2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019, 2018

15 pages, 2838 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining the Effects of Inter-Layer Time Interval in Powder-Fed Laser-Directed Energy Deposition on the Microstructure of Inconel 718 via In Situ Thermal Monitoring

by Evan Handler, Aref Yadollahi, Yucheng Liu and Scott M. Thompson

Materials 2024, 17(3), 538; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17030538 - 23 Jan 2024

Viewed by 663

Abstract

Cylindrical Inconel 718 specimens were fabricated via a blown-powder, laser-directed energy deposition (DED-L) additive manufacturing (AM) process equipped with a dual thermal monitoring system to learn key process–structure relationships. Thermographic inspection of the heat affected zone (HAZ) and melt pool was performed with [...] Read more.

Cylindrical Inconel 718 specimens were fabricated via a blown-powder, laser-directed energy deposition (DED-L) additive manufacturing (AM) process equipped with a dual thermal monitoring system to learn key process–structure relationships. Thermographic inspection of the heat affected zone (HAZ) and melt pool was performed with different layer-to-layer time intervals of ~0 s, 5 s, and 10 s, using an infrared camera and dual-wavelength pyrometer, respectively. Maximum melt pool temperatures were found to increase with layer number within a substrate affected zone (SAZ), and then asymptotically decrease. As the layer-to-layer time interval increased the HAZ temperature responses became more repetitive, indicating a desirable approach for achieving a more homogeneous microstructure along the height of a part. Microstructural variations in grain size and the coexistence of specific precipitate phases and Laves phases persisted among the investigated samples despite the employed standard heat treatment. This indicates that the effectiveness of any post DED-L heat treatment depends significantly on the initial, as-printed microstructure. Overall, this study demonstrates the importance of part size, part number per build, and time intervals on DED-L process parameter selection and post-process heat treatments for achieving better quality control. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019, 2018

18 pages, 13447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Pulsed Current on the Microstructure and Properties of Laser Cladded TC17 Titanium Alloy

by Zhao Liu, Ping Liu, Liucheng Zhou and Lingfeng Wang

Materials 2024, 17(1), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17010091 - 23 Dec 2023

Viewed by 645

Abstract

In this study, a titanium alloy substrate was cladded with TC17 titanium alloy powder using the pulsed-current (PC)-assisted laser cladding technique. The primary objective of this research was to assess the impact of varying pulsed current intensities on the morphology, microstructure, and properties [...] Read more.

In this study, a titanium alloy substrate was cladded with TC17 titanium alloy powder using the pulsed-current (PC)-assisted laser cladding technique. The primary objective of this research was to assess the impact of varying pulsed current intensities on the morphology, microstructure, and properties of samples. It is observed that the utilization of pulsed currents significantly enhances the metallurgical adhesion between the samples, concurrently diminishing the occurrence of porosity within the cladding layer. The incorporation of a pulsed current also has a positive impact on the microhardness and corrosion resistance of the samples. Furthermore, the synergistic influence of laser energy and a pulsed electrical current is found to promote a structural evolution in materials towards a state with lower electrical resistance. The introduction of a pulsed current leads to preferential growth of β grains with <100>// cladding direction in the cladding zone and obtains the typical {100} < 001 > cube texture, while the substrate zone exhibits a distinctive stripe-like configuration formed by the primary α-phase constituents. The outcomes of this study show the pivotal role of pulsed currents as an auxiliary technique for enhancing the properties and effecting microstructural modifications in titanium alloys during the laser cladding process. Full article

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14 pages, 9531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Electrode Induction Melting Gas Atomization on Powder Quality: Satellite Formation Mechanism and Pressure

by Jialun Wu, Min Xia, Junfeng Wang, Bo Zhao and Changchun Ge

Materials 2023, 16(6), 2499; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062499 - 21 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1774

Abstract

Electrode induction melting gas atomization (EIGA) is a wildly applied method for preparing ultra-clean and spherical metal powders, which is a completely crucible-free melting and atomization process. Based on several experiments, we found that although the sphericity of metal powders prepared by EIGA [...] Read more.

Electrode induction melting gas atomization (EIGA) is a wildly applied method for preparing ultra-clean and spherical metal powders, which is a completely crucible-free melting and atomization process. Based on several experiments, we found that although the sphericity of metal powders prepared by EIGA was higher than that of other atomization methods, there were still some satellite powders. To understand the formation mechanism of the satellite, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approach FLUENT and a discrete particle model (DPM) were developed to simulate the gas atomization process, and several EIGA experiments with different argon pressures (2.5–4.0 MPa) were designed. A numerical simulation of the gas-flow field verified the formation trajectory of satellites, and the Hall flow rate of the powder produced under different pressures was 13.3, 13.8, 15.6, and 16.8, which were consistent with the prediction of the numerical simulation. This study provides theoretical support for understanding the satellite formation mechanism and improving powder sphericity in the EIGA process. Full article

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29 pages, 7916 KiB

Open AccessReview

Metallic Coatings through Additive Manufacturing: A Review

by Shalini Mohanty and Konda Gokuldoss Prashanth

Materials 2023, 16(6), 2325; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062325 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3049

Abstract

Metallic additive manufacturing is expeditiously gaining attention in advanced industries for manufacturing intricate structures for customized applications. However, the inadequate surface quality has inspired the inception of metallic coatings through additive manufacturing methods. This work presents a brief review of the different genres [...] Read more.

Metallic additive manufacturing is expeditiously gaining attention in advanced industries for manufacturing intricate structures for customized applications. However, the inadequate surface quality has inspired the inception of metallic coatings through additive manufacturing methods. This work presents a brief review of the different genres of metallic coatings adapted by industries through additive manufacturing technologies. The methodologies are classified according to the type of allied energies used in the process, such as direct energy deposition, binder jetting, powder bed fusion, hot spray coatings, sheet lamination, etc. Each method is described in detail and supported by relevant literature. The paper also includes the needs, applications, and challenges involved in each process. Full article

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2022

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14 pages, 30556 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Concentric Scanning Strategies for Laser Powder Bed Fusion: Porosity Distribution in Practical Geometries

by Lukas Englert, Volker Schulze and Stefan Dietrich

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031105 - 30 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2402

Abstract

Besides the optimisation of process parameters such as laser power or scan speed, the choice of the scan path represents a possibility to optimise the laser powder bed fusion process even further. The usual hatching strategy creates a homogeneous microstructure but makes it [...] Read more.

Besides the optimisation of process parameters such as laser power or scan speed, the choice of the scan path represents a possibility to optimise the laser powder bed fusion process even further. The usual hatching strategy creates a homogeneous microstructure but makes it necessary to switch the laser off and on after each scan vector, which can slow down the fabrication. Moreover, the end of each scan vector is a location susceptible to the creation of keyhole pores. In this work, these disadvantages were meant to be avoided by using scan strategies that consist of longer paths and thus less end of track points. To this end, an open-source tool to tailor the LPBF G-code to geometric part features and advanced path configurations was developed and embedded into a co-visualization platform. With this tool, specimens built with four different types of paths were fabricated and the effect of these alternative scan strategies on pore distributions and path neighbourhood was investigated using micro-computed tomography. In the examined example geometry, a spiral scan pattern reduced the distance the laser had to jump between scanning by 78%. However, with the alternative path patterns, the defect architecture was strongly dependant on the part geometry and increased the overall porosity to 0.42%. Respective alleviation approaches are therefore necessary and are discussed in the remainder of this work. Full article

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2021

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13 pages, 2772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Interlayer Delay on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Wire Arc Additive Manufactured Wall Structures

by Shalini Singh, Arackal Narayanan Jinoop, Gorlea Thrinadh Ananthvenkata Tarun Kumar, Iyamperumal Anand Palani, Christ Prakash Paul and Konda Gokuldoss Prashanth

Materials 2021, 14(15), 4187; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154187 - 27 Jul 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2649

Abstract

Wire arc additive manufacturing is a metal additive manufacturing technique that allows the fabrication of large size components at a high deposition rate. During wire arc additive manufacturing, multi-layer deposition results in heat accumulation, which raises the preheat temperature of the previously built [...] Read more.

Wire arc additive manufacturing is a metal additive manufacturing technique that allows the fabrication of large size components at a high deposition rate. During wire arc additive manufacturing, multi-layer deposition results in heat accumulation, which raises the preheat temperature of the previously built layer. This causes process instabilities, resulting in deviations from the desired dimensions and variations in material properties. In the present study, a systematic investigation is carried out by varying the interlayer delay from 20 to 80 s during wire arc additive manufacturing deposition of the wall structure. The effect of the interlayer delay on the density, geometry, microstructure and mechanical properties is investigated. An improvement in density, reduction in wall width and wall height and grain refinement are observed with an increase in the interlayer delay. The grain refinement results in an improvement in the micro-hardness and compression strength of the wall structure. In order to understand the effect of interlayer delay on the temperature distribution, numerical simulation is carried out and it is observed that the preheat temperature reduced with an increase in interlayer delay resulting in variation in geometry, microstructure and mechanical properties. The study paves the direction for tailoring the properties of wire arc additive manufacturing-built wall structures by controlling the interlayer delay period. Full article

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15 pages, 9040 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on Morphology and Mechanical Properties of Rod Units in Lattice Structures Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting

by Chenchen Jing, Yanyan Zhu, Jie Wang, Feifan Wang, Jiping Lu and Changmeng Liu

Materials 2021, 14(14), 3994; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143994 - 16 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2083

Abstract

Selective laser melting (SLM) fabrication of lattice structures has attracted considerable interest due to its many immanent advantages, such as high specific strength. A wide variety of lattice structures have been designed and fabricated. However, as a vital prerequisite for design optimization, a [...] Read more.

Selective laser melting (SLM) fabrication of lattice structures has attracted considerable interest due to its many immanent advantages, such as high specific strength. A wide variety of lattice structures have been designed and fabricated. However, as a vital prerequisite for design optimization, a clear relation between the process constraint of SLM and the apparent properties of the fabricated lattice structure has received much less attention. Therefore, this work systematically investigates the characterization and preformation of rod units, which are the basic components of lattice structures, so as to evaluate the SLM manufacturability of lattice structures. A series of rod units with different inclination angles and diameters were fabricated by SLM. Their morphology and mechanical properties were measured by scanning electron microscope observation and a tensile test, respectively. The inclination angle was found to have significant effects on profile error and little effect on mechanical properties. The higher the inclination angle, the larger the profile error. The characteristic diameter had no significant correlation with profile errors and mechanical properties. Based on systematic studies, a formula is proposed to evaluate the cross-sectional area of the fabricated rod units and further estimate their load capacity. This has important implications for optimizing the design of lattice structures fabricated by SLM. Full article

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9 pages, 4244 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calibration of Failure Criteria for Additively Manufactured Metallic Materials

by Grzegorz Socha

Materials 2021, 14(13), 3442; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14133442 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1747

Abstract

A new version of failure criterion for additively manufactured materials, together with simple and accurate calibration procedures, is proposed and experimentally verified in this paper. The proposition is based on void growth-based ductile failure models. The failure criterion for ductile materials proposed by [...] Read more.

A new version of failure criterion for additively manufactured materials, together with simple and accurate calibration procedures, is proposed and experimentally verified in this paper. The proposition is based on void growth-based ductile failure models. The failure criterion for ductile materials proposed by Hancock–Mackenzie was calibrated using simple methods and accessories. The calibration procedure allows the determination of failure strain under pure shear. The method is accurate and simple due to the fact that it prevents strain localization disturbing stress distribution at the failure zone. The original criterion was modified to better suit the deformation behavior of additively manufactured materials. Examples of calibration of the original and modified failure criteria for additively manufactured 316L alloy steel is also given in this paper, along with analyses of the obtained results. Full article

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16 pages, 15660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solving the Issue of Discriminant Roughness of Heterogeneous Surfaces Using Elements of Artificial Intelligence

by Milena Kubišová, Vladimír Pata, Dagmar Měřínská, Adam Škrobák and Miroslav Marcaník

Materials 2021, 14(10), 2620; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14102620 - 17 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1442

Abstract

This work deals with investigative methods used for evaluation of the surface quality of selected metallic materials’ cutting plane that was created by CO₂ and fiber laser machining. The surface quality expressed by Rz and Ra roughness parameters is examined depending on [...] Read more.

