Aluminum Alloys

A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2016) | Viewed by 191723

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Special Issue Editor

Materials Research Group, Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK
Interests: microstructure; mechanical property; fatigue, tribology; corrosion; 3D printing
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Aluminium is the world’s most abundant metal and is the third most common element, comprising 8% of the Earth’s crust. The versatility of aluminium makes it the most widely used metal after steel. By utilising various combinations of their advantageous properties such as strength, lightness, corrosion resistance, recyclability, and formability, aluminium alloys are being employed in an ever-increasing number of applications. In the recent decade, a rapid new development has been made in production of aluminium alloys, and new techniques of casting, forming, welding, and surface modification, have been evolved to improve the structural integrity of aluminium alloys. This Special Issue will cover recent progress and new developments regarding all aspects of aluminium alloys, including processing, microstructure and property, fatigue and surface behavior, modeling, and application of aluminum alloys.

Dr. Nong Gao
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Aluminum alloys
  • Casting and solidification
  • Processes and mechanical property
  • Microstructural characterization
  • Strength, fracture and fatigue
  • Corrosion and surface behavior
  • Modelling and simulation
  • Applications

Published Papers (29 papers)

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Research

6485 KiB  
Article
Influence of Laser Welding Speed on the Morphology and Phases Occurring in Spray-Compacted Hypereutectic Al-Si-Alloys
by Thomas Gietzelt, Torsten Wunsch, Florian Messerschmidt, Holger Geßwein and Uta Gerhards
Metals 2016, 6(12), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6120295 - 24 Nov 2016
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5220
Abstract
Normally, the weldability of aluminum alloys is ruled by the temperature range of solidification of an alloy according to its composition by the formation of hot cracks due to thermal shrinkage. However, for materials at nonequilibrium conditions, advantage can be taken by multiple [...] Read more.
Normally, the weldability of aluminum alloys is ruled by the temperature range of solidification of an alloy according to its composition by the formation of hot cracks due to thermal shrinkage. However, for materials at nonequilibrium conditions, advantage can be taken by multiple phase formation, leading to an annihilation of temperature stress at the microscopic scale, preventing hot cracks even for alloys with extreme melting range. In this paper, several spray-compacted hypereutectic aluminum alloys were laser welded. Besides different silicon contents, additional alloying elements like copper, iron and nickel were present in some alloys, affecting the microstructure. The microstructure was investigated at the delivery state of spray-compacted material as well as for a wide range of welding speeds ranging from 0.5 to 10 m/min, respectively. The impact of speed on phase composition and morphology was studied at different disequilibrium solidification conditions. At high welding velocity, a close-meshed network of eutectic Al-Si-composition was observed, whereas the matrix is filled with nearly pure aluminum, helping to diminish the thermal stress during accelerated solidification. Primary solidified silicon was found, however, containing considerable amounts of aluminum, which was not expected from phase diagrams obtained at the thermodynamic equilibrium. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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9981 KiB  
Article
Guideline for Forming Stiffened Panels by Using the Electromagnetic Forces
by Jinqiang Tan, Mei Zhan and Shuai Liu
Metals 2016, 6(11), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6110267 - 07 Nov 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4277
Abstract
Electromagnetic forming (EMF), as a high-speed forming technology by applying the electromagnetic forces to manufacture sheet or tube metal parts, has many potential advantages, such as contact-free and resistance to buckling and springback. In this study, EMF is applied to form several panels [...] Read more.
Electromagnetic forming (EMF), as a high-speed forming technology by applying the electromagnetic forces to manufacture sheet or tube metal parts, has many potential advantages, such as contact-free and resistance to buckling and springback. In this study, EMF is applied to form several panels with stiffened ribs. The distributions and variations of the electromagnetic force, the velocity and the forming height during the EMF process of the bi-directional panel with gird ribs are obtained by numerical simulations, and are analyzed via the comparison to those with the flat panel (non-stiffened) and two uni-directional panels (only with X-direction or Y-direction ribs). It is found that the electromagnetic body force loads simultaneously in the ribs and the webs, and the deformation of the panels is mainly driven by the force in the ribs. The distribution of force in the grid-rib panel can be found as the superposition of the two uni-directional stiffened panels. The velocity distribution for the grid-rib panel is primarily affected by the X-directional ribs, then the Y-directional ribs, and the variation of the velocity are influenced by the force distribution primarily and secondly the inertial effect. Mutual influence of deformation exists between the region undergoing deformation and the deformed or underformed free ends. It is useful to improve forming uniformity via a second discharge at the same position. Comparison between EMF and the brake forming with a stiffened panel shows that the former has more advantages in reducing the defects of springback and buckling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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6012 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Creep Aging on the Fatigue Fracture Behavior of 2524 Aluminum Alloy
by Wenke Li, Lihua Zhan, Lingfeng Liu and Yongqian Xu
Metals 2016, 6(9), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6090215 - 07 Sep 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5249
Abstract
Normal temperature tensile and fatigue tests were adopted to test the mechanical performance and fatigue life of 2524 aluminum alloy under the three states of T3, artificial aging, and creep aging, and scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope were also used to [...] Read more.
