Special Issue "Advances in Epidemiology"

Guest Editor
Dr. Scott A. Venners
Simon Fraser University, Faculty of Health Sciences, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
Website: http://www.fhs.sfu.ca/portal_memberdata/svenners
E-Mail:
Interests: molecular environmental epidemiology; biomarkers; gene-environment interactions; fertility; pregnancy outcome

Dear Colleagues,

Advances in epidemiology can occur when interdisciplinary knowledge is applied to research design, implementation or interpretation. The goal of this special issue is to highlight novel theoretical, methodological or technological advances in epidemiological research on human exposures to anthropogenic factors and public or occupational health. Empirical papers on research using emerging or novel theories, methods or technologies are encouraged as are review papers that point to new directions of research with broad applicability and relevance for public and occupational health.

Dr. Scott A. Venners
Guest Editor

Submission

The Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601) was launched in 2004 and is an Open Access journal, with the main Editorial Office located in Basel, Switzerland. It has been accepted for coverage in Science Citation Index Expanded, available as the Web of Science and in Current Contents/Agriculture, Biology, and Environmental Sciences. Coverage will begin with the 2009 issues. This journal is also abstracted and indexed very rapidly by Chemical Abstracts, MedLine/PubMed and EMBASE. The IJERPH maintains a rapid editorial procedure and a rigorous peer-review system. Well written papers have been peer-reviewed and published in less than 4 weeks from manuscript submission. All papers published in IJERPH have DOI numbers.

All papers should be submitted to ijerph@mdpi.org with copy to the guest editor. To be published continuously until the deadline and papers will be listed together at this special issue website.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a paper. Open Access publication fees are 300 CHF per paper. English correction fees (250 CHF) will be added in certain cases (550 CHF per paper for those papers that require extensive additional formatting and/or English corrections.).

• human exposure to anthropogenic factors
• novel theories, methods or technologies in epidemiological research
• public health
• occupational health

Type of Paper: Article
Title: to be added
Author: Compton Tucker; E-Mail: compton.j.tucker@nasa.gov
Abstract: The first recorded epidemic in Arabia of Rift Valley fever, a viral hemorrhagic disease, occurred in northwestern Yemen and southwestern Saudi Arabia between September and December 2000. More than 1,900 people were diagnosed with the disease, at least 245 died, and thousands of domestic animals perished. We used a combination of satellite-derived precipitation estimates and satellite data from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, SPOT Vegetation, and Enhanced Thematic Mapper sensors to investigate environmental conditions preceding and during the epidemic. We concluded the September 2000 Rift Valley fever epidemic in Southwest Arabian peninsular resulted from heavy precipitation at the time of the epidemic resulting in numerous amplification mosquito vectors in the outbreak area which fed upon diseased livestock from Africa infected with the virus and initiated the epidemic.

Type of Paper: Review
Title: Understanding the Epidemiological Time-Course of Infectious Disease Transmissions
Author: Hiroshi Nishiura
Affiliation: Theoretical Epidemiology, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands; E-Mail: h.nishiura@uu.nl
Abstract: To date, various epidemiological approaches have been proposed to interpret the epidemiological time course of epidemic and endemic infectious diseases. The effective reproduction number as a function of calendar time, which informs the average number of secondary transmissions per single primary case at a given point of time, is reasonably used to understand if the transmission in question is in upward or downward trend; if R > 1 the incidence is increasing, and if R < 1, the epidemic is in declining trend and may be under control. Nevertheless, computation of the reproduction number usually requires statistical expertise among public health workers. The present study not only reviews the mechanistic features of recent advances in infectious disease modeling, but also proposes much simpler approaches to data-analysis for non-experts who intend to assess infectious disease control at a local level.