This work deals with investigative methods used for evaluation of the surface quality of selected metallic materials’ cutting plane that was created by CO₂ and fiber laser machining. The surface quality expressed by Rz and Ra roughness parameters is examined depending on the sample material and the machining technology. The next part deals with the use of neural networks in the evaluation of measured data. In the last part, the measured data were statistically evaluated. Based on the conclusions of this analysis, the possibilities of using neural networks to determine the material of a given sample while knowing the roughness parameters were evaluated. The main goal of the presented paper is to demonstrate a solution capable of finding characteristic roughness values for heterogeneous surfaces. These surfaces are common in scientific as well as technical practice, and measuring their quality is challenging. This difficulty lies mainly in the fact that it is not possible to express their quality by a single statistical parameter. Thus, this paper’s main aim is to demonstrate solutions using the cluster analysis methods and the hidden layer, solving the problem of discriminant and dividing the heterogeneous surface into individual zones that have characteristic parameters. Full article

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12 pages, 9348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In-Situ Synthesis, Microstructure, and Mechanical Properties of TiB₂-Reinforced Fe-Cr-Mn-Al Steel Matrix Composites Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering

by Jian Liu, Min Wu, Jian Chen, Zibo Ye, Cheng Lin, Weiping Chen and Canyi Du

Materials 2021, 14(9), 2346; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14092346 - 30 Apr 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1563

Abstract

In-situ synthesis, microstructure, and mechanical properties of four TiB₂-Reinforced Fe-Cr-Mn-Al Steel Matrix Composites have been researched in this work. The microstructure and phases of the prepared specimens have been characterized by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction technique, and transmission [...] Read more.

In-situ synthesis, microstructure, and mechanical properties of four TiB₂-Reinforced Fe-Cr-Mn-Al Steel Matrix Composites have been researched in this work. The microstructure and phases of the prepared specimens have been characterized by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction technique, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The sintered specimens consisted of Fe₂AlCr, CrFeB-type boride, and TiB₂. The mechanical properties, such as hardness and compression strength at room temperature (RT) and at elevated temperatures (600 °C and 800 °C) have been evaluated. The compressive strength and Vickers hardness of the sintered specimens increase with the volume fraction of TiB₂ in the matrix, which are all much higher than those of the ex-situ TiB₂/Fe-15Cr-20Mn-8Al composites and the reported TiB₂/Fe-Cr composites with the same volume fraction of TiB₂. The highest Vickers hardness and compressive strength at room temperature are 1213 ± 35 HV and 3500 ± 20 MPa, respectively. As the testing temperature increases to 600 °C, or even 800 °C, these composites still show relatively high compressive strength. Precipitation strengthening of CrFeB and in-situ synthesis of TiB₂ as well as nanocrystalline microstructure produced by the combination of mechanical alloying (MA) and spark plasma sintering (SPS) can account for the high Vickers hardness and compressive strength. Full article

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21 pages, 7162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reuse of Ti6Al4V Powder and Its Impact on Surface Tension, Melt Pool Behavior and Mechanical Properties of Additively Manufactured Components

by Mateusz Skalon, Benjamin Meier, Thomas Leitner, Siegfried Arneitz, Sergio T. Amancio-Filho and Christof Sommitsch

Materials 2021, 14(5), 1251; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051251 - 06 Mar 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2730

Abstract

The quality and characteristics of a powder in powder bed fusion processes play a vital role in the quality of additively manufactured components. Its characteristics may influence the process in various ways. This paper presents an investigation highlighting the influence of powder deterioration [...] Read more.

The quality and characteristics of a powder in powder bed fusion processes play a vital role in the quality of additively manufactured components. Its characteristics may influence the process in various ways. This paper presents an investigation highlighting the influence of powder deterioration on the stability of a molten pool in a laser beam powder bed fusion (LB-PBF, selective laser melting) process and its consequences to the physical properties of the alloy, porosity of 3D-printed components and their mechanical properties. The intention in this was to understand powder reuse as a factor playing a role in the formation of porosity in 3D-printed components. Ti6Al4V (15 μm–45 μm) was used as a base material in the form of a fresh powder and a degraded one (reused 12 times). Alloy degradation is described by possible changes in the shape of particles, particle size distribution, chemical composition, surface tension, density and viscosity of the melt. An approach of 3D printing singular lines was applied in order to study the behavior of a molten pool at varying powder bed depths. Single-track cross-sections (STCSs) were described with shape parameters and compared. Furthermore, the influence of the molten pool stability on the final density and mechanical properties of a material was discussed. Electromagnetic levitation (EML) was used to measure surface tension and the density of the melt using pieces of printed samples. It was found that the powder degradation influences the mechanical properties of a printed material by destabilizing the pool of molten metal during printing operation by facilitating the axial flow on the melt along the melt track axis. Additionally, the observed axial flow was found to facilitate a localized lack of fusion between concurrent layers. It was also found that the surface tension and density of the melt are only impacted marginally or not at all by increased oxygen content, yet a difference in the temperature dependence of the surface tension was observed. Full article

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12 pages, 8812 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regional Control and Optimization of Heat Input during CMT by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing: Modeling and Microstructure Effects

by Furong Chen, Yihang Yang and Hualong Feng

Materials 2021, 14(5), 1061; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051061 - 24 Feb 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2630

Abstract

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of aluminum-magnesium (Al–Mg) ER5356 alloy deposits is accomplished by cold metal transfer (CMT). During the process, the temperature change of the alloy deposits has a great influence on molding quality, and the microstructure and properties of alloy deposits [...] Read more.

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of aluminum-magnesium (Al–Mg) ER5356 alloy deposits is accomplished by cold metal transfer (CMT). During the process, the temperature change of the alloy deposits has a great influence on molding quality, and the microstructure and properties of alloy deposits are also affected by the complex thermal history of the additive manufacturing process. Here, we used an inter-layer cooling process and controlled the heat input process to attempt to reduce the influence of thermal history on alloy deposits during the additive process. The results showed that inter-layer cooling can optimize the molding quality of alloy deposits, but with the disadvantages of a long test time and slow deposition rate. A simple and uniform reduction of heat input makes the molding quality worse, but controlling the heat input by regions can optimize the molding quality of the alloy deposits. The thermophysical properties of Al-Mg alloy deposits were measured, and we found that the specific heat capacity and thermal diffusivity of alloy deposits were not obviously affected by the temperature. The microstructure and morphology of the deposited specimens were observed and analyzed by microscope and electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD). The process of controlled heat input results in a higher deposition rate, less side-wall roughness, minimum average grain size, and less coarse recrystallization. In addition, different thermal histories lead to different texture types in the inter-layer cooling process. Finally, a controlled heat input process yields the highest average microhardness of the deposited specimen, and the fluctuation range is small. We expect that the process of controlling heat input by model height region will be widely used in the WAAM field. Full article

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15 pages, 3203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Substrate Plate Heating on the Microstructure and Properties of Selective Laser Melted Al-20Si-5Fe-3Cu-1Mg Alloy

by Pan Ma, Pengcheng Ji, Yandong Jia, Xuerong Shi, Zhishui Yu and Konda Gokuldoss Prashanth

Materials 2021, 14(2), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14020330 - 11 Jan 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2000

Abstract

The Al-20Si-5Fe-3Cu-1Mg alloy was fabricated using selective laser melting (SLM). The microstructure and properties of the as-prepared SLM, post-treated SLM, and SLM with substrate plate heating are studied. The as-prepared SLM sample shows a non-uniform microstructure with four different phases: fcc-αAl, eutectic Al-Si, [...] Read more.

The Al-20Si-5Fe-3Cu-1Mg alloy was fabricated using selective laser melting (SLM). The microstructure and properties of the as-prepared SLM, post-treated SLM, and SLM with substrate plate heating are studied. The as-prepared SLM sample shows a non-uniform microstructure with four different phases: fcc-αAl, eutectic Al-Si, Al₂MgSi, and δ-Al₄FeSi₂. With thermal treatment, the phases become coarser and the δ-Al₄FeSi₂ phase transforms partially to β-Al₅FeSi. The sample produced with SLM substrate plate heating shows a relatively uniform microstructure without a distinct difference between hatch overlaps and track cores. Room temperature compression test results show that an as-prepared SLM sample reaches a maximum strength (862 MPa) compared to the heat-treated (524 MPa) and substrate plate heated samples (474 MPa) due to the presence of fine microstructure and the internal stresses. The reduction in strength of the sample produced with substrate plate heating is due to the coarsening of the microstructure, but the plastic deformation shows an improvement (20%). The present observations suggest that substrate plate heating can be effectively employed not only to minimize the internal stresses (by impacting the cooling rate of the process) but can also be used to modulate the mechanical properties in a controlled fashion. Full article

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2020

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18 pages, 4624 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties of Selective Laser Sintering Pure Titanium and Ti-6Al-4V, and Its Anisotropy

by Yuu Harada, Yoshiki Ishida, Daisuke Miura, Satoru Watanabe, Harumi Aoki, Taira Miyasaka and Akikazu Shinya

Materials 2020, 13(22), 5081; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13225081 - 11 Nov 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2580

Abstract

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is being developed for dental applications. This study aimed to investigate the properties of Ti-6Al-4V and pure titanium specimens fabricated using the SLS process and compare them with casting specimens. Besides, the effect of the building direction on the [...] Read more.

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is being developed for dental applications. This study aimed to investigate the properties of Ti-6Al-4V and pure titanium specimens fabricated using the SLS process and compare them with casting specimens. Besides, the effect of the building direction on the properties of the SLS specimens was also investigated. Specimens were prepared by SLS using Ti-6Al-4V powder or pure titanium powder. Casting specimens were also prepared using Ti-6Al-4V alloys and pure titanium. The mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation), physical properties (surface roughness, contact angle, and Vickers hardness); corrosion resistors (color difference and corrosion), and surface properties (chemical composition and surface observation) were examined. Both Ti-6Al-4V and pure titanium specimens produced using the SLS process had comparable or superior properties compared with casting specimens. In comparing the building directions, specimens fabricated horizontally to the printing platform showed the greatest tensile strength, and the surface roughness scanned in the horizontal direction to the platform showed the smallest. However, there was no significant effect on other properties. Thus, the SLS process with Ti-6Al-4V powder and pure titanium powder has great performance for the fabrication of dental prosthesis, and there is a possibility for it to take the place of conventional methods. Full article

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67 pages, 51541 KiB

Open AccessReview

Selective Laser Melting of Aluminum and Its Alloys

by Zhi Wang, Raghunandan Ummethala, Neera Singh, Shengyang Tang, Challapalli Suryanarayana, Jürgen Eckert and Konda Gokuldoss Prashanth

Materials 2020, 13(20), 4564; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13204564 - 14 Oct 2020

Cited by 69 | Viewed by 7162

Abstract

The laser-based powder bed fusion (LBPF) process or commonly known as selective laser melting (SLM) has made significant progress since its inception. Initially, conventional materials like 316L, Ti6Al4V, and IN-718 were fabricated using the SLM process. However, it was inevitable to explore the [...] Read more.

The laser-based powder bed fusion (LBPF) process or commonly known as selective laser melting (SLM) has made significant progress since its inception. Initially, conventional materials like 316L, Ti6Al4V, and IN-718 were fabricated using the SLM process. However, it was inevitable to explore the possible fabrication of the second most popular structural material after Fe-based alloys/steel, the Al-based alloys by SLM. Al-based alloys exhibit some inherent difficulties due to the following factors: the presence of surface oxide layer, solidification cracking during melt cooling, high reflectivity from the surface, high thermal conductivity of the metal, poor flowability of the powder, low melting temperature, etc. Researchers have overcome these difficulties to successfully fabricate the different Al-based alloys by SLM. However, there exists no review dealing with the fabrication of different Al-based alloys by SLM, their fabrication issues, microstructure, and their correlation with properties in detail. Hence, the present review attempts to introduce the SLM process followed by a detailed discussion about the processing parameters that form the core of the alloy development process. This is followed by the current research status on the processing of Al-based alloys and microstructure evaluation (including defects, internal stresses, etc.), which are dealt with on the basis of individual Al-based series. The mechanical properties of these alloys are discussed in detail followed by the other important properties like tribological properties, fatigue properties, etc. Lastly, an outlook is given at the end of this review. Full article

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51 pages, 854 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mechanical Properties of SLM-Printed Aluminium Alloys: A Review

by Panneer Ponnusamy, Rizwan Abdul Rahman Rashid, Syed Hasan Masood, Dong Ruan and Suresh Palanisamy

Materials 2020, 13(19), 4301; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13194301 - 26 Sep 2020

Cited by 85 | Viewed by 9494

Abstract

Selective laser melting (SLM) is a powder bed fusion type metal additive manufacturing process which is being applied to manufacture highly customised and value-added parts in biomedical, defence, aerospace, and automotive industries. Aluminium alloy is one of the widely used metals in manufacturing [...] Read more.

Selective laser melting (SLM) is a powder bed fusion type metal additive manufacturing process which is being applied to manufacture highly customised and value-added parts in biomedical, defence, aerospace, and automotive industries. Aluminium alloy is one of the widely used metals in manufacturing parts in SLM in these sectors due to its light weight, high strength, and corrosion resistance properties. Parts used in such applications can be subjected to severe dynamic loadings and high temperature conditions in service. It is important to understand the mechanical response of such products produced by SLM under different loading and operating conditions. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the latest research carried out in understanding the mechanical properties of aluminium alloys processed by SLM under static, dynamic, different build orientations, and heat treatment conditions with the aim of identifying research gaps and future research directions. Full article

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15 pages, 6545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Printing of Continuous Fiber Reinforced Low Melting Point Alloy Matrix Composites: Mechanical Properties and Microstructures

by Xin Wang, Xiaoyong Tian, Lixian Yin and Dichen Li

Materials 2020, 13(16), 3463; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13163463 - 06 Aug 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2853

Abstract

A novel 3D printing route to fabricate continuous fiber reinforced metal matrix composite (CFRMMC) is proposed in this paper. It is distinguished from the 3D printing process of polymer matrix composite that utilizes the pressure inside the nozzle to combine the matrix with [...] Read more.

A novel 3D printing route to fabricate continuous fiber reinforced metal matrix composite (CFRMMC) is proposed in this paper. It is distinguished from the 3D printing process of polymer matrix composite that utilizes the pressure inside the nozzle to combine the matrix with the fiber. This process combines the metallic matrix with the continuous fiber by utilizing the wetting and wicking performances of raw materials to form the compact internal structures and proper fiber-matrix interfaces. CF/Pb50Sn50 composites were printed with the Pb50Sn50 alloy wire and modified continuous carbon fiber. The mechanical properties of the composite specimens were studied, and the ultimate tensile strength reached 236.7 MPa, which was 7.1 times that of Pb50Sn50 alloy. The fracture and interfacial microstructure were investigated and analyzed. The relationships between mechanical properties and interfacial reactions were discussed. With the optimized process parameters, several composites parts were printed to demonstrate the advantages of low cost, short fabrication period and flexibility in fabrication of complex structures. Full article

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2 pages, 144 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Additive Manufacturing: Alloy Design and Process Innovations

by Konda Gokuldoss Prashanth and Zhi Wang

Materials 2020, 13(3), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13030542 - 23 Jan 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2102

Abstract

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is an emerging manufacturing technique of immense engineering and scientific importance and is also regarded as the technique of the future [...] Full article

2019

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12 pages, 8871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Mg Content on Microstructure and Properties of Al–Mg Alloy Produced by the Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Method

by Lingling Ren, Huimin Gu, Wei Wang, Shuai Wang, Chengde Li, Zhenbiao Wang, Yuchun Zhai and Peihua Ma

Materials 2019, 12(24), 4160; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12244160 - 11 Dec 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2787

Abstract

In this study, an Al–Mg alloy was fabricated by wire arc additive manufacture (WAAM), and the effect of Mg content on the microstructure and properties of Al–Mg alloy deposits was investigated. The effects on the deposition surface oxidation, geometry, burn out rate of [...] Read more.

In this study, an Al–Mg alloy was fabricated by wire arc additive manufacture (WAAM), and the effect of Mg content on the microstructure and properties of Al–Mg alloy deposits was investigated. The effects on the deposition surface oxidation, geometry, burn out rate of Mg, pores, microstructure, mechanical properties and fracture mechanisms were investigated. The results show that, when the Mg content increased, the surface oxidation degree increased; a “wave”-shaped deposition layer occurred when the Mg content reached 8%. When the Mg content was more than 6%, the burning loss rate of the Mg element increased significantly. With the increase of Mg content, the number of pores first decreased and then increased, and the size first decreased and then increased. When the Mg content reached 7% or above, obvious crystallization hot cracks appeared in the deposit bodies. When the Mg content increased, the precipitated phase (FeMn)Al₆ and β(Mg₂Al₃) increased, and the grain size increased. When the Mg content was 6%, the comprehensive mechanical properties were best. The horizontal tensile strength, yield strength and elongation were 310 MPa, 225 MPa and 17%, respectively. The vertical tensile strength, yield strength and elongation were 300 MPa, 215 MPa and 15%, respectively. The fracture morphology was a ductile fracture. Full article

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12 pages, 9148 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Vanadium on the Microstructure of IN718 Alloy by Laser Cladding

by Kun Yang, Hualong Xie, Cong Sun, Xiaofei Zhao and Fei Li

Materials 2019, 12(23), 3839; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12233839 - 21 Nov 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2249

Abstract

A deleterious Laves phase forms in the solidified structure of Inconel 718 (IN718) alloy during laser cladding. However, effective removal methods have not yet been identified. In this study, we first added the IN718 alloy cladding layers with a trace amount of vanadium [...] Read more.

A deleterious Laves phase forms in the solidified structure of Inconel 718 (IN718) alloy during laser cladding. However, effective removal methods have not yet been identified. In this study, we first added the IN718 alloy cladding layers with a trace amount of vanadium (V, 0.066 wt.%). Then, we studied the solidification structure of cladding layers using a confocal laser scanning microscope and scanning electron microscopy. The microstructure and Laves phase morphology were investigated. The distribution of niobium (Nb) was observed by experiment as well. We found that V is evenly distributed in dendrites and interdendritic zones. A more refined dendrite structure, reduced second dendrite arm spacing and lower volume fraction of Laves phase were observed in the solidification structure. The results of linear energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) indicate that the concentration of Nb decreases with an increasing of the distance from the Laves phase. The V-containing sample displayed a relatively slower decreasing tendency. The IN718 alloy sample was harder with the addition of V. In addition, the porosity of the sample decreased compared with the blank sample. The presented findings outline a new method to inhibit the Nb segregation in IN718 alloy during laser cladding, providing reference significance for improving the performance of IN718 alloy samples during actual processing. Full article

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22 pages, 6430 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Composite Powder Feedstock from Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing Perspective

by Eskandar Fereiduni, Ali Ghasemi and Mohamed Elbestawi

Materials 2019, 12(22), 3673; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12223673 - 07 Nov 2019

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 4910

Abstract

This research aims at evaluating the characteristics of the 5 wt.% B₄C/Ti-6Al-4V composite powder feedstock prepared by two different categories of mechanical mixing for powder bed fusion (PBF) additive manufacturing (AM) of metal matrix composites (MMCs). Microstructural features, particle size, size [...] Read more.

This research aims at evaluating the characteristics of the 5 wt.% B₄C/Ti-6Al-4V composite powder feedstock prepared by two different categories of mechanical mixing for powder bed fusion (PBF) additive manufacturing (AM) of metal matrix composites (MMCs). Microstructural features, particle size, size distribution, sphericity, conditioned bulk density and flow behavior of the developed powders were examined. The flowability of the regularly mixed powders was significantly lower than that of the Ti-6Al-4V powder. However, the flowability of the ball-milled systems was a significant function of the milling time. The decrease in the flowability of the 2 h ball-milled powder compared to the Ti-6Al-4V powder was attributed to the mechanical interlocking and the entangling caused by the B₄C particles fully decorating the Ti-6Al-4V particles. Although the flattened/irregular shape of powder particles in the 6 h milled system acted to reduce the flowability, the overall surface area reduction led to higher flowability than that for the 2 h milling case. Regardless of the mixing method, incorporation of B₄C particles into the system decreased the apparent density of the Ti-6Al-4V powder. The composite powder obtained by 2 h of ball milling was suggested as the best possible condition, meeting the requirements of PBF–AM processes. Full article

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18 pages, 43514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of the Quenching Rate on the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Paint Bake-Hardening Response of Al–Mg–Si Automotive Sheets

by Guanjun Gao, Yong Li, Zhaodong Wang, Hongshuang Di, Jiadong Li and Guangming Xu

Materials 2019, 12(21), 3587; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12213587 - 31 Oct 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2561

Abstract

The quenching rate of Al–Mg–Si alloys during solution treatment is an important parameter for the automotive industry. In this work, the effect of the different quenching rates on the microstructures, mechanical properties, and paint bake-hardening response of Al–Mg–Si sheets was studied. Large dimples [...] Read more.

The quenching rate of Al–Mg–Si alloys during solution treatment is an important parameter for the automotive industry. In this work, the effect of the different quenching rates on the microstructures, mechanical properties, and paint bake-hardening response of Al–Mg–Si sheets was studied. Large dimples form on the fracture surface of a sample at a quenching rate of 0.01 °C/s. When the quenching rate increased to 58.9 °C/s, the dimples became smaller. The recrystallized grains and textures were slightly affected by quenching rates beyond 1.9 °C/s. Thus, higher r values of the samples were achieved with slower quenching rates. Furthermore, only the Al(FeMn)SiCr insoluble phases were observed in samples with a rapid quenching rate. Sufficient solute atoms and vacancies resulted in the improvement of the precipitation kinetics and paint bake-hardening capacity for Al–Mg–Si sheets at rapid rates. With a decrease in the quenching rate, the formation of the rod-like coarse β′ phases consumed many solute atoms and vacancies, leading to the deterioration of the paint bake-hardening capacity. This study provides a critical reference on quenching rates for industrial practices, so that good mechanical properties can be achieved using precision control of the quenching process. Full article

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11 pages, 2349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experiments on the Ultrasonic Bonding Additive Manufacturing of Metallic Glass and Crystalline Metal Composite

by Guiwei Li, Ji Zhao, Jerry Ying Hsi Fuh, Wenzheng Wu, Jili Jiang, Tianqi Wang and Shuai Chang

Materials 2019, 12(18), 2975; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12182975 - 14 Sep 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3002

Abstract

Ultrasonic vibrations were applied to weld Ni-based metallic glass ribbons with Al and Cu ribbons to manufacture high-performance metallic glass and crystalline metal composites with accumulating formation characteristics. The effects of ultrasonic vibration energy on the interfaces of the composite samples were studied. [...] Read more.

Ultrasonic vibrations were applied to weld Ni-based metallic glass ribbons with Al and Cu ribbons to manufacture high-performance metallic glass and crystalline metal composites with accumulating formation characteristics. The effects of ultrasonic vibration energy on the interfaces of the composite samples were studied. The ultrasonic vibrations enabled solid-state bonding of metallic glass and crystalline metals. No intermetallic compound formed at the interfaces, and the metallic glass did not crystallize. The hardness and modulus of the composites were between the respective values of the metallic glass and the crystalline metals. The ultrasonic bonding additive manufacturing can combine the properties of metallic glass and crystalline metals and broaden the application fields of metallic materials. Full article

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21 pages, 7345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Numerical Simulation of the SLM Molten Pool Dynamic Behavior of a Nickel-Based Superalloy on the Workpiece Scale

by Liu Cao and Xuefeng Yuan

Materials 2019, 12(14), 2272; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12142272 - 15 Jul 2019

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 3968

Abstract

Nickel-based superalloys are one of the most industrially important families of metallic alloys at present. Selective Laser Melting (SLM), as one of the additive manufacturing technologies for directly forming complex metal parts, has been applied in the production of Inconel 718 components. Based [...] Read more.

Nickel-based superalloys are one of the most industrially important families of metallic alloys at present. Selective Laser Melting (SLM), as one of the additive manufacturing technologies for directly forming complex metal parts, has been applied in the production of Inconel 718 components. Based on the more reasonable and comprehensive equivalent processing models (vaporization heat loss, equivalent physical parameters) for the nickel-based superalloy SLM process, an SLM molten pool dynamic behavior prediction model on the workpiece scale was established. Related equivalent processing models were customized by secondary development with the software Fluent. In order to verify the feasibility of the SLM molten pool dynamics model, the SLM single-pass employed to form the Inconel 718 alloy process was calculated. The simulated and experimental solidified track dimensions were in good agreement. Then, the influences of different process parameters (laser power, scanning speed) on the SLM formation of the Inconel 718 alloy were calculated and analyzed. The simulation and experimental solidified track widths were well-matched, and the result showed that, as a rule, the solidified track width increased linearly with the laser power and decreased linearly with the scanning speed. This paper will help lay the foundation for a subsequent numerical simulation study of the thermal-melt-stress evolution process of an SLM workpiece. Full article

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7 pages, 2209 KiB

Open AccessLetter

Effect of Layer-Wise Varying Parameters on the Microstructure and Soundness of Selective Laser Melted INCONEL 718 Alloy

by Xiang Wang, Jinwu Kang, Tianjiao Wang, Pengyue Wu, Tao Feng and Lele Zheng

Materials 2019, 12(13), 2165; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12132165 - 05 Jul 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3332

Abstract

Selective laser melting (SLM) is a promising powder bed fusion additive manufacturing technique for metal part fabrication. In this paper, varying scanning speed in the range of 500 mm/s to 1900 mm/s, and laser power in the range of 100 W to 200 [...] Read more.

Selective laser melting (SLM) is a promising powder bed fusion additive manufacturing technique for metal part fabrication. In this paper, varying scanning speed in the range of 500 mm/s to 1900 mm/s, and laser power in the range of 100 W to 200 W, were realized from layer to layer in a cycle of 56 layers in a single cuboid Inconel 718 alloy specimen through SLM. Layer-wise variation of microstructure and porosity were acquired, showing the layer-wise controlling capability of microstructural soundness. The melt pool size and soundness are closely linked with the energy input. High energy density led to sound regions with larger, orderly stacked melt pools and columnar grains, while low energy density resulted in porous regions with smaller, mismatched melt pools, un-melted powder, and equiaxed grains with finer dendrites. With the increase of laser energy density, the specimen shifts from porous region to sound region within several layers. Full article

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11 pages, 5386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Al–(12-20)Si Bi-Material Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting

by Shikai Zhang, Pan Ma, Yandong Jia, Zhishui Yu, Rathinavelu Sokkalingam, Xuerong Shi, Pengcheng Ji, Juergen Eckert and Konda Gokuldoss Prashanth

Materials 2019, 12(13), 2126; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12132126 - 02 Jul 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3374

Abstract

In this study, a combination of Al–12Si and Al–20Si (Al–(12-20)Si) alloys was fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) as a result of increased component requirements such as geometrical complexity and high dimensional accuracy. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the SLM Al–(12-20)Si in [...] Read more.

In this study, a combination of Al–12Si and Al–20Si (Al–(12-20)Si) alloys was fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) as a result of increased component requirements such as geometrical complexity and high dimensional accuracy. The microstructure and mechanical properties of the SLM Al–(12-20)Si in as-produced as well as in heat-treated conditions were investigated. The Al–(12-20)Si interface was in the as-built condition and it gradually became blurry until it disappeared after heat treatment at 673 K for 6 h. This Al–(12-20)Si bi-material displayed excellent mechanical properties. The hardness of the Al–20Si alloy side was significantly higher than that of the Al–12Si alloy side and the disparity between both sides gradually decreased and tended to be consistent after heat treatment at 673 K for 6 h. The tensile strength and elongation of the Al–(12-20Si) bi-material lies in between the Al–12Si and Al–20Si alloys and fracture occurs in the Al–20Si side. The present results provide new insights into the fabrication of bi-materials using SLM. Full article

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17 pages, 4473 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stability Research Considering Non-Linear Change in the Machining of Titanium Thin-Walled Parts

by Haining Gao and Xianli Liu

Materials 2019, 12(13), 2083; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12132083 - 28 Jun 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2501

Abstract

Aiming to solve the problem whereby the damping process effect is significant and difficult to measure during low-speed machining of titanium alloy thin-walled parts, the ploughing coefficient of the flank face is obtained based on the frequency-domain decomposition (FDD) of the measured vibration [...] Read more.

Aiming to solve the problem whereby the damping process effect is significant and difficult to measure during low-speed machining of titanium alloy thin-walled parts, the ploughing coefficient of the flank face is obtained based on the frequency-domain decomposition (FDD) of the measured vibration signal and the energy balance principle, and then the process-damping prediction model is obtained. Aiming to solve the problem of non-linear change of dynamic characteristics of a workpiece caused by the material removal effect in the machining of titanium alloy thin-walled parts, a prediction model of dynamic characteristics of a workpiece is established based on the structural dynamic modification method. Meanwhile, the effect of material removal on the process-damping coefficient is studied, and the internal relationship between the process-damping coefficient and the dynamic characteristics of the workpiece is revealed. The stability lobe diagram is obtained by the full discretization in the titanium alloy milling process. The correctness of the model and stability prediction is verified by experiments under different working conditions. It is found that the coupling characteristics of process-damping and workpiece dynamic characteristics control the stability of the milling process. The research results can provide theoretical support for accurate characterization and process optimization of titanium alloy thin-walled workpiece milling. Full article

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14 pages, 6236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the Tray of Electron Beam Melting of Ti-6Al-4V: Properties and Microstructure

by E. Tiferet, M. Ganor, D. Zolotaryov, A. Garkun, A. Hadjadj, M. Chonin, Y. Ganor, D. Noiman, I. Halevy, O. Tevet and O. Yeheskel

Materials 2019, 12(9), 1470; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12091470 - 07 May 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 2951

Abstract

Using an electron beam melting (EBM) printing machine (Arcam A2X, Sweden), a matrix of 225 samples (15 rows and 15 columns) of Ti-6Al-4V was produced. The density of the specimens across the tray in the as-built condition was approximately 99.9% of the theoretical [...] Read more.

Using an electron beam melting (EBM) printing machine (Arcam A2X, Sweden), a matrix of 225 samples (15 rows and 15 columns) of Ti-6Al-4V was produced. The density of the specimens across the tray in the as-built condition was approximately 99.9% of the theoretical density of the alloy, ρ_T. Tensile strength, tensile elongation, and fatigue life were studied for the as-built samples. Location dependency of the mechanical properties along the build area was observed. Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) slightly increased the density to 99.99% of ρ_T but drastically improved the fatigue endurance and tensile elongation, probably due to the reduction in the size and the distribution of flaws. The microstructure of the as-built samples contained various defects (e.g., lack of fusion, porosity) that were not observed in the HIP-ed samples. HIP also reduced some of the location related variation in the mechanical properties values, observed in the as-printed condition. Full article

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13 pages, 2806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Route to Fabricate High-Performance 3D Printed Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Thermosetting Polymer Composites

by Yueke Ming, Yugang Duan, Ben Wang, Hong Xiao and Xiaohui Zhang

Materials 2019, 12(9), 1369; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12091369 - 26 Apr 2019

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 7023

Abstract

Recently, 3D printing of fiber-reinforced composites has gained significant research attention. However, commercial utilization is limited by the low fiber content and poor fiber–resin interface. Herein, a novel 3D printing process to fabricate continuous fiber-reinforced thermosetting polymer composites (CFRTPCs) is proposed. In brief, [...] Read more.

Recently, 3D printing of fiber-reinforced composites has gained significant research attention. However, commercial utilization is limited by the low fiber content and poor fiber–resin interface. Herein, a novel 3D printing process to fabricate continuous fiber-reinforced thermosetting polymer composites (CFRTPCs) is proposed. In brief, the proposed process is based on the viscosity–temperature characteristics of the thermosetting epoxy resin (E-20). First, the desired 3D printing filament was prepared by impregnating a 3K carbon fiber with a thermosetting matrix at 130 °C. The adhesion and support required during printing were then provided by melting the resin into a viscous state in the heating head and rapidly cooling after pulling out from the printing nozzle. Finally, a powder compression post-curing method was used to accomplish the cross-linking reaction and shape preservation. Furthermore, the 3D-printed CFRTPCs exhibited a tensile strength and tensile modulus of 1476.11 MPa and 100.28 GPa, respectively, a flexural strength and flexural modulus of 858.05 MPa and 71.95 GPa, respectively, and an interlaminar shear strength of 48.75 MPa. Owing to its high performance and low concentration of defects, the proposed printing technique shows promise in further utilization and industrialization of 3D printing for different applications. Full article

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32 pages, 19926 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Texture and Microstructural Features at Different Length Scales in Inconel 718 Produced by Selective Laser Melting

by Michele Calandri, Shuo Yin, Barry Aldwell, Flaviana Calignano, Rocco Lupoi and Daniele Ugues

Materials 2019, 12(8), 1293; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12081293 - 19 Apr 2019

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 7104

Abstract

Nickel-based Inconel 718 is a very good candidate for selective laser melting (SLM). During the SLM process, Inconel 718 develops a complex and heterogeneous microstructure. A deep understanding of the microstructural features of the as-built SLM material is essential for the design of [...] Read more.

Nickel-based Inconel 718 is a very good candidate for selective laser melting (SLM). During the SLM process, Inconel 718 develops a complex and heterogeneous microstructure. A deep understanding of the microstructural features of the as-built SLM material is essential for the design of a proper post-process heat treatment. In this study, the microstructure of as-built SLM Inconel 718 was investigated at different length scales using optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) was also used to analyze the grain morphology and crystallographic texture. Grains elongated in the build direction and crossing several deposited layers were observed. The grains are not constrained by the laser tracks or by the melt pools, which indicates epitaxial growth controls the solidification. Each grain is composed of fine columnar dendrites that develop along one of their <100> axes oriented in the direction of the local thermal gradient. Consequently, prominent <100> crystallographic texture was observed and the dendrites tend to grow to the build direction or with occasional change of 90° at the edge of the melt pools. At the dendrite length scale, the microsegregation of the alloying elements, interdendritic precipitates, and dislocations was also detected. Full article

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18 pages, 7587 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of SLM Process in Terms of Temperature Distribution and Melting Pool Size: Modeling and Experimental Approaches

by Md Jonaet Ansari, Dinh-Son Nguyen and Hong Seok Park

Materials 2019, 12(8), 1272; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12081272 - 18 Apr 2019

Cited by 85 | Viewed by 7477

Abstract

Selective laser melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing (AM) technique that has the potential to produce almost any three-dimensional (3D) metallic part, even those with complicated shapes. Throughout the SLM process, the heat transfer characteristics of the metal powder plays a significant role [...] Read more.

Selective laser melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing (AM) technique that has the potential to produce almost any three-dimensional (3D) metallic part, even those with complicated shapes. Throughout the SLM process, the heat transfer characteristics of the metal powder plays a significant role in maintaining the product quality during 3D printing. Thus, it is crucial for 3D-printing manufacturers to determine the thermal behavior over the SLM process. However, it is a significant challenge to accurately determine the large temperature gradient and the melt pool size using only experiments. Therefore, the use of both experimental investigations and numerical analysis can assist in characterizing the temperature evaluation and the melt pool size in a more effective manner. In this study, 3D finite element analysis applying a moving volumetric Gaussian laser heat source was used to analyze the temperature profile on the powder bed and the resultant melt pool size throughout the SLM process. In the experiments, a TELOPS FAST-IR (M350) thermal imager was applied to determine the temperature profile of the melting pool and powder bed along the scanning direction during the SLM fabrication using Ti₆Al₄V powder. The numerically calculated results were compared with the experimentally determined temperature distribution. The comparison showed that the calculated peak temperature for single- and multi-track by the developed thermal model was in good agreement with the experiment results. Secondly, the developed model was verified by comparing the melting pool size for various laser powers and scanning speeds with the experimentally measured melting pool size from the published literature. The developed model could predict the melt pool width (with 2–5% error) and melt pool depth (with 5–6% error). Full article

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16 pages, 7239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Selective Laser Melting Machine Source on the Dynamic Properties of AlSi10Mg Alloy

by Ben Amir, Shmuel Samuha and Oren Sadot

Materials 2019, 12(7), 1143; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12071143 - 08 Apr 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3802

Abstract

Selective laser melting (SLM) AlSi10Mg alloy has been thoroughly investigated in terms of its microstructure and quasi-static properties, owing to its broad industrial applications. However, the effects of the SLM process on the dynamic behavior under impact conditions remain to be established. This [...] Read more.

Selective laser melting (SLM) AlSi10Mg alloy has been thoroughly investigated in terms of its microstructure and quasi-static properties, owing to its broad industrial applications. However, the effects of the SLM process on the dynamic behavior under impact conditions remain to be established. This research deals with the influences of manufacturing process parameters on the dynamic response of the SLM on AlSi10Mg at a high strain rate of 700 to 6700 s⁻¹ by using a split Hopkinson pressure bar apparatus. Examinations were performed on vertically and horizontally built samples, processed individually by two manufacturers using a different laser scanning technique on the same powder composition. It was concluded that the fabrication technique does not influence the true stress–true strain dependency at strain rates of 700 to 2800 s⁻¹. However, at higher strain rates (4000 to 6700 s⁻¹), this study revealed different plastic behavior, which was associated only with the horizontally built samples. Moreover, this study found different failure demeanors at true strains exceeding 0.8. The dynamic response was correlated with the as-built microstructure and crystallographic texture, characterized using the electron backscattered diffraction technique. Full article

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13 pages, 3110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on a New Localized Induction Heating Process for Hot Stamping Steel Blanks

by Li Bao, Jingqi Chen, Qi Li, Yu Gu, Jian Wu and Weijie Liu

Materials 2019, 12(7), 1024; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12071024 - 28 Mar 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2581

Abstract

Localized induction heating with one magnetizer was experimentally analyzed in order to investigate the altering effect of the magnetizer on the magnetic field. A 22MnB5 blank for tailored property was locally heated to produce the parts of a car body in white, such [...] Read more.

Localized induction heating with one magnetizer was experimentally analyzed in order to investigate the altering effect of the magnetizer on the magnetic field. A 22MnB5 blank for tailored property was locally heated to produce the parts of a car body in white, such as the B-pillars. A lower-temperature region with a temperature in the two-phase zone and a full-austenitic high-temperature region were formed on the steel blank after 30 s. After water-quenching, the mixture microstructure (F + M) and 100% fine-grained lath martensite were obtained from the lower- and high-temperature regions, respectively. Moreover, the ultimate tensile stress (UTS) of the parts from the lower- and high-temperature regions was 977 and 1698 MPa, respectively, whereas the total elongations were 17.5% and 14.5%, respectively. Compared with the parts obtained by conventional furnace heating–water quenching (UTS: 1554 MPa, total elongation: 12%), the as-quenched phase developed a tensile strength over 100 MPa greater and a higher ductility. Thus, the new heating process can be a good foundation in subsequent experiments to arbitrarily tailor the designable low-strength zone with a higher ductility by using magnetizers. Full article

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19 pages, 10673 KiB

Open AccessReview

New Aluminum Alloys Specifically Designed for Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review

by Alberta Aversa, Giulio Marchese, Abdollah Saboori, Emilio Bassini, Diego Manfredi, Sara Biamino, Daniele Ugues, Paolo Fino and Mariangela Lombardi

Materials 2019, 12(7), 1007; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12071007 - 27 Mar 2019

Cited by 157 | Viewed by 10183

Abstract

Aluminum alloys are key materials in additive manufacturing (AM) technologies thanks to their low density that, coupled with the possibility to create complex geometries of these innovative processes, can be exploited for several applications in aerospace and automotive fields. The AM process of [...] Read more.

Aluminum alloys are key materials in additive manufacturing (AM) technologies thanks to their low density that, coupled with the possibility to create complex geometries of these innovative processes, can be exploited for several applications in aerospace and automotive fields. The AM process of these alloys had to face many challenges because, due to their low laser absorption, high thermal conductivity and reduced powder flowability, they are characterized by poor processability. Nowadays mainly Al-Si alloys are processed, however, in recent years many efforts have been carried out in developing new compositions specifically designed for laser based powder bed AM processes. This paper reviews the state of the art of the aluminum alloys used in the laser powder bed fusion process, together with the microstructural and mechanical characterizations. Full article

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9 pages, 7612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Suppression of the Growth of Intermetallic Compound Layers with the Addition of Graphene Nano-Sheets to an Epoxy Sn–Ag–Cu Solder on a Cu Substrate

by Min-Soo Kang, Do-Seok Kim and Young-Eui Shin

Materials 2019, 12(6), 936; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12060936 - 21 Mar 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3656

Abstract

This study investigated the suppression of the growth of the intermetallic compound (IMC) layer that forms between epoxy solder joints and the substrate in electronic packaging by adding graphene nano-sheets (GNSs) to 96.5Sn–3.0Ag–0.5Cu (wt %, SAC305) solder whose bonding characteristics had been strengthened [...] Read more.

This study investigated the suppression of the growth of the intermetallic compound (IMC) layer that forms between epoxy solder joints and the substrate in electronic packaging by adding graphene nano-sheets (GNSs) to 96.5Sn–3.0Ag–0.5Cu (wt %, SAC305) solder whose bonding characteristics had been strengthened with a polymer. IMC growth was induced in isothermal aging tests at 150 °C, 125 °C and 85 °C for 504 h (21 days). Activation energies were calculated based on the IMC layer thickness, temperature, and time. The activation energy required for the formation of IMCs was 45.5 KJ/mol for the plain epoxy solder, 52.8 KJ/mol for the 0.01%-GNS solder, 62.5 KJ/mol for the 0.05%-GNS solder, and 68.7 KJ/mol for the 0.1%-GNS solder. Thus, the preventive effects were higher for increasing concentrations of GNS in the epoxy solder. In addition, shear tests were employed on the solder joints to analyze the relationship between the addition of GNSs and the bonding characteristics of the solder joints. It was found that the addition of GNSs to epoxy solder weakened the bonding characteristics of the solder, but not critically so because the shear force was higher than for normal solder (i.e., without the addition of epoxy). Thus, the addition of a small amount of GNSs to epoxy solder can suppress the formation of an IMC layer during isothermal aging without significantly weakening the bonding characteristics of the epoxy solder paste. Full article

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16 pages, 3090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Modeling of In-Process Temperature in Powder Bed Additive Manufacturing Considering Laser Power Absorption, Latent Heat, Scanning Strategy, and Powder Packing

by Jinqiang Ning, Daniel E. Sievers, Hamid Garmestani and Steven Y. Liang

Materials 2019, 12(5), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12050808 - 08 Mar 2019

Cited by 96 | Viewed by 7149

Abstract

Temperature distribution gradient in metal powder bed additive manufacturing (MPBAM) directly controls the mechanical properties and dimensional accuracy of the build part. Experimental approach and numerical modeling approach for temperature in MPBAM are limited by the restricted accessibility and high computational cost, respectively. [...] Read more.

Temperature distribution gradient in metal powder bed additive manufacturing (MPBAM) directly controls the mechanical properties and dimensional accuracy of the build part. Experimental approach and numerical modeling approach for temperature in MPBAM are limited by the restricted accessibility and high computational cost, respectively. Analytical models were reported with high computational efficiency, but the developed models employed a moving coordinate and semi-infinite medium assumption, which neglected the part dimensions, and thus reduced their usefulness in real applications. This paper investigates the in-process temperature in MPBAM through analytical modeling using a stationary coordinate with an origin at the part boundary (absolute coordinate). Analytical solutions are developed for temperature prediction of single-track scan and multi-track scans considering scanning strategy. Inconel 625 is chosen to test the proposed model. Laser power absorption is inversely identified with the prediction of molten pool dimensions. Latent heat is considered using the heat integration method. The molten pool evolution is investigated with respect to scanning time. The stabilized temperatures in the single-track scan and bidirectional scans are predicted under various process conditions. Close agreements are observed upon validation to the experimental values in the literature. Furthermore, a positive relationship between molten pool dimensions and powder packing porosity was observed through sensitivity analysis. With benefits of the absolute coordinate, and high computational efficiency, the presented model can predict the temperature for a dimensional part during MPBAM, which can be used to further investigate residual stress and distortion in real applications. Full article

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11 pages, 6372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Superior Wear Resistance in EBM-Processed TC4 Alloy Compared with SLM and Forged Samples

by Weiwen Zhang, Peiting Qin, Zhi Wang, Chao Yang, Lauri Kollo, Dariusz Grzesiak and Konda Gokuldoss Prashanth

Materials 2019, 12(5), 782; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12050782 - 07 Mar 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 4746

Abstract

The wear properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy have drawn great attention in both aerospace and biomedical fields. The present study examines the wear properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy as prepared by selective laser melting (SLM), electron beam melting (EBM) and conventional forging processes. The SLM [...] Read more.

The wear properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy have drawn great attention in both aerospace and biomedical fields. The present study examines the wear properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy as prepared by selective laser melting (SLM), electron beam melting (EBM) and conventional forging processes. The SLM and EBM samples show better wear resistance than the forged sample, which correlates to their higher hardness values and weak delamination tendencies. The EBM sample shows a lower wear rate than the SLM sample because of the formation of multiple horizontal cracks in the SLM sample, which results in heavier delamination. The results suggest that additive manufacturing processes offer significantly wear-resistant Ti-6Al-4V specimens in comparison to their counterparts produced by forging. Full article

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10 pages, 4409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural and Mechanical Characteristics of Cu₅₀Zr₄₃Al₇ Bulk Metallic Glass Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting

by Xiaoyang Lu, Mussokulov Nursulton, Yulei Du and Wenhe Liao

Materials 2019, 12(5), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12050775 - 06 Mar 2019

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3871

Abstract

In this work, the structural and mechanical characteristics of Cu₅₀Zr₄₃Al₇ bulk metallic glass (BMG) fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) are studied and the impacts from the SLM process are clarified. Cu₅₀Zr₄₃Al₇ alloy [...] Read more.

In this work, the structural and mechanical characteristics of Cu₅₀Zr₄₃Al₇ bulk metallic glass (BMG) fabricated by selective laser melting (SLM) are studied and the impacts from the SLM process are clarified. Cu₅₀Zr₄₃Al₇ alloy specimens were manufactured by the SLM method from corresponding gas-atomized amorphous powders. The as-built specimens were examined in terms of phase structure, morphologies, thermal properties and mechanical behavior. The x-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry results showed that structural relaxation and partial crystallization co-exist in the as-fabricated Cu₅₀Zr₄₃Al₇ glassy samples. The nano- and micro- hardness and the elastic modulus of the SLM-fabricated Cu₅₀Zr₄₃Al₇ BMG were higher than CuZrAl ternary BMGs with similar compositions prepared by conventional mold casting, which can be attributed to the structural relaxation in the former sample. However, the macro compressive strength of the SLM-fabricated Cu₅₀Zr₄₃Al₇ BMG was only 1044 MPa mainly due to its porosity. This work suggests that the SLM process induced changes in structural and mechanical properties are significant and cannot be neglected in the fabrication of BMGs. Full article

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14 pages, 11131 KiB

Open AccessArticle

W_xNbMoTa Refractory High-Entropy Alloys Fabricated by Laser Cladding Deposition

by Qingyu Li, Hang Zhang, Dichen Li, Zihao Chen, Sheng Huang, Zhongliang Lu and Haoqi Yan

Materials 2019, 12(3), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12030533 - 11 Feb 2019

Cited by 66 | Viewed by 6070

Abstract

W_xNbMoTa refractory high-entropy alloys with four different tungsten concentrations (x = 0, 0.16, 0.33, 0.53) were fabricated by laser cladding deposition. The crystal structures of W_xNbMoTa alloys are all a single-phase solid solution of the body-centered cubic (BCC) [...] Read more.

W_xNbMoTa refractory high-entropy alloys with four different tungsten concentrations (x = 0, 0.16, 0.33, 0.53) were fabricated by laser cladding deposition. The crystal structures of W_xNbMoTa alloys are all a single-phase solid solution of the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure. The size of the grains and dendrites are 20 μm and 4 μm on average, due to the rapid solidification characteristics of the laser cladding deposition. These are much smaller sizes than refractory high-entropy alloys fabricated by vacuum arc melting. In terms of integrated mechanical properties, the increase of the tungsten concentration of W_xNbMoTa has led to four results of the Vickers microhardness, i.e., H_v = 459.2 ± 9.7, 476.0 ± 12.9, 485.3 ± 8.7, and 497.6 ± 5.6. As a result, NbMoTa alloy shows a yield strength (σ_b) and compressive strain (ε_p) of 530 Mpa and 8.5% at 1000 °C, leading to better results than traditional refractory alloys such as T-111, C103, and Nb-1Zr, which are commonly used in the aerospace industry. Full article

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19 pages, 6609 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism and Parameter Optimization in Grinding and Polishing of M300 Steel by an Elastic Abrasive

by Xin Tong, Xiaojun Wu, Fengyong Zhang, Guangqiang Ma, Ying Zhang, Binhua Wen and Yongtang Tian

Materials 2019, 12(3), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12030340 - 22 Jan 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3797

Abstract

In order to achieve high quality polishing of a M300 mold steel curved surface, an elastic abrasive is introduced in this paper and its polishing parameters are optimized so that the mirror roughness can be achieved. Based on the Preston equation and Hertz [...] Read more.

In order to achieve high quality polishing of a M300 mold steel curved surface, an elastic abrasive is introduced in this paper and its polishing parameters are optimized so that the mirror roughness can be achieved. Based on the Preston equation and Hertz Contact Theory, the theoretical material removal rate (MRR) equation for surface polishing of elastic abrasives is obtained. The effects of process parameters on MRR are analyzed and the polishing parameters to be optimized are as follows: particle size (S), rotational speed (Wt), cutting depth (Ap) and feed speed (Vf). The Taguchi method is applied to design the orthogonal experiment with four factors and three levels. The influence degree of various factors on the roughness of the polished surface and the combination of parameters to be optimized were obtained by the signal-to-noise ratio method. The particle swarm optimization algorithm optimized with the back propagation (BP) neural network algorithm (PSO-BP) is used to optimize the polishing parameters. The results show that the rotational speed has the greatest influence on the roughness, the influence degree of abrasive particle size is greater than that of feed speed, and cutting depth has the least influence. The optimum parameters are as follows: particle size (S) = #1200, rotational speed (Wt) = 4500 rpm, cutting depth (Ap) = 0.25 mm and feed speed (Vf) = 0.8 mm/min. The roughness of the surface polishing with optimum parameters is reduced to 0.021 μm. Full article

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14 pages, 6252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Martensitic Transformation and Mechanical Properties of Ti6Al4V Prepared via Selective Laser Melting

by Junjie He, Duosheng Li, Wugui Jiang, Liming Ke, Guohua Qin, Yin Ye, Qinghua Qin and Dachuang Qiu

Materials 2019, 12(2), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12020321 - 21 Jan 2019

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 5970

Abstract

This article investigated the microstructure of Ti6Al4V that was fabricated via selective laser melting; specifically, the mechanism of martensitic transformation and relationship among parent β phase, martensite (α’) and newly generated β phase that formed in the present experiments were elucidated. The primary [...] Read more.

This article investigated the microstructure of Ti6Al4V that was fabricated via selective laser melting; specifically, the mechanism of martensitic transformation and relationship among parent β phase, martensite (α’) and newly generated β phase that formed in the present experiments were elucidated. The primary X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and tensile test were combined to discuss the relationship between α’, β phase and mechanical properties. The average width of each coarse β columnar grain is 80–160 μm, which is in agreement with the width of a laser scanning track. The result revealed a further relationship between β columnar grain and laser scanning track. Additionally, the high dislocation density, stacking faults and the typical (

10 \bar{1} 1

) twinning were identified in the as-built sample. The twinning was filled with many dislocation lines that exhibited apparent slip systems of climbing and cross-slip. Moreover, the α + β phase with fine dislocation lines and residual twinning were observed in the stress relieving sample. Furthermore, both as-built and stress-relieved samples had a better homogeneous density and finer grains in the center area than in the edge area, displaying good mechanical properties by Feature-Scan. The α’ phase resulted in the improvement of tensile strength and hardness and decrease of plasticity, while the newly generated β phase resulted in a decrease of strength and enhancement of plasticity. The poor plasticity was ascribed to the different print mode, remained support structures and large thermal stresses. Full article

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18 pages, 13085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Scanning and Support Strategies on Relative Density of SLM-ed H13 Steel in Relation to Specimen Size

by Tomasz Kurzynowski, Wojciech Stopyra, Konrad Gruber, Grzegorz Ziółkowski, Bogumiła Kuźnicka and Edward Chlebus

Materials 2019, 12(2), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12020239 - 11 Jan 2019

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 4747

Abstract

Standard experimental research works are aimed at optimization of Selective Laser Melting (SLM) parameters in order to produce material with relative density over 99% and possibly the highest scanning speed. Typically, cuboidal specimens with arbitrarily selected dimensions are built. An optimum set of [...] Read more.

Standard experimental research works are aimed at optimization of Selective Laser Melting (SLM) parameters in order to produce material with relative density over 99% and possibly the highest scanning speed. Typically, cuboidal specimens with arbitrarily selected dimensions are built. An optimum set of parameters, determined on such specimens, is used for building parts with variable cross-section areas. However, it gives no guarantee that the density of variable-section parts produced with so selected parameters will be as high as that of the specimens measured during the parameters optimization process. The goal of this work was to improve the process of SLM parameter selection according to the criterion of maximum relative density, based on the example of AISI H13 tool steel (1.2344). A selection method of scanning strategy ensuring relative density of parts over 99%, irrespective of their dimensions, was determined. The specimens were produced using several variants of support structures. It was found that proper selection of the support strategy prevents development of columnar pores. Full article

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14 pages, 8301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Defocusing Amount and Molten Pool Boundaries on Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Selective Laser Melted AlSi10Mg

by Suyuan Zhou, Yang Su, Rui Gu, Zhenyu Wang, Yinghao Zhou, Qian Ma and Ming Yan

Materials 2019, 12(1), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12010073 - 26 Dec 2018

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4488

Abstract

The influences of processing parameters such as volumetric energy density (ε) and, particularly, defocusing amount (DA) on densification, microstructure, tensile property, and hardness of the as-printed dense AlSi10Mg alloy by selective laser melting (SLM) were studied systematically. The molten pool boundaries (MPBs) were [...] Read more.

The influences of processing parameters such as volumetric energy density (ε) and, particularly, defocusing amount (DA) on densification, microstructure, tensile property, and hardness of the as-printed dense AlSi10Mg alloy by selective laser melting (SLM) were studied systematically. The molten pool boundaries (MPBs) were found overwhelmingly at regular and complex spatial topological structures affected by DA value to exist in two forms, while the “layer–layer” MPB overlay mutually and the “track–track” MPBs intersect to form acute angles with each other. The microstructure of MPBs exhibits a coarse grain zone near the MPBs and the characteristics of segregation of nonmetallic elements (O, Si) where the crack easily happened. The DA value (−2 to 2 mm) affected both the density and the tensile mechanical properties. High tensile strength (456 ± 14 MPa) and good tensile ductility (9.5 ± 1.4%) were achieved in the as-printed condition corresponding to DA = 0.5 mm. The tensile fracture surface features were analyzed and correlated to the influence of the DA values. Full article

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24 pages, 10042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Selective Laser Melting Process Parameters on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Al6061 and AlSi10Mg Alloys

by Ahmed H. Maamoun, Yi F. Xue, Mohamed A. Elbestawi and Stephen C. Veldhuis

Materials 2019, 12(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12010012 - 20 Dec 2018

Cited by 101 | Viewed by 10515

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) offers customization of the microstructures and mechanical properties of fabricated components according to the material selected and process parameters applied. Selective laser melting (SLM) is a commonly-used technique for processing high strength aluminum alloys. The selection of SLM process parameters [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing (AM) offers customization of the microstructures and mechanical properties of fabricated components according to the material selected and process parameters applied. Selective laser melting (SLM) is a commonly-used technique for processing high strength aluminum alloys. The selection of SLM process parameters could control the microstructure of parts and their mechanical properties. However, the process parameters limit and defects obtained inside the as-built parts present obstacles to customized part production. This study investigates the influence of SLM process parameters on the quality of as-built Al6061 and AlSi10Mg parts according to the mutual connection between the microstructure characteristics and mechanical properties. The microstructure of both materials was characterized for different parts processed over a wide range of SLM process parameters. The optimized SLM parameters were investigated to eliminate internal microstructure defects. The behavior of the mechanical properties of parts was presented through regression models generated from the design of experiment (DOE) analysis for the results of hardness, ultimate tensile strength, and yield strength. A comparison between the results obtained and those reported in the literature is presented to illustrate the influence of process parameters, build environment, and powder characteristics on the quality of parts produced. The results obtained from this study could help to customize the part’s quality by satisfying their design requirements in addition to reducing as-built defects which, in turn, would reduce the amount of the post-processing needed. Full article

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16 pages, 3148 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Performance of ABS Specimens Obtained by Fused Filament Fabrication

by Miquel Domingo-Espin, J. Antonio Travieso-Rodriguez, Ramn Jerez-Mesa and Jordi Lluma-Fuentes

Materials 2018, 11(12), 2521; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11122521 - 11 Dec 2018

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 5733

Abstract

In this paper, the fatigue response of fused filament fabrication (FFF) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) parts is studied. Different building parameters (layer height, nozzle diameter, infill density, and printing speed) were chosen to study their influence on the lifespan of cylindrical specimens according [...] Read more.

In this paper, the fatigue response of fused filament fabrication (FFF) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) parts is studied. Different building parameters (layer height, nozzle diameter, infill density, and printing speed) were chosen to study their influence on the lifespan of cylindrical specimens according to a design of experiments (DOE) using the Taguchi methodology. The same DOE was applied on two different specimen sets using two different infill patterns—rectilinear and honeycomb. The results show that the infill density is the most important parameter for both of the studied patterns. The specimens manufactured with the honeycomb pattern show longer lifespans. The best parameter set associated to that infill was chosen for a second experimental phase, in which the specimens were tested under different maximum bending stresses so as to construct the Wöhler curve associated with this 3D printing configuration. The results of this study are useful to design and manufacture ABS end-use parts that are expected to work under oscillating periodic loads. Full article

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8 pages, 1719 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Additive and Substractive Surface Structuring by Femtosecond Laser Induced Material Ejection and Redistribution

by Xxx Sedao, Matthieu Lenci, Anton Rudenko, Alina Pascale-Hamri, Jean-Philippe Colombier and Cyril Mauclair

Materials 2018, 11(12), 2456; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11122456 - 04 Dec 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3424

Abstract

A novel additive surface structuring process is devised, which involves localized, intense femtosecond laser irradiation. The irradiation induces a phase explosion of the material being irradiated, and a subsequent ejection of the ablative species that are used as additive building blocks. The ejected [...] Read more.

A novel additive surface structuring process is devised, which involves localized, intense femtosecond laser irradiation. The irradiation induces a phase explosion of the material being irradiated, and a subsequent ejection of the ablative species that are used as additive building blocks. The ejected species are deposited and accumulated in the vicinity of the ablation site. This redistribution of the material can be repeated and controlled by raster scanning and multiple pulse irradiation. The deposition and accumulation cause the formation of µm-scale three-dimensional structures that surpass the initial surface level. The above-mentioned ablation, deposition, and accumulation all together constitute the proposed additive surface structuring process. In addition, the geometry of the three-dimensional structures can be further modified, if desirable, by a subsequent substractive ablation process. Microstructural analysis reveals a quasi-seamless conjugation between the surface where the structures grow and the structures additively grown by this method, and hence indicates the mechanic robustness of these structures. As a proof of concept, a sub-mm sized re-entrant structure and pillars are fabricated on aluminum substrate by this method. Single units as well as arrayed structures with arbitrary pattern lattice geometry are easily implemented in this additive surface structuring scheme. Engineered surface with desired functionalities can be realized by using this means, i.e., a surface with arrayed pillars being rendered with superhydrophobicity. Full article

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11 pages, 7262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Substrate Preheating Temperatures on the Microstructure, Properties, and Residual Stress of 12CrNi2 Prepared by Laser Cladding Deposition Technique

by Chenggang Ding, Xu Cui, Jianqiang Jiao and Ping Zhu

Materials 2018, 11(12), 2401; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11122401 - 28 Nov 2018

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 3923

Abstract

The 12CrNi2 alloy steel powder studied in the present paper is mainly used to manufacture camshafts for nuclear power emergency diesel engines. Laser cladding deposition is of great significance for the manufacture of nuclear power emergency diesel camshafts, which has the advantages of [...] Read more.

The 12CrNi2 alloy steel powder studied in the present paper is mainly used to manufacture camshafts for nuclear power emergency diesel engines. Laser cladding deposition is of great significance for the manufacture of nuclear power emergency diesel camshafts, which has the advantages of reducing material cost and shortening the manufacturing cycle. However, due to the extremely uneven heating of the components during the deposition process, a complex residual stress field occurs, resulting in crack defects and residual deformation of the components. In the present paper, 12CrNi2 bulk specimens were prepared on the Q460E high-strength structural steel substrate at different preheating temperatures by laser cladding deposition technique, and a finite element residual stress analysis model was established to investigate the effects of different preheating temperatures on the microstructure, properties, and residual stress of the specimens. The results of the experiments and finite element simulations show that with the increase of preheating temperature, the content of martensite/bainite in the deposited layer decreases, and the ferrite content increases. The proper preheating temperature (150 °C) has good mechanical properties. The residual stress on the surface of each specimen decreases with the increase of the preheating temperature. The longitudinal stress is greater at the rear-end deposition part, and the lateral residual stress is greater on both sides along the scanning direction. Full article

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15 pages, 4393 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Approach to Powder Feedstock Characterization for Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing: A Case Study on AlSi7Mg

by Jose Alberto Muñiz-Lerma, Amy Nommeots-Nomm, Kristian Edmund Waters and Mathieu Brochu

Materials 2018, 11(12), 2386; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11122386 - 27 Nov 2018

Cited by 86 | Viewed by 9211

Abstract

In powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, the powder feedstock quality is of paramount importance; as the process relies on thin layers of powder being spread and selectively melted to manufacture 3D metallic components. Conventional powder quality assessments for additive manufacturing are limited to [...] Read more.

In powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, the powder feedstock quality is of paramount importance; as the process relies on thin layers of powder being spread and selectively melted to manufacture 3D metallic components. Conventional powder quality assessments for additive manufacturing are limited to particle morphology, particle size distribution, apparent density and flowability. However, recent studies are highlighting that these techniques may not be the most appropriate. The problem is exacerbated when studying aluminium powders as their complex cohesive behaviors dictate their flowability. The current study compares the properties of three different AlSi7Mg powders, and aims to obtain insights about the minimum required properties for acceptable powder feedstock. In addition to conventional powder characterization assessments, the powder spread density, moisture sorption, surface energy, work of cohesion, and powder rheology, were studied. This work has shown that the presence of fine particles intensifies the pick-up of moisture increasing the total particle surface energy as well as the inter-particle cohesion. This effect hinders powder flow and hence, the spreading of uniform layers needed for optimum printing. When spherical particles larger than 48 µm with a narrow particle distribution are present, the moisture sorption as well as the surface energy and cohesion characteristics are decreased enhancing powder spreadability. This result suggest that by manipulating particle distribution, size and morphology, challenging powder feedstock such as Al, can be optimized for powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Full article

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18 pages, 10566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Consistency of AlSi10Mg Alloy Manufactured by Simulating Multi Laser Beam Selective Laser Melting (SLM): Microstructures and Mechanical Properties

by Bin Liu, Zezhou Kuai, Zhonghua Li, Jianbin Tong, Peikang Bai, Baoqiang Li and Yunfei Nie

Materials 2018, 11(12), 2354; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11122354 - 22 Nov 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4224

Abstract

Multi-laser beam selective laser melting (SLM) technology based on a powder bed has been used to manufacture AlSi10Mg samples. The AlSi10Mg alloy was used as research material to systematically study the performance consistency of both the laser overlap areas and the isolated areas [...] Read more.

Multi-laser beam selective laser melting (SLM) technology based on a powder bed has been used to manufacture AlSi10Mg samples. The AlSi10Mg alloy was used as research material to systematically study the performance consistency of both the laser overlap areas and the isolated areas of the multi-laser beam SLM manufactured parts. The microstructures and mechanical properties of all isolated and overlap processing areas were compared under optimized process parameters. It was discovered that there is a raised platform at the junction of the overlap areas and the isolated areas of the multi-laser SLM samples. The roughness is significantly reduced after two scans. However, the surface roughness of the samples is highest after four scans. As the number of laser scans increases, the relative density of the overlap areas of the samples improves, and there is no significant change in hardness. The tensile properties of the tensile samples are poor when the overlap area width is 0, 0.1, or 0.2 mm. When the widths of the overlap areas are equal to or greater than 0.3 mm, there is no significant difference in the tensile strength between the overlap and the isolated areas. Full article

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23 pages, 4676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Selective Laser Melting Process Parameters on the Quality of Al Alloy Parts: Powder Characterization, Density, Surface Roughness, and Dimensional Accuracy

by Ahmed H. Maamoun, Yi F. Xue, Mohamed A. Elbestawi and Stephen C. Veldhuis

Materials 2018, 11(12), 2343; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11122343 - 22 Nov 2018

Cited by 201 | Viewed by 11171

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) of high-strength Al alloys promises to enhance the performance of critical components related to various aerospace and automotive applications. The key advantage of AM is its ability to generate lightweight, robust, and complex shapes. However, the characteristics of the as-built [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing (AM) of high-strength Al alloys promises to enhance the performance of critical components related to various aerospace and automotive applications. The key advantage of AM is its ability to generate lightweight, robust, and complex shapes. However, the characteristics of the as-built parts may represent an obstacle to the satisfaction of the parts’ quality requirements. The current study investigates the influence of selective laser melting (SLM) process parameters on the quality of parts fabricated from different Al alloys. A design of experiment (DOE) was used to analyze relative density, porosity, surface roughness, and dimensional accuracy according to the interaction effect between the SLM process parameters. The results show a range of energy densities and SLM process parameters for AlSi10Mg and Al6061 alloys needed to achieve “optimum” values for each performance characteristic. A process map was developed for each material by combining the optimized range of SLM process parameters for each characteristic to ensure good quality of the as-built parts. This study is also aimed at reducing the amount of post-processing needed according to the optimal processing window detected. Full article

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11 pages, 28888 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Inoculation on the Pearlitic Gray Cast Iron with High Thermal Conductivity and Tensile Strength

by Guiquan Wang, Xiang Chen, Yanxiang Li and Zhongli Liu

Materials 2018, 11(10), 1876; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11101876 - 01 Oct 2018

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3939

Abstract

With the aim of improving the thermal conductivity and tensile strength of pearlitic gray cast iron, the influence of inoculation on structure and properties was experimentally investigated. Three group of irons with similar compositions were inoculated by Zr-FeSi, Sr-FeSi, and SiC inoculants, respectively. [...] Read more.

With the aim of improving the thermal conductivity and tensile strength of pearlitic gray cast iron, the influence of inoculation on structure and properties was experimentally investigated. Three group of irons with similar compositions were inoculated by Zr-FeSi, Sr-FeSi, and SiC inoculants, respectively. The metallographic analysis was used to measure the maximum graphite length, primary dendrites amount and eutectic colonies counts. For a certain carbon equivalent, it was confirmed that the thermal conductivity of pearlitic gray cast iron has a direct correlation with the maximum graphite length while the tensile strength was influenced mainly by the primary dendrites amount. The optimal structure and highest thermal conductivity and tensile strength were obtained by Sr-FeSi inoculant. MnS particles act a pivotal part in modifying the structure of gray cast iron. It was found that providing nucleation sites both for graphite and primary austenite is important to promote the thermal conductivity and strength. However, excessive nuclei (MnS particles) results in shorter graphite flakes and thus the depressive growth of primary dendrites. Full article

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16 pages, 6326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of a Scanning Strategy on the Residual Stress of 316L Steel Parts Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

by Di Wang, Shibiao Wu, Yongqiang Yang, Wenhao Dou, Shishi Deng, Zhi Wang and Sheng Li

Materials 2018, 11(10), 1821; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11101821 - 25 Sep 2018

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 5685

Abstract

The laser scanning strategy has an important influence on the surface quality, residual stress, and deformation of the molten metal (deformation behavior). A divisional scanning strategy is an effective means used to reduce the internal stress of the selective laser melting (SLM) metal [...] Read more.

The laser scanning strategy has an important influence on the surface quality, residual stress, and deformation of the molten metal (deformation behavior). A divisional scanning strategy is an effective means used to reduce the internal stress of the selective laser melting (SLM) metal part. In order to understand and optimize the divisional scanning strategy, three divisional scanning strategies and an S-shaped orthogonal scanning strategy are used to produce 316L steel parts in this study. The influence of scanning strategy on the produced parts is verified from the aspects of densification, residual stress distribution and deformation. Experiments show that the 316L steel alloy parts adopted spiral divisional scanning strategy can not only obtain the densification of 99.37%, but they also effectively improve the distribution of residual stress and control the deformation degree of the produced parts. Among them, the spiral divisional scanning sample has the smallest residual stress in plane direction, and its σ_x and σ_y stress are controlled within 204 MPa and 103 MPa. The above results show that the spiral divisional scanning is the most conducive strategy to obtain higher residual stress performance of SLM 316L steel parts. Full article

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14 pages, 5889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of Stress Field during the Selective Laser Melting Process of the Nickel-Based Superalloy, GH4169

by Zhanyong Zhao, Liang Li, Le Tan, Peikang Bai, Jing Li, Liyun Wu, Haihong Liao and Yahui Cheng

Materials 2018, 11(9), 1525; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091525 - 24 Aug 2018

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4223

Abstract

In this paper, GH4169 alloy’s distributions of temperature and stress during the selective laser melting (SLM) process were studied. The SLM process is a dynamic process of rapid melting and solidification, and we found there were larger temperature gradients near the turning of [...] Read more.

In this paper, GH4169 alloy’s distributions of temperature and stress during the selective laser melting (SLM) process were studied. The SLM process is a dynamic process of rapid melting and solidification, and we found there were larger temperature gradients near the turning of scan direction and at the overlap of the scanning line, which produced thermal strain and stress concentration and gave rise to warping deformations. The stresses increased as the distance became further away from the melt pool. There was tensile stress in the most-forming zones, but compressive stress occurred near the melt pool area. When the parts were cooled to room temperature after the SLM process, tensile stress was concentrated around the parts’ boundaries. Residual stress along the z direction caused the warping deformations, and although there was tensile stress in the parts’ surfaces, but there was compressive stress near the substrate. Full article

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16 pages, 16195 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Deformation Parameters on Microstructural Evolution of 2219 Aluminum Alloy during Intermediate Thermo-Mechanical Treatment Process

by Lei Liu, Yunxin Wu and Hai Gong

Materials 2018, 11(9), 1496; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091496 - 22 Aug 2018

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3858

Abstract

To explore the effective way of grain refinement for 2219 aluminum alloy, the approach of ‘thermal compression tests + solid solution treatment experiments’ was applied to simulate the process of intermediate thermo-mechanical treatment. The effects of deformation parameters (i.e., temperature, strain, and strain [...] Read more.

To explore the effective way of grain refinement for 2219 aluminum alloy, the approach of ‘thermal compression tests + solid solution treatment experiments’ was applied to simulate the process of intermediate thermo-mechanical treatment. The effects of deformation parameters (i.e., temperature, strain, and strain rate) on microstructural evolution were also studied. The results show that the main softening mechanism of 2219 aluminum alloy during warm deformation process is dynamic recovery, during which the distribution of CuAl₂ phase changes and the substructure content increases. Moreover, the storage energy is found to be decreased with the increase in temperature and/or the decrease in strain rate. In addition, complete static recrystallization occurs and substructures almost disappear during the solid solution treatment process. The average grain size obtained decreases with the decrease in deforming temperature, the increase in strain rate, and/or the increase in strain. The grain refinement mechanism is related to the amount of storage energy and the distribution of precipitated particles in the whole process of intermediate thermal-mechanical treatment. The previously existing dispersed fine precipitates are all redissolved into the matrix, however, the remaining precipitates exist mainly by the form of polymerization. Full article

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16 pages, 5816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Residual Stress in Selective Laser Melting of a Zr-Based Amorphous Alloy

by Wei Xing, Di Ouyang, Ning Li and Lin Liu

Materials 2018, 11(8), 1480; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081480 - 20 Aug 2018

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 6053

Abstract

An accurate estimation of residual stresses is crucial to ensure dimensional accuracy and prevent premature fatigue failure of 3D printed components. Different from their crystalline counterparts, the effect of residual stress would be worse for amorphous alloys owing to their intrinsic brittleness with [...] Read more.

An accurate estimation of residual stresses is crucial to ensure dimensional accuracy and prevent premature fatigue failure of 3D printed components. Different from their crystalline counterparts, the effect of residual stress would be worse for amorphous alloys owing to their intrinsic brittleness with low fracture toughness. However, the generation of residual stress and its performance in 3D printed amorphous alloy components still remain unclear. Here, a finite element method combined with experiments and theoretical analyses was introduced to estimate the residual stress in selective laser melting of a Zr-based amorphous alloy. The results revealed that XY cross scanning strategy exhibits relatively low residual stress by comparison with X and Y strategies, and the residual stress becomes serious with increasing bar thickness. The residual stress, on the other hand, could be tuning by annealing or preheating the substrate. The above scenario is thoroughly understood according to the temperature gradient mechanism and its effect on microstructure evaluation. Full article

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15 pages, 6070 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Physically Based Constitutive Model and Continuous Dynamic Recrystallization Behavior Analysis of 2219 Aluminum Alloy during Hot Deformation Process

by Lei Liu, Yunxin Wu, Hai Gong, Shuang Li and A. S. Ahmad

Materials 2018, 11(8), 1443; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081443 - 15 Aug 2018

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3840

Abstract

The isothermal compression tests of the 2219 Al alloy were conducted at the temperature and the strain rate ranges of 623–773 K and 0.01–10 s⁻¹, respectively, and the deformed microstructures were observed. The flow curves of the 2219 Al alloy obtained [...] Read more.

The isothermal compression tests of the 2219 Al alloy were conducted at the temperature and the strain rate ranges of 623–773 K and 0.01–10 s⁻¹, respectively, and the deformed microstructures were observed. The flow curves of the 2219 Al alloy obtained show that flow stress decreases with the increase in temperature and/or the decrease in strain rate. The physically based constitutive model is applied to describe the flow behavior during hot deformation. In this model, Young’s modulus and lattice diffusion coefficient are temperature-dependent, and the creep exponent is regarded as a variable. The predicted values calculated by the constitutive model are in good agreement with the experimental results. In addition, it is confirmed that the main softening mechanism of the 2219 Al alloy during hot deformation is dynamic recovery and incomplete continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX) by the analysis of electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) micrographs. Moreover, CDRX can readily occur under the condition of high temperatures, low strain rates, and large strains. Meanwhile, the recrystallization grain size will also be larger. Full article

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14 pages, 20777 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reducing Porosity and Refining Grains for Arc Additive Manufacturing Aluminum Alloy by Adjusting Arc Pulse Frequency and Current

by Donghai Wang, Jiping Lu, Shuiyuan Tang, Lu Yu, Hongli Fan, Lei Ji and Changmeng Liu

Materials 2018, 11(8), 1344; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081344 - 03 Aug 2018

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 4898

Abstract

Coarse grains and gas pores are two main problems that limit the application of additive manufacturing aluminum alloys. To reduce porosity and refine grains, this paper presents a quantitative investigation into the effect of pulse frequency and arc current on the porosity and [...] Read more.

Coarse grains and gas pores are two main problems that limit the application of additive manufacturing aluminum alloys. To reduce porosity and refine grains, this paper presents a quantitative investigation into the effect of pulse frequency and arc current on the porosity and grains of arc additive manufacturing Al–5Si alloy. The experiment results show that pulse frequency and arc current have a significant impact on the macrostructure, microstructure, porosity, and tensile properties of the samples. Fine grains and a uniform microstructure can be obtained with low pulse frequency and low arc current as a result of the rapid cooling of the molten pool. With the increase of pulse frequency, density shows a trend that firstly escalates and attains the maximum value at 50 Hz, but later declines as a result of the relation between pores formation and gas escape. Moreover, better tensile properties can be obtained at low pulse frequency and low arc current because of the finer grains. Full article

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12 pages, 7868 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Heat Treatment Influence on the Microstructure and Hardness of TC4 Titanium Alloy Manufactured via Selective Laser Melting

by Zhan-Yong Zhao, Liang Li, Pei-Kang Bai, Yang Jin, Li-Yun Wu, Jing Li, Ren-Guo Guan and Hong-Qiao Qu

Materials 2018, 11(8), 1318; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081318 - 30 Jul 2018

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 7157

Abstract

In this research, the effect of several heat treatments on the microstructure and microhardness of TC4 (Ti6Al4V) titanium alloy processed by selective laser melting (SLM) is studied. The results showed that the original acicular martensite α′-phase in the TC4 alloy formed by SLM [...] Read more.

In this research, the effect of several heat treatments on the microstructure and microhardness of TC4 (Ti6Al4V) titanium alloy processed by selective laser melting (SLM) is studied. The results showed that the original acicular martensite α′-phase in the TC4 alloy formed by SLM is converted into a lamellar mixture of α + β for heat treatment temperatures below the critical temperature (T₀ at approximately 893 °C). With the increase of heat treatment temperature, the size of the lamellar mixture structure inside of the TC4 part gradually grows. When the heat treatment temperature is above T₀, because the cooling rate is relatively steep, the β-phase recrystallization transforms into a compact secondary α-phase, and a basketweave structure can be found because the primary α-phase develop and connect or cross each other with different orientations. The residence time for TC4 SLM parts when the treatment temperature is below the critical temperature has little influence: both the α-phase and the β-phase will tend to coarsen but hinder each other, thereby limiting grain growth. The microhardness gradually decreases with increasing temperature when the TC4 SLM part is treated below the critical temperature. Conversely, the microhardness increases significantly with increasing temperature when the TC4 SLM part is treated above the critical temperature. Full article

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9 pages, 5979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Crack-Free Nickel-Based Superalloy Considered Non-Weldable during Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Oscar Sanchez-Mata, Xianglong Wang, Jose Alberto Muñiz-Lerma, Mohammad Attarian Shandiz, Raynald Gauvin and Mathieu Brochu

Materials 2018, 11(8), 1288; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081288 - 25 Jul 2018

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 7338

Abstract

Crack-free Hastelloy X fabricated through laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) from powder with a standard chemical composition is reported. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis evidenced columnar grains parallel to the building direction. The typical LPBF columnar dendrite microstructure was found to be finer [...] Read more.

Crack-free Hastelloy X fabricated through laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) from powder with a standard chemical composition is reported. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis evidenced columnar grains parallel to the building direction. The typical LPBF columnar dendrite microstructure was found to be finer than reported elsewhere. Mo-enriched carbides (~50 nm), presumed to play an important role in the cracking behavior of the alloy, were confirmed along interdendritic regions. Crack-free condition was maintained after heat treatment at 1177 °C for 1 h followed by water quenching, and the resulting microstructure was analyzed. Full article

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16 pages, 5494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Development and FE Thermal Analysis of a Radially Grooved Brake Disc Developed through Direct Metal Laser Sintering

by Gulam Mohammed Sayeed Ahmed and Salem Algarni

Materials 2018, 11(7), 1211; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071211 - 13 Jul 2018

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5311

Abstract

The present research work analyzed the effect of design modification with radial grooves on disc brake performance and its thermal behavior by using additive manufacturing based 3D printed material maraging steel. Temperature distribution across the disc surface was estimated with different boundary conditions [...] Read more.

The present research work analyzed the effect of design modification with radial grooves on disc brake performance and its thermal behavior by using additive manufacturing based 3D printed material maraging steel. Temperature distribution across the disc surface was estimated with different boundary conditions such as rotor speed, braking pressure, and braking time. Design modification and number of radial grooves were decided based on existing dimensions. Radial grooves were incorporated on disc surface through Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) process to increase surface area for maximum heat dissipation and reduce the stresses induced during braking process. The radial grooves act as a cooling channels which provides an effective means of cooling the disc surface which is under severe condition of sudden fall and rise of temperatures during running conditions. ANSYS software is used for transient structural and thermal analysis to investigate the variations in temperatures profile across the disc with induced heat flux. FE based thermo-structural analysis was done to determine thermal strains induced in disc due to sudden temperature fluctuations. The maximum temperature and Von Mises stress in disc brake without grooves on disc surface were observed which can severely affect thermal fatigue and rupture brake disc surface. It was been observed by incorporating the radial grooves that the disc brake surface is thermally stable. Experimental results are in good agreement with FE thermal analysis. DMLS provides easy fabrication of disc brake with radial grooves and enhancement of disc brake performance at higher speeds and temperatures. Therefore, DMLS provides an effective means of implementing product development technology. Full article

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14 pages, 4690 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Thermal Behaviour of a Selectively Laser Melted Aluminium Alloy: Simulation and Experiment

by Zhonghua Li, Bao-Qiang Li, Peikang Bai, Bin Liu and Yu Wang

Materials 2018, 11(7), 1172; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071172 - 09 Jul 2018

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 5106

Abstract

A 3D Finite Element (FE) model was developed to investigate the thermal behaviour within the melt pool during point exposure to Selective Laser Melting (SLM) processed AlSi10Mg powder. The powder–solid transition, temperature-dependent thermal properties, melt pool convection, and recoating phase were taken into [...] Read more.

A 3D Finite Element (FE) model was developed to investigate the thermal behaviour within the melt pool during point exposure to Selective Laser Melting (SLM) processed AlSi10Mg powder. The powder–solid transition, temperature-dependent thermal properties, melt pool convection, and recoating phase were taken into account. The effects of Exposure Time (ET) and Point Distance (PD) on SLM thermal behaviour were also investigated and showed that the short liquid phase time and high cooling rate of the melt pool reduced the viscosity of the melt pool at a lower ET or a higher PD. This resulted in poor wettability and the occurrence of balling and micropores. At a higher ET or lower PD the melt pool became unstable and allowed for easy formation of the self-balling phenomenon, as well as further partial remelting in the depth direction resulting in the creation of larger pores. The proper melt pool width (119.8 μm) and depth (48.65 μm) were obtained for a successful SLM process using an ET of 140 μs and a PD of 80 μm. The surface morphologies and microstructures were experimentally obtained using the corresponding processing conditions, and the results aligned with those predicted in the simulation. Full article

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14 pages, 6844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Mechanisms and Controlling Methods of Macro Defects in TC4 Alloy Fabricated by Wire Additive Manufacturing

by Lei Ji, Jiping Lu, Shuiyuan Tang, Qianru Wu, Jiachen Wang, Shuyuan Ma, Hongli Fan and Changmeng Liu

Materials 2018, 11(7), 1104; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071104 - 28 Jun 2018

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4805

Abstract

Wire feeding additive manufacturing (WFAM) has broad application prospects because of its advantages of low cost and high efficiency. However, with the mode of lateral wire feeding, including wire and laser additive manufacturing, gas tungsten arc additive manufacturing etc., it is easy to [...] Read more.

Wire feeding additive manufacturing (WFAM) has broad application prospects because of its advantages of low cost and high efficiency. However, with the mode of lateral wire feeding, including wire and laser additive manufacturing, gas tungsten arc additive manufacturing etc., it is easy to generate macro defects on the surface of the components because of the anisotropy of melted wire, which limits the promotion and application of WFAM. In this work, gas tungsten arc additive manufacturing with lateral wire feeding is proposed to investigate the mechanisms of macro defects. The results illustrate that the defect forms mainly include side spatters, collapse, poor flatness, and unmelted wire. It was found that the heat input, layer thickness, tool path, and wire curvature can have an impact on the macro defects. Side spatters are the most serious defects, mainly because the droplets cannot be transferred to the center of the molten pool in the lateral wire feeding mode. This research indicates that the macro defects can be controlled by optimizing the process parameters. Finally, block parts without macro defects were fabricated, which is meaningful for the further application of WFAM. Full article

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13 pages, 2750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Concrete Properties Comparison When Substituting a 25% Cement with Slag from Different Provenances

by María Eugenia Parron-Rubio, Francisca Perez-García, Antonio Gonzalez-Herrera and María Dolores Rubio-Cintas

Materials 2018, 11(6), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11061029 - 17 Jun 2018

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 4739

Abstract

Concrete consumption greatly exceeds the use of any other material in engineering. This is due to its good properties as a construction material and the availability of its components. Nevertheless, the present worldwide construction increases and the high-energy consumption for cement production means [...] Read more.

Concrete consumption greatly exceeds the use of any other material in engineering. This is due to its good properties as a construction material and the availability of its components. Nevertheless, the present worldwide construction increases and the high-energy consumption for cement production means a high environmental impact. On the other hand, one of the main problems in the iron and steel industry is waste generation and byproducts that must be properly processed or reused to promote environmental sustainability. One of these byproducts is steel slag. The cement substitution with slag strategy achieves two goals: raw materials consumption reduction and waste management. In the present work, four different concrete mixtures are evaluated. The 25% cement substitution is carried out with different types of slag. Tests were made to evaluate the advantages and drawbacks of each mixture. Depending on the origin, characteristics, and treatment of the slag, the concrete properties changed. Certain mixtures provided proper concrete properties. Stainless steel slag produced a fluent mortar that reduced water consumption with a slight mechanical strength loss. Mixtures with ground granulated blast furnace slag properties are better than the reference concrete (without slag). Full article

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