Normal temperature tensile and fatigue tests were adopted to test the mechanical performance and fatigue life of 2524 aluminum alloy under the three states of T3, artificial aging, and creep aging, and scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope were also used to observe the fatigue fracture morphology and aging precipitation features of the alloy under the above three states. Results showed that the alloy treated by creep aging can obtain higher fatigue life, but that treated by artificial aging is lower than T3; T3 alloy is mainly dominated by GPB region. Meanwhile, the crystal boundary displays continuously distributed fine precipitated phases; after artificial aging and creep aging treatment, a large amount of needle-shaped S′ phases precipitate inside the alloy, while there are wide precipitated phases at the crystal boundary. Wide precipitation free zones appear at the crystal boundary of artificial-aging samples, but precipitation free zones at the alloy crystal boundary of creep aging become narrower and even disappear. It can be seen that creep aging can change the precipitation features of the alloy and improve its fatigue life. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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7482 KiB  
Article
Welding Distortion Prediction in 5A06 Aluminum Alloy Complex Structure via Inherent Strain Method
by Zhi Zeng, Xiaoyong Wu, Mao Yang and Bei Peng
Metals 2016, 6(9), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6090214 - 06 Sep 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6710
Abstract
Finite element (FE) simulation with inherent deformation is an ideal and practical computational approach for predicting welding stress and distortion in the production of complex aluminum alloy structures. In this study, based on the thermal elasto-plastic analysis, FE models of multi-pass butt welds [...] Read more.
Finite element (FE) simulation with inherent deformation is an ideal and practical computational approach for predicting welding stress and distortion in the production of complex aluminum alloy structures. In this study, based on the thermal elasto-plastic analysis, FE models of multi-pass butt welds and T-type fillet welds were investigated to obtain the inherent strain distribution in a 5A06 aluminum alloy cylindrical structure. The angular distortion of the T-type joint was used to investigate the corresponding inherent strain mechanism. Moreover, a custom-designed experimental system was applied to clarify the magnitude of inherent deformation. With the mechanism investigation of welding-induced buckling by FE analysis using inherent deformation, an application for predicting and mitigating the welding buckling in fabrication of complex aluminum alloy structure was developed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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6024 KiB  
Article
Dry Machining Aeronautical Aluminum Alloy AA2024-T351: Analysis of Cutting Forces, Chip Segmentation and Built-Up Edge Formation
by Badis Haddag, Samir Atlati, Mohammed Nouari and Abdelhadi Moufki
Metals 2016, 6(9), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6090197 - 24 Aug 2016
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 8057
Abstract
In this paper, machining aeronautical aluminum alloy AA2024-T351 in dry conditions was investigated. Cutting forces, chip segmentation, and built-up edge formation were analyzed. Machining tests revealed that the chip formation process depends on cutting conditions and tool geometry. So continuous and segmented chips [...] Read more.
In this paper, machining aeronautical aluminum alloy AA2024-T351 in dry conditions was investigated. Cutting forces, chip segmentation, and built-up edge formation were analyzed. Machining tests revealed that the chip formation process depends on cutting conditions and tool geometry. So continuous and segmented chips are generated. Under some cutting conditions, built-up edge formation occurs. A predictive machining theory, based on a finite elements method (FEM), was applied to reproduce and explain these phenomena. Thermomechanical behaviors of the work material and the tool-work material interface were considered. Results of the proposed modelling were compared to experimental data for a wide range of cutting speed. It was shown that the feed force is well reproduced by the ALE-FE (arbitrary lagrangian-eulerian finite element) formulation and highly underestimated by the lagrangian finite element (LAG-FE) one. While, the periodic localized shear band, leading to a chip segmentation, is well reproduced with the Lagrangian FE formulation. It was found that the chip segmentation can be correlated to the cutting force evolution using the defined chip segmentation intensity parameter. For the built-up edge (BUE) phenomenon, it was shown that it depends on the contact/friction at the tool-chip interface, and this is possible to simulate by making the friction coefficient time-dependent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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5885 KiB  
Article
On the Improvement of AA2024 Wear Properties through the Deposition of a Cold-Sprayed Titanium Coating
by Antonello Astarita, Felice Rubino, Pierpaolo Carlone, Alessandro Ruggiero, Claudio Leone, Silvio Genna, Massimiliano Merola and Antonino Squillace
Metals 2016, 6(8), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6080185 - 11 Aug 2016
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4847
Abstract
This paper deals with the study of the enhancement of the tribological properties of AA2024 through the deposition of a titanium coating. In particular two different coatings were studied: (1) untreated titanium coating; and (2) post-deposition laser-treated titanium coating. Titanium grade 2 powders [...] Read more.
This paper deals with the study of the enhancement of the tribological properties of AA2024 through the deposition of a titanium coating. In particular two different coatings were studied: (1) untreated titanium coating; and (2) post-deposition laser-treated titanium coating. Titanium grade 2 powders were deposited onto an aluminium alloy AA2024-T3 sheet through the cold gas dynamic spray process. The selective laser post treatment was carried out by using a 220 W diode laser to further enhance the wear properties of the coating. Tribo-tests were executed to analyse the tribological behaviour of materials in contact with an alternative moving counterpart under a controlled normal load. Four different samples were tested to assess the effectiveness of the treatments: untreated aluminium sheets, titanium grade 2 sheets, as-sprayed titanium powders and the laser-treated coating layer. The results obtained proved the effectiveness of the coating in improving the tribological behaviour of the AA2024. In particular the laser-treated coating showed the best results in terms of both the friction coefficient and mass lost. The laser treatment promotes a change of the wear mechanism, switching from a severe adhesive wear, resulting in galling, to an abrasive wear mechanism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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8620 KiB  
Article
High-Temperature Compressive Resistance and Mechanical Properties Improvement of Strain-Induced Melt Activation-Processed Al-Mg-Si Aluminum Alloy
by Chia-Wei Lin, Fei-Yi Hung and Truan-Sheng Lui
Metals 2016, 6(8), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6080183 - 05 Aug 2016
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4560
Abstract
Even though the high-temperature formability of Al alloys can be enhanced by the strain-induced melt activation (SIMA) process, the mechanical properties of the formed alloys are necessary for estimation. In this research, a modified two-step SIMA (TS-SIMA) process that omits the cold working [...] Read more.
Even though the high-temperature formability of Al alloys can be enhanced by the strain-induced melt activation (SIMA) process, the mechanical properties of the formed alloys are necessary for estimation. In this research, a modified two-step SIMA (TS-SIMA) process that omits the cold working step of the traditional SIMA process is adopted for the 6066 Al-Mg-Si alloy to obtain globular grains with a short-duration salt bath. The high-temperature compressive resistance and mechanical properties of TS-SIMA alloys were investigated. The TS-SIMA alloys were subjected to artificial aging heat treatment to improve their mechanical properties. The results show that the TS-SIMA process can reduce compression loading by about 35%. High-temperature compressive resistance can be reduced by the TS-SIMA process. After high-temperature compression, the mechanical properties of the TS-SIMA alloys were significantly improved. Furthermore, artificial aging treatment can be used to enhance formed alloys via the TS-SIMA process. After artificial aging treatment, the mechanical properties of TS-SIMA alloys are comparable to those of general artificially-aged materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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2471 KiB  
Article
Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Thermodynamic Predictions—A Comparative Study of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys
by Gernot K.-H. Kolb, Stefanie Scheiber, Helmut Antrekowitsch, Peter J. Uggowitzer, Daniel Pöschmann and Stefan Pogatscher
Metals 2016, 6(8), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6080180 - 03 Aug 2016
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6011
Abstract
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys are widely used in aircraft applications because of their superior mechanical properties and strength/weight ratios. Commercial Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys have been intensively studied over the last few decades. However, well-considered thermodynamic calculations, via the CALPHAD approach, on a variation of alloying elements [...] Read more.
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys are widely used in aircraft applications because of their superior mechanical properties and strength/weight ratios. Commercial Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys have been intensively studied over the last few decades. However, well-considered thermodynamic calculations, via the CALPHAD approach, on a variation of alloying elements can guide the fine-tuning of known alloy systems and the development of optimized heat treatments. In this study, a comparison was made of the solidus temperatures of different Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys determined from thermodynamic predictions and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements. A variation of the main alloying elements Zn, Mg, and Cu generated 38 experimentally produced alloys. An experimental determination of the solidus temperature via DSC was carried out according to a user-defined method, because the broad melting interval present in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys does not allow the use of the classical onset method for pure substances. The software algorithms implemented in FactSage®, Pandat™, and MatCalc with corresponding commercially available databases were deployed for thermodynamic predictions. Based on these investigations, the predictive power of the commercially available CALPHAD databases and software packages was critically reviewed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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3152 KiB  
Article
Substructural Alignment during ECAE Processing of an Al-0.1Mg Aluminium Alloy
by Yan Huang
Metals 2016, 6(7), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6070158 - 12 Jul 2016
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4665
Abstract
An investigation has been carried out into the microstructures developed during the early stages of equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) in a polycrystalline single-phase Al-0.13Mg alloy, with emphasis on the substructural alignment with respect to the die geometry and the crystallographic slip systems, [...] Read more.
An investigation has been carried out into the microstructures developed during the early stages of equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) in a polycrystalline single-phase Al-0.13Mg alloy, with emphasis on the substructural alignment with respect to the die geometry and the crystallographic slip systems, which is essentially related to the grain refinement and texture development during deformation. The material was processed by ECAE at room temperature to three passes, via a 90° die. Microstructures were examined and characterized by EBSD. It was found that dislocation cell bands and microshear bands were respectively the most characteristic deformation structures of the first and second pass ECAE. Both formed across the whole specimen and to align approximately with the die shear plane, regardless of the orientation of individual grains. This confirmed that substructural alignment was in response to the direction of the maximum resolved shear stress rather than to the crystallographic slip systems. However, a significant fraction of material developed preferred orientations during deformation that allowed the coincidence between the crystallographic slip systems and the simple shear geometry to occur, which governed texture development in the material. The third pass deformation was characterized with the formation of a fibre structure with a significant fraction of high angle boundaries, being aligned at an angle to the extrusion direction, which was determined by the total shear strain applied. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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1709 KiB  
Article
Creep Aging Behavior Characterization of 2219 Aluminum Alloy
by Lingfeng Liu, Lihua Zhan and Wenke Li
Metals 2016, 6(7), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6070146 - 29 Jun 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7912
Abstract
In order to characterize the creep behaviors of 2219 aluminum alloy at different temperatures and stress levels, a RWS-50 Electronic Creep Testing Machine (Zhuhai SUST Electrical Equipment Company, Zhuhai, China) was used for creep experiment at temperatures of 353~458 k and experimental stresses [...] Read more.
In order to characterize the creep behaviors of 2219 aluminum alloy at different temperatures and stress levels, a RWS-50 Electronic Creep Testing Machine (Zhuhai SUST Electrical Equipment Company, Zhuhai, China) was used for creep experiment at temperatures of 353~458 k and experimental stresses of 130~170 MPa. It was discovered that this alloy displayed classical creep curve characteristics in its creep behaviors within the experimental parameters, and its creep value increased with temperature and stress. Based on the creep equation of hyperbolic sine function, regression analysis was conducted of experimental data to calculate stress exponent, creep activation energy, and other related variables, and a 2219 aluminum alloy creep constitutive equation was established. Results of further analysis of the creep mechanism of the alloy at different temperatures indicated that the creep mechanism of 2219 aluminum alloy differed at different temperatures; and creek characteristics were presented in three stages at different temperatures, i.e., the grain boundary sliding creep mechanism at a low temperature stage (T < 373 K), the dislocation glide creep mechanism at a medium temperature stage (373 K ≤ T < 418 K), and the dislocation climb creep mechanism at a high temperature stage (T ≥ 418 K). By comparative analysis of the fitting results and experiment data, they were found to be in agreement with the experimental data, revealing that the established creep constitutive equation is suitable for different temperatures and stresses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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1366 KiB  
Article
Synthesis and Characterization of Nanocrystalline Al-20 at. % Cu Powders Produced by Mechanical Alloying
by Molka Ben Makhlouf, Tarek Bachaga, Joan Josep Sunol, Mohamed Dammak and Mohamed Khitouni
Metals 2016, 6(7), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6070145 - 29 Jun 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5253
Abstract
Mechanical alloying is a powder processing technique used to process materials farther from equilibrium state. This technique is mainly used to process difficult-to-alloy materials in which the solid solubility is limited and to process materials where nonequilibrium phases cannot be produced at room [...] Read more.
Mechanical alloying is a powder processing technique used to process materials farther from equilibrium state. This technique is mainly used to process difficult-to-alloy materials in which the solid solubility is limited and to process materials where nonequilibrium phases cannot be produced at room temperature through conventional processing techniques. This work deals with the microstructural properties of the Al-20 at. % Cu alloy prepared by high-energy ball milling of elemental aluminum and copper powders. The ball milling of powders was carried out in a planetary mill in order to obtain a nanostructured Al-20 at. % Cu alloy. The obtained powders were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The structural modifications at different stages of the ball milling are investigated with X-ray diffraction. Several microstructure parameters such as the crystallite sizes, microstrains and lattice parameters are determined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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4417 KiB  
Article
Evaluating the Applicability of GTN Damage Model in Forward Tube Spinning of Aluminum Alloy
by Xianxian Wang, Mei Zhan, Jing Guo and Bin Zhao
Metals 2016, 6(6), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6060136 - 06 Jun 2016
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6994
Abstract
Tube spinning is an effective plastic-forming technology for forming light-weight, high-precision and high-reliability components in high-tech fields, such as aviation and aerospace. However, cracks commonly occur in tube spinning due to the complexity of stress state, which severely restricts the improvement of the [...] Read more.
Tube spinning is an effective plastic-forming technology for forming light-weight, high-precision and high-reliability components in high-tech fields, such as aviation and aerospace. However, cracks commonly occur in tube spinning due to the complexity of stress state, which severely restricts the improvement of the forming quality and forming limit of components. In this study, a finite element (FE) model coupled with Gurson-Tvergaard-Needleman (GTN) damage model for forward tube spinning of 3A21-O aluminum alloy is established and its applicability is evaluated by experiment. Meanwhile, the GTN damage model is employed to study the damage evolution for forward tube spinning of 3A21-O aluminum alloy. The results show that the FE model is appropriate for predicting the macroscopic crack appearing in uplift area for forward tube spinning, while the damage evolution in deformation area could not be predicted well due to the negative stress triaxiality and the neglect of shear deformation. Accumulation of damage in forward tube spinning occurs mainly in the uplift area. Void volume fraction (VVF) in the outer surface of the tube is higher than that in the inner surface. In addition, it is prone to cracking in the outer surface of tube in the material uplift area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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6592 KiB  
Article
Effect of Friction Stir Welding Parameters on the Mechanical and Microstructure Properties of the Al-Cu Butt Joint
by Sare Celik and Recep Cakir
Metals 2016, 6(6), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6060133 - 31 May 2016
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 8897
Abstract
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid-state welding process used for welding similar and dissimilar materials. FSW is especially suitable to join sheet Al alloys, and this technique allows different material couples to be welded continuously. In this study, 1050 Al alloys and [...] Read more.
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid-state welding process used for welding similar and dissimilar materials. FSW is especially suitable to join sheet Al alloys, and this technique allows different material couples to be welded continuously. In this study, 1050 Al alloys and commercially pure Cu were produced at three different tool rotation speeds (630, 1330, 2440 rpm) and three different tool traverse speeds (20, 30, 50 mm/min) with four different tool position (0, 1, 1.5, 2 mm) by friction stir welding. The influence of the welding parameters on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the joints was investigated. Tensile and bending tests and microhardness measurements were used to determine the mechanical properties. The microstructures of the weld zone were investigated by optical microscope and scanning electron microscope (SEM) and were analyzed in an energy dispersed spectrometer (EDS). Intermetallic phases were detected based on the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis results that evaluated the formation of phases in the weld zone. When the welding performance of the friction stir welded butt joints was evaluated, the maximum value obtained was 89.55% with a 1330 rpm tool rotational speed, 20 mm/min traverse speed and a 1 mm tool position configuration. The higher tensile strength is attributed to the dispersion strengthening of the fine Cu particles distributed over the Al material in the stir zone region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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6064 KiB  
Article
Metallographic Index-Based Quantification of the Homogenization State in Extrudable Aluminum Alloys
by Panagiota I. Sarafoglou, John S. Aristeidakis, Maria-Ioanna T. Tzini and Gregory N. Haidemenopoulos
Metals 2016, 6(5), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6050121 - 21 May 2016
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4020
Abstract
Extrudability of aluminum alloys of the 6xxx series is highly dependent on the microstructure of the homogenized billets. It is therefore very important to characterize quantitatively the state of homogenization of the as-cast billets. The quantification of the homogenization state was based on [...] Read more.
Extrudability of aluminum alloys of the 6xxx series is highly dependent on the microstructure of the homogenized billets. It is therefore very important to characterize quantitatively the state of homogenization of the as-cast billets. The quantification of the homogenization state was based on the measurement of specific microstructural indices, which describe the size and shape of the intermetallics and indicate the state of homogenization. The indices evaluated were the following: aspect ratio (AR), which is the ratio of the maximum to the minimum diameter of the particles, feret (F), which is the maximum caliper length, and circularity (C), which is a measure of how closely a particle resembles a circle in a 2D metallographic section. The method included extensive metallographic work and the measurement of a large number of particles, including a statistical analysis, in order to investigate the effect of homogenization time. Among the indices examined, the circularity index exhibited the most consistent variation with homogenization time. The lowest value of the circularity index coincided with the metallographic observation for necklace formation. Shorter homogenization times resulted in intermediate homogenization stages involving rounding of edges or particle pinching. The results indicated that the index-based quantification of the homogenization state could provide a credible method for the selection of homogenization process parameters towards enhanced extrudability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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5274 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Specimen Thickness on the Lüders Effect of a 5456 Al-Based Alloy: Experimental Observations
by Yu-Long Cai, Su-Li Yang, Shi-Hua Fu and Qing-Chuan Zhang
Metals 2016, 6(5), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6050120 - 20 May 2016
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 8125
Abstract
For the first time ever, a thickness dependence of the Lüders effect in an Al-based alloy is demonstrated. A three-dimensional digital image correlation method was used to gain insight into the Lüders band velocity and the Lüders strain. The results revealed that both [...] Read more.
For the first time ever, a thickness dependence of the Lüders effect in an Al-based alloy is demonstrated. A three-dimensional digital image correlation method was used to gain insight into the Lüders band velocity and the Lüders strain. The results revealed that both the strain and velocity depend on the specimen thickness. The strain increases, whereas the velocity decreases, with decreasing specimen thickness. Moreover, the plot of the strain vs. the velocity concurs with the global deformation compatibility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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7067 KiB  
Article
Effect of Surface States on Joining Mechanisms and Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloy (A5052) and Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) by Dissimilar Friction Spot Welding
by Farazila Yusof, Mohd Ridha bin Muhamad, Raza Moshwan, Mohd Fadzil bin Jamaludin and Yukio Miyashita
Metals 2016, 6(5), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6050101 - 28 Apr 2016
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 6042
Abstract
In this research, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), as a high-density thermoplastic sheet, and Aluminum A5052, as a metal with seven distinct surface roughnesses, were joined by friction spot welding (FSW). The effect of A5052’s various surface states on the welding joining mechanism and mechanical [...] Read more.
In this research, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), as a high-density thermoplastic sheet, and Aluminum A5052, as a metal with seven distinct surface roughnesses, were joined by friction spot welding (FSW). The effect of A5052’s various surface states on the welding joining mechanism and mechanical properties were investigated. Friction spot welding was successfully applied for the dissimilar joining of PET thermoplastics and aluminum alloy A5052. During FSW, the PET near the joining interface softened, partially melted and adhered to the A5052 joining surface. The melted PET evaporated to form bubbles near the joining interface and cooled, forming hollows. The bubbles have two opposite effects: its presence at the joining interface prevent PET from contacting with A5052, while bubbles or hollows are crack origins that induce crack paths which degrade the joining strength. On the other hand, the bubbles’ flow pushed the softened PET into irregularities on the roughened surface to form mechanical interlocking, which significantly improved the strength. The tensile-shear failure load for an as-received surface (0.31 μ m Ra) specimen was about 0.4–0.8 kN while that for the treated surface (>0.31 μ m Ra) specimen was about 4.8–5.2 kN. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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6141 KiB  
Article
Study on the Surface Integrity of a Thin-Walled Aluminum Alloy Structure after a Bilateral Slid Rolling Process
by Laixiao Lu, Jie Sun, Xiong Han and Qingchun Xiong
Metals 2016, 6(5), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6050099 - 26 Apr 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5098
Abstract
For studying the influence of a bilateral slid rolling process (BSRP) on the surface integrity of a thin-walled aluminum alloy structure, and revealing the generation mechanism of residual stresses, a self-designed BSRP appliance was used to conduct rolling experiments. With the aid of [...] Read more.
For studying the influence of a bilateral slid rolling process (BSRP) on the surface integrity of a thin-walled aluminum alloy structure, and revealing the generation mechanism of residual stresses, a self-designed BSRP appliance was used to conduct rolling experiments. With the aid of a surface optical profiler, an X-ray stress analyzer, and a scanning electron microscope (SEM), the differences in surface integrity before and after BSRP were explored. The internal changing mechanism of physical as well as mechanical properties was probed. The results show that surface roughness (Ra) is reduced by 23.7%, microhardness is increased by 21.6%, and the depth of the hardening layer is about 100 μm. Serious plastic deformation was observed within the subsurface of the rolled region. The residual stress distributions along the depth of the rolling surface and milling surface were tested respectively. Residual stresses with deep and high amplitudes were generated via the BSRP. Based on the analysis of the microstructure, the generation mechanism of the residual stresses was probed. The residual stress of the rolling area consisted of two sections: microscopic stresses caused by local plastic deformation and macroscopic stresses caused by overall non-uniform deformation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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9746 KiB  
Article
Effect of Welding Speed on Defect Features and Mechanical Performance of Friction Stir Lap Welded 7B04 Aluminum Alloy
by Huijie Zhang, Min Wang, Xiao Zhang, Zhi Zhu, Tao Yu and Guangxin Yang
Metals 2016, 6(4), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6040087 - 15 Apr 2016
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6240
Abstract
Friction stir lap welding of 7B04 aluminum alloy was conducted in the present paper, and the effect of welding speed on the defect features and mechanical performance of lap joints was investigated. The results indicate that the hook defect at the advancing side [...] Read more.
Friction stir lap welding of 7B04 aluminum alloy was conducted in the present paper, and the effect of welding speed on the defect features and mechanical performance of lap joints was investigated. The results indicate that the hook defect at the advancing side (AS) can reduce the effective thickness of the top sheet, and the sheet thinning level is gradually lowered by increasing the welding speed. The cold lap defect at the retreating side (RS) can result in effective thickness reduction in both top and bottom sheets, and the total height of the cold lap defect varies slightly with the welding speed. The tensile properties of the lap joints are largely related to the sheet thinning levels caused by the defects. The fracture strength of AS-loaded lap joints is progressively increased with increasing welding speed, while that of RS-loaded lap joints evolves slightly with welding speed. It is found that the affecting characteristic of loading configuration on the joint performance is also dependent on the welding speed. At lower welding speeds, the AS-loaded lap joints show lower fracture strength than the RS-loaded lap joints. When the welding speed is high, the AS-loaded lap joints present superior tensile properties to RS-loaded lap joints. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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2168 KiB  
Article
On the Relationship between Structural Quality Index and Fatigue Life Distributions in Aluminum Aerospace Castings
by Hüseyin Özdeş and Murat Tiryakioğlu
Metals 2016, 6(4), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6040081 - 07 Apr 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4024
Abstract
Tensile and fatigue testing results of D357 and B201 aluminum alloy aerospace castings reported in the literature have been reanalyzed. Yield strength–elongation bivariate data have been used as a measure of the structural quality of castings, and converted into quality index. These results [...] Read more.
Tensile and fatigue testing results of D357 and B201 aluminum alloy aerospace castings reported in the literature have been reanalyzed. Yield strength–elongation bivariate data have been used as a measure of the structural quality of castings, and converted into quality index. These results as well as fatigue data have been analyzed by using Weibull statistics. A distinct relationship has been observed between expected fatigue life and quality index. Moreover, probability of survival in fatigue life was found to be directly linked to the proportions of the quality index distributions in two different regions, providing further evidence about the strong relationship between elongation, i.e., structural quality and fatigue performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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4959 KiB  
Article
Detecting Milling Deformation in 7075 Aluminum Alloy Aeronautical Monolithic Components Using the Quasi-Symmetric Machining Method
by Qiong Wu, Da-Peng Li and Yi-Du Zhang
Metals 2016, 6(4), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6040080 - 07 Apr 2016
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 7264
Abstract
The deformation of aeronautical monolithic components due to CNC machining is a bottle-neck issue in the aviation industry. The residual stress releases and redistributes in the process of material removal, and the distortion of the monolithic component is generated. The traditional one-side machining [...] Read more.
The deformation of aeronautical monolithic components due to CNC machining is a bottle-neck issue in the aviation industry. The residual stress releases and redistributes in the process of material removal, and the distortion of the monolithic component is generated. The traditional one-side machining method will produce oversize deformation. Based on the three-stage CNC machining method, the quasi-symmetric machining method is developed in this study to reduce deformation by symmetry material removal using the M-symmetry distribution law of residual stress. The mechanism of milling deformation due to residual stress is investigated. A deformation experiment was conducted using traditional one-side machining method and quasi-symmetric machining method to compare with finite element method (FEM). The deformation parameters are validated by comparative results. Most of the errors are within 10%. The reason for these errors is determined to improve the reliability of the method. Moreover, the maximum deformation value of using quasi-symmetric machining method is within 20% of that of using the traditional one-side machining method. This result shows the quasi-symmetric machining method is effective in reducing deformation caused by residual stress. Thus, this research introduces an effective method for reducing the deformation of monolithic thin-walled components in the CNC milling process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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4393 KiB  
Article
Effect of Heat Treatment on the In-Plane Anisotropy of As-Rolled 7050 Aluminum Alloy
by Huie Hu and Xinyun Wang
Metals 2016, 6(4), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6040079 - 02 Apr 2016
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 11457
Abstract
Tensile tests were conducted on both as-quenched and over-aged 7050 aluminum alloy to investigate the effect of heat treatment on the in-plane anisotropy of as-rolled 7050 aluminum alloy. The results showed that the tensile direction has limited effect on mechanical properties of the [...] Read more.
Tensile tests were conducted on both as-quenched and over-aged 7050 aluminum alloy to investigate the effect of heat treatment on the in-plane anisotropy of as-rolled 7050 aluminum alloy. The results showed that the tensile direction has limited effect on mechanical properties of the as-quenched 7050 aluminum alloy. The in-plane anisotropy factors (IPA factor) of tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation in as-rolled 7050 aluminum alloy fluctuate in the vicinity of 5%. The anisotropy of the as-quenched 7050 aluminum alloy is mainly affected by the texture according to single crystal analysis based on the Schmid factor method. Besides, the IPA factor of the elongation in the over-aged 7050 aluminum alloy reaches 11.6%, illustrating that the anisotropy of the over-aged 7050 aluminum alloy is more prominent than that of the as-quenched. The occurrence of the anisotropy in the over-aged 7050 aluminum alloy is mainly attributed to the microstructures. which are characterized by visible precipitate free zones (PFZs) and coarse precipitates in (sub)grain boundaries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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21616 KiB  
Article
Influence of Post Weld Heat Treatment on Strength of Three Aluminum Alloys Used in Light Poles
by Craig C. Menzemer, Eric Hilty, Shane Morrison, Ray Minor and Tirumalai S. Srivatsan
Metals 2016, 6(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6030052 - 03 Mar 2016
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 10138
Abstract
The conjoint influence of welding and artificial aging on mechanical properties were investigated for extrusions of aluminum alloy 6063, 6061, and 6005A. Uniaxial tensile tests were conducted on the aluminum alloys 6063-T4, 6061-T4, and 6005A-T1 in both the as-received (AR) and as-welded (AW) [...] Read more.
The conjoint influence of welding and artificial aging on mechanical properties were investigated for extrusions of aluminum alloy 6063, 6061, and 6005A. Uniaxial tensile tests were conducted on the aluminum alloys 6063-T4, 6061-T4, and 6005A-T1 in both the as-received (AR) and as-welded (AW) conditions. Tensile tests were also conducted on the AR and AW alloys, subsequent to artificial aging. The welding process used was gas metal arc (GMAW) with spray transfer using 120–220 A of current at 22 V. The artificial aging used was a precipitation heat treatment for 6 h at 182 °C (360 °F). Tensile tests revealed the welded aluminum alloys to have lower strength, both for yield and ultimate tensile strength, when compared to the as-received un-welded counterpart. The beneficial influence of post weld heat treatment (PWHT) on strength and ductility is presented and discussed in terms of current design provisions for welded aluminum light pole structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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5861 KiB  
Article
Effects of Cryogenic Forging and Anodization on the Mechanical Properties and Corrosion Resistance of AA6066–T6 Aluminum Alloys
by Teng-Shih Shih, Hwa-Sheng Yong and Wen-Nong Hsu
Metals 2016, 6(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6030051 - 03 Mar 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6985
Abstract
In this study, AA6066 alloy samples were cryogenically forged after annealing and then subjected to solution and aging treatments. Compared with conventional 6066-T6 alloy samples, the cryoforged samples exhibited a 34% increase in elongation but sacrificed about 8%–12% in ultimate tensile strength (UTS) [...] Read more.
In this study, AA6066 alloy samples were cryogenically forged after annealing and then subjected to solution and aging treatments. Compared with conventional 6066-T6 alloy samples, the cryoforged samples exhibited a 34% increase in elongation but sacrificed about 8%–12% in ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and yield stress (YS). Such difference was affected by the constituent phases that changed in the samples’ matrix. Anodization and sealing did minor effect on tensile strength of the 6066-T6 samples with/without cryoforging but it decreased samples’ elongation about 8%–10%. The anodized/sealed anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) film enhanced the corrosion resistance of the cryoforged samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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854 KiB  
Article
Onset Frequency of Fatigue Effects in Pure Aluminum and 7075 (AlZnMg) and 2024 (AlCuMg) Alloys
by Jose I. Rojas and Daniel Crespo
Metals 2016, 6(3), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6030050 - 01 Mar 2016
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8289
Abstract
The viscoelastic response of pure Al and 7075 (AlZnMg) and 2024 (AlCuMg) alloys, obtained with a dynamic-mechanical analyzer (DMA), is studied. The purpose is to identify relationships between the viscoelasticity and fatigue response of these materials, of great interest for structural applications, in [...] Read more.
The viscoelastic response of pure Al and 7075 (AlZnMg) and 2024 (AlCuMg) alloys, obtained with a dynamic-mechanical analyzer (DMA), is studied. The purpose is to identify relationships between the viscoelasticity and fatigue response of these materials, of great interest for structural applications, in view of their mutual dependence on intrinsic microstructural effects associated with internal friction. The objective is to investigate the influence of dynamic loading frequency and temperature on fatigue, based on their effect on the viscoelastic behavior. This research suggests that the decrease of yield and fatigue behavior reported for Al alloys as temperature increases may be associated with the increase of internal friction. Furthermore, materials subjected to dynamic loading below a given threshold frequency exhibit a static-like response, such that creep mechanisms dominate and fatigue effects are negligible. In this work, an alternative procedure to the time-consuming fatigue tests is proposed to estimate this threshold frequency, based on the frequency dependence of the initial decrease of the storage modulus with temperature, obtained from the relatively short DMA tests. This allows for a fast estimation of the threshold frequency. The frequencies obtained for pure Al and 2024 and 7075 alloys are 0.001–0.005, 0.006 and 0.075–0.350 Hz, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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1123 KiB  
Article
The Hot Deformation Activation Energy of 7050 Aluminum Alloy under Three Different Deformation Modes
by Deli Sang, Ruidong Fu and Yijun Li
Metals 2016, 6(3), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6030049 - 29 Feb 2016
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5380
Abstract
In this study, the hot deformation activation energy values of 7050-T7451 aluminum alloy, calculated with two different methods under three deformation modes, were compared. The results showed that the hot deformation activation energy values obtained with the classical constitutive equation are nearly equivalent [...] Read more.
In this study, the hot deformation activation energy values of 7050-T7451 aluminum alloy, calculated with two different methods under three deformation modes, were compared. The results showed that the hot deformation activation energy values obtained with the classical constitutive equation are nearly equivalent under the hot tensile, compression, and shear-compression deformation modes. Average values exhibited an obvious increase when calculated with the modified constitutive equation because it can reflect the variation of activation energy with deformation conditions such as deformation temperature, strain rate and strain state. Moreover, the values under tensile and compression deformation modes were nearly the same regardless of the calculation method. The higher average value under the shear-compression deformation mode with modified equation indicates that the strain state has a significant effect on the hot deformation activation energy. In addition, when the activation energy was investigated for various deformation conditions, the effect of the strain state on the activation energy was more significant. Under a certain condition, the activation energy was the same for the three deformation modes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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2444 KiB  
Article
Fabrication of Corrosion Resistance Micro-Nanostructured Superhydrophobic Anodized Aluminum in a One-Step Electrodeposition Process
by Ying Huang, Dilip K. Sarkar and X.-Grant Chen
Metals 2016, 6(3), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6030047 - 29 Feb 2016
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7210
Abstract
The formation of low surface energy hybrid organic-inorganic micro-nanostructured zinc stearate electrodeposit transformed the anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) surface to superhydrophobic, having a water contact angle of 160°. The corrosion current densities of the anodized and aluminum alloy surfaces are found to be [...] Read more.
The formation of low surface energy hybrid organic-inorganic micro-nanostructured zinc stearate electrodeposit transformed the anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) surface to superhydrophobic, having a water contact angle of 160°. The corrosion current densities of the anodized and aluminum alloy surfaces are found to be 200 and 400 nA/cm2, respectively. In comparison, superhydrophobic anodic aluminum oxide (SHAAO) shows a much lower value of 88 nA/cm2. Similarly, the charge transfer resistance, Rct, measured by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy shows that the SHAAO substrate was found to be 200-times larger than the as-received aluminum alloy substrate. These results proved that the superhydrophobic surfaces created on the anodized surface significantly improved the corrosion resistance property of the aluminum alloy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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2412 KiB  
Article
Temperature Effects on the Tensile Properties of Precipitation-Hardened Al-Mg-Cu-Si Alloys
by J.B. Ferguson, Hugo F. Lopez, Kyu Cho and Chang-Soo Kim
Metals 2016, 6(3), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6030043 - 23 Feb 2016
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5542
Abstract
Because the mechanical performance of precipitation-hardened alloys can be significantly altered with temperature changes, understanding and predicting the effects of temperatures on various mechanical properties for these alloys are important. In the present work, an analytical model has been developed to predict the [...] Read more.
Because the mechanical performance of precipitation-hardened alloys can be significantly altered with temperature changes, understanding and predicting the effects of temperatures on various mechanical properties for these alloys are important. In the present work, an analytical model has been developed to predict the elastic modulus, the yield stress, the failure stress, and the failure strain taking into consideration the effect of temperatures for precipitation-hardenable Al-Mg-Cu-Si Alloys (Al-A319 alloys). In addition, other important mechanical properties of Al-A319 alloys including the strain hardening exponent, the strength coefficient, and the ductility parameter can be estimated using the current model. It is demonstrated that the prediction results based on the proposed model are in good agreement with those obtained experimentally in Al-A319 alloys in the as-cast condition and after W and T7 heat treatments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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6584 KiB  
Article
Phase Evolution and Mechanical Behavior of the Semi-Solid SIMA Processed 7075 Aluminum Alloy
by Behzad Binesh and Mehrdad Aghaie-Khafri
Metals 2016, 6(3), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6030042 - 23 Feb 2016
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 8507
Abstract
Microstructural and mechanical behaviors of semi-solid 7075 aluminum alloy were investigated during semi-solid processing. The strain induced melt activation (SIMA) process consisted of applying uniaxial compression strain at ambient temperature and subsequent semi-solid treatment at 600–620 °C for 5–35 min. Microstructures were characterized [...] Read more.
Microstructural and mechanical behaviors of semi-solid 7075 aluminum alloy were investigated during semi-solid processing. The strain induced melt activation (SIMA) process consisted of applying uniaxial compression strain at ambient temperature and subsequent semi-solid treatment at 600–620 °C for 5–35 min. Microstructures were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). During the isothermal heating, intermetallic precipitates were gradually dissolved through the phase transformations of α-Al + η (MgZn2) → liquid phase (L) and then α-Al + Al2CuMg (S) + Mg2Si → liquid phase (L). However, Fe-rich precipitates appeared mainly as square particles at the grain boundaries at low heating temperatures. Cu and Si were enriched at the grain boundaries during the isothermal treatment while a significant depletion of Mg was also observed at the grain boundaries. The mechanical behavior of different SIMA processed samples in the semi-solid state were investigated by means of hot compression tests. The results indicated that the SIMA processed sample with near equiaxed microstructure exhibits the highest flow resistance during thixoforming which significantly decreases in the case of samples with globular microstructures. This was justified based on the governing deformation mechanisms for different thixoformed microstructures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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4874 KiB  
Article
The Establishment of Surface Roughness as Failure Criterion of Al–Li Alloy Stretch-Forming Process
by Jing-Wen Feng, Li-Hua Zhan and Ying-Ge Yang
Metals 2016, 6(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/met6010013 - 07 Jan 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5775
Abstract
Taking Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–Li alloy as the study object, based on the stretching and deforming characteristics of sheet metals, this paper proposes a new approach of critical orange peel state characterizations on the basis of the precise measurement of stretch-forming surface roughness and establishes [...] Read more.
Taking Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–Li alloy as the study object, based on the stretching and deforming characteristics of sheet metals, this paper proposes a new approach of critical orange peel state characterizations on the basis of the precise measurement of stretch-forming surface roughness and establishes the critical criterion for the occurrence of orange peel surface defects in the stretch-forming process of Al–Li alloy sheet metals. Stretching experiments of different strain paths are conducted on the specimens with different notches so as to establish the Al–Li–S4–T8 Al–Li alloy, forming limit diagram and forming limit curve equation, with the surface roughness of characteristic critical orange peel structure as the stretch-forming failure criterion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aluminum Alloys)
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