at building and city scales under Mediterranean conditions. A green roof and a conventional roof were monitored over one year in Benaguasil (Valencia, Spain). Rainfall and flow data were recorded and analysed. Hydrological models were calibrated and validated at the building scale to analyse the hydrological long-term efficiency of the green roof and compare it against that obtained for the conventional roof. Results show that green roofs can provide good hydrological performances, even in dry climates such as the Mediterranean. In addition, their influence at the city scale is also significant, given the average runoff coefficient reduction obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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11 pages, 1259 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Runoff Reduction Potential of Highway Swales and WinSLAMM as a Predictive Tool

by Bailee N. Young, Jon M. Hathaway, Whitney A. Lisenbee and Qiang He

Sustainability 2018, 10(8), 2871; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082871 - 13 Aug 2018

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3343

Abstract

Across the United States, the impacts of stormwater runoff are being managed through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) in an effort to restore and/or maintain the quality of surface waters. State transportation authorities fall within this regulatory framework, being tasked with managing runoff leaving their impervious surfaces. Opportunely, the highway environment also has substantial amounts of green space that may be leveraged for this purpose. However, there are questions as to how much runoff reduction is provided by these spaces, a question that may have a dramatic impact on stormwater management strategies across the country. A highway median swale, located on Asheville Highway, Knoxville, Tennessee, was monitored for hydrology over an 11-month period. The total catchment was 0.64 ha, with 0.26 ha of roadway draining to 0.38 ha of a vegetated median. The results of this study indicated that 87.2% of runoff volume was sequestered by the swale. The Source Loading and Management Model for Windows (WinSLAMM) was used to model the swale runoff reduction performance to determine how well this model may perform in such an application. To calibrate the model, adjustments were made to measured on-site infiltration rates, which was identified as a sensitive parameter in the model that also had substantial measurement uncertainty in the field. The calibrated model performed reasonably with a Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency of 0.46. WinSLAMM proved to be a beneficial resource to assess green space performance; however, the sensitivity of the infiltration parameter suggests that field measurements of this characteristic may be needed to achieve accurate results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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10 pages, 28954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rainfall Runoff Mitigation by Retrofitted Permeable Pavement in an Urban Area

by Muhammad Shafique, Reeho Kim and Kwon Kyung-Ho

Sustainability 2018, 10(4), 1231; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10041231 - 18 Apr 2018

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7506

Abstract

Permeable pavement is an effective low impact development (LID) practice that can play an important role in reducing rainfall runoff amount in urban areas. Permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) was retrofitted in a tremendously developed area of Seoul, Korea and the data was monitored to evaluate its effect on the hydrology and stormwater quality performance for four months. Rainfall runoff was first absorbed by different layers of the PICP system and then contributed to the sewage system. This not only helps to reduce the runoff volume, but also increase the time of concentration. In this experiment, different real rain events were observed and the field results were investigated to check the effectiveness of the PICP system for controlling the rainfall runoff in Songpa, Korea. From the analysis of data, results showed that the PCIP system was very effective in controlling rainfall runoff. Overall runoff reduction performance from the PCIP was found to be around 30–65% during various storm events. In addition, PICP significantly reduced peak flows in different storm events which is very helpful in reducing the chances of water-logging in an urbanized area. Research results also allow us to sum up that retrofitted PICP is a very effective approach for rainfall runoff management in urban areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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Review

Jump to: Research

14 pages, 1261 KiB

Open AccessReview

SuDS & Sponge Cities: A Comparative Analysis of the Implementation of Pluvial Flood Management in the UK and China

by Craig Lashford, Matteo Rubinato, Yanpeng Cai, Jingming Hou, Soroush Abolfathi, Stephen Coupe, Susanne Charlesworth and Simon Tait

Sustainability 2019, 11(1), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010213 - 04 Jan 2019

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 11862

Abstract

In recent decades, rapid urbanization has resulted in a growing urban population, transformed into regions of exceptional socio-economic value. By removing vegetation and soil, grading the land surface and saturating soil air content, urban developments are more likely to be flooded, which will be further exacerbated by an anticipated increase in the number of intense rainfall events, due to climate change. To date, data collected show that urban pluvial flood events are on the rise for both the UK and China. This paper presents a critical review of existing sustainable approaches to urban flood management, by comparing UK practice with that in China and critically assessing whether lessons can be learnt from the Sponge City initiative. The authors have identified a strategic research plan to ensure that the sponge city initiative can successfully respond to extreme climatic events and tackle pluvial flooding. Hence, this review suggests that future research should focus on (1) the development of a more localized rainfall model for the Chinese climate; (2) the role of retrofit SuDS (Sustainable Drainage Systems) in challenging water environments; (3) the development of a robust SuDS selection tool, ensuring that the most effective devices are installed, based on local factors; and (4) dissemination of current information, and increased understanding of maintenance and whole life-costing, alongside monitoring the success of sponge cities to increase the confidence of decision makers (5) the community engagement and education about sponge cities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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15 pages, 981 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Challenge of Maintaining Stormwater Control Measures: A Synthesis of Recent Research and Practitioner Experience

by Andrew J. Erickson, Vinicius J. Taguchi and John S. Gulliver

Sustainability 2018, 10(10), 3666; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103666 - 13 Oct 2018

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5639

Abstract

The methods for properly executing inspection and maintenance of stormwater control measures are often ambiguous and inconsistently applied. This paper presents specific guidelines for inspecting and maintaining stormwater practices involving media filtration, infiltration, ponds, and permeable pavements because these tend to be widely implemented and often unsatisfactorily maintained. Guidelines and examples are based on recent scientific research and practitioner experience. Of special note are new assessment and maintenance methods, such as testing enhanced filtration media that targets dissolved constituents, maintaining proper vegetation coverage in infiltration practices, assessing phosphorus release from pond sediments, and the development of compressed impermeable regions in permeable pavements and their implications for runoff. Inspection and maintenance examples provided in this paper are drawn from practical examples in Northern Midwest USA, but most of the maintenance recommendations do not depend on regional characteristics, and guidance from around the world has been reviewed and cited herein. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Stormwater Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)

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