Type of Paper: Article
Title: Association of NRAMP, VDR and TNF-ŠÁ gene Polymorphisms with Infectivity of M. Tuberculosis Subtypes: Susceptibility to Tuberculosis
Authors: Parissa Farnia *, Sabar Anoosheh, Mohammd varahran, Mehdi Kazampour, Payam Tabarsi, Mojtaba Ahmadi, Shima Saeif, Mohammad Reza Masjedi, Sven Hoffner and Ali Akbar Velayati
Affiliation: Mycobacteriology Centre, NRITLD , Shahid Beheshti University (Medical Campus), Tehran, 19556, P.O:19575/154, IRAN; *E-Mail: pfarnia@hotmail.com
Abstract: This study examine the association of host genetic factors with the infectivity of M. tuberculosis subtypes in newly detected smear positive pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) cases. For host genetic factors, the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at INT4, D543, 3'UTR of natural resistancešCassociated macrophage protein (NRAMP1) gene, SNPs in restriction sites of BsmI, and FokI of vitaminšCD receptor (VDR )gene and SNPs of TNF-ŠÁ at -238,-308,-244,-857,-863 positions were analyzed by PCR-RFLP. Subsequently, the susceptibility and spoligotyping were performed on the corresponding M. tuberculosis isolate from each patient.
The obtained patterns of bacterial strain typing were compared with host genotyping. No statistically significant differences were observed in allele frequencies of INT4, D543, 3'UTR of NRAMPI, FokI of VDR and TNF-ŠÁ at -238, -244,-863 and šC857 position. Although, the frequency of b allele of BsmI (p=0.001) and -308Avariant in TNF-ŠÁ promoter region (p=0.006) were significantly more in TB patients than healthy controls. Haarlem I (68.6%), Beijing (66.7%) and T1 (57%) super families of M .tuberculosis were isolated from patients with infrequent genotypes. This study indicates the genotype of a patient is correlated to the risk of being infected/develop active TB when exposed to different M .tuberculosis subtypes.

Type of Paper: Article
Title: Is There an Association between Odour Annoyance Scores and Volatile Organic Compounds in “Chemical Valley”, Sarnia, Ontario?
Authors: Dominic Odwa Atari *; Isaac Luginaah
Affiliation: University of Western Ontario; E-Mail: datari@uwo.ca (D.O.A.)
Abstract: This study aims to investigate the relationship between annoyance scores and modelled air pollution in “Chemical Valley”, Sarnia, Ontario. The results of the subjective measures of odour annoyance were compared with predicted ambient air pollution concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, o-xylene, and (m+p) xylene (BTEX) which were derived using land use regression analysis. The study will validate the questionnaire-based odour annoyance scores and explore whether these could be used as surrogates for poor air quality in highly polluted environments.
Keywords: land use regression, odour annoyance, pollution, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, o-xylene and (m+p) xylene, BTEX, Sarnia, Ontario

Type of Article: Review
Title: Probabilistic Approaches to Better Quantifying the Results of Epidemiologic Studies
Authors: Paul Gustafson and Lawrence McCandless; E-Mail: gustaf@stat.ubc.ca; lmccandl@sfu.ca
Abstract: Typical statistical analysis of epidemiologic data captures uncertainty due to random sampling variation, but ignores more systematic sources of variation such as selection bias, measurement error, and unobserved confounding. Such sources are often only mentioned via qualitative caveats, perhaps under the heading of 'study limitations'. Recently, however, there has been considerable interest and advancement in probabilistic methodologies for more integrated statistical analysis. Such techniques hold the promise of replacing a confidence interval reflecting only random sampling variation with an interval reflecting all, or at least more, sources of uncertainty. We survey and appraise the recent literature in this area, giving some prominence to the use of Bayesian statistical methodology.

Type of Paper: Review
Title: Mathematical Modelling of Vector-Borne Infections
Authors: Marcelo Nascimento Burattini, Francisco Antonio Bezerra Coutinho and Eduardo Massad; E-Mails: mnburatt@usp.br (M.N.B.); coutinho@dim.fm.usp.br (F.A.B.C.); edmassad@dim.fm.usp.br (E.M.)
Abstract: In 1911 Ronald Ross proposed the first useful mathematical model for malaria. Through the 20th century mathematical models have established as a major tool for the study of vector-borne infections. Central parameters related to transmission intensity, like the basic reproduction number, the force of infection and the vectorial capacity have been thoroughly studied and their contribution to the understanding of the transmission dynamics of these infections are worldwide acknowledged. The Garki project presented for the first time a program for measuring and controlling a vector-borne infection based mainly on mathematical modeling. Therefore, the history of mathematical epidemiology is much entangled with the field of vector-borne infections. Currently, vector-borne infections are responsible for about 2 million deaths every year while billions of people live in endemic areas. In this article we review the mathematical theory of vector-borne infection and record its contribution both to the understanding of the occurrence of such diseases and to the optimization of planning control strategies against them.

Type of Paper: Article
Title: Responding to New Needs in HIV Surveillance: the 2007 Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey
Authors: Rebecca Bunnell and Tura Galgalo; E-Mail: tgalgalo@ke.cdc.gov
Abstract: Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has reduced HIV/AIDS-related mortality in Africa; new approaches to HIV/AIDS surveillance are needed to distinguish prevalent from new infections. In 2007, Kenya conducted a national, population-based, cross-sectional serosurvey, the Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey (KAIS). KAIS included older adults aged 50-64 years, direct questions on self and partner HIV status, and uptake of cotrimozaxole and ART. Venous blood was tested for HIV, HSV-2 and syphilis; CD4 cells were enumerated for HIV-infected persons. Test results were returned to participants through designated local health facilities. KAIS advanced HIV/STI surveillance by documenting the country’s unmet need for HIV testing, care and treatment.

Type of Paper: Review
Title: Environmental Exposures and the Onset of Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Review
Author: Michael Brimacombe
Affiliation: Department of Preventive Medicine, New Jersey Medical School and School of Public Health–UMDNJ, USA; E-mail: brimacmb@umdnj.edu
Abstract: The onset of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is currently viewed as primarily genetic in nature with some role played by environmental exposures and related genetic environmental interaction. The many symptoms underlying the formal diagnosis of ASD and related diagnostic assessments have lead to a large number of genes being related to ASD. However the pathways and specific genes remain largely unknown with often a large number of genes being identified with specific aspects of the diagnosis. In this paper we review carefully evidence regarding environmental exposure and the onset of autism, both in the presence of genetic information and more generally. There have been few studies that have been adequately designed and powered to accurately detect environmental causes related to the onset of ASD, but studies are ongoing. Here we discuss potential sources and types of exposures and the designs and settings necessary to adequately detect such exposures and their association with ASD.

Title: Very Low Dose Foetal Exposure to Chernobyl Contamination in Europe Resulted in Increases Infant Leukaemia and Raises Questions about Current Radiation Risk Models
Author: Chris Busby
Affiliation: University of Ulster/ Green Audit, Castle Cottage, Sea View Place, Aberystwyth SY231DZ, UK; E-Mail: christo@greenaudit.org
Abstract: Following the Chernobyl accident in April 26th 1986 the cohort of children who were exposed in their mother’s womb to radioisotope contamination suffered an excess risk of developing leukaemia in the first year of life. This effect was reported from six different countries, Scotland (Gibson et al 1988), Greece (Petridou et al 1996) Germany (Kaletsch et al 1997), the USA (Mangano et al 1997) Belarus (Ivanov et al 1998) and Wales and Scotland combined (Busby and Scott Cato 2000). The cumulative absorbed doses to the foetus, as conventionally assessed, varied over a wide range but were in all cases below about 1mSv. Nevertheless, the effect was real and given the specificity of the cohort raised questions about the safety of applying the current radiation risk model of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) to these internal exposures, a matter which was discussed in Busby and Scott Cato 2000 and also in the reports of the UK Committee examining Radiation Risk from Internal Emitters (CERRIE 2004, 2004a). New data on Infant leukaemia in parts of the United Kingdom, chosen on the basis of the cohorts originally defined by Petridou et al 1996 and classified by high, medium and low exposure were recently obtained from the UK Childhood Cancer Research Group. This has enabled a study of leukaemia in the combined infant population of 15,466,845 born in the UK, Greece, and Germany between 1980 and 1990. Results show a statistically significant excess risk RR = 1.43 (95% CI 1.13<1.80; p = 0.0025) in those born during the (Petridou et al 1996) defined peak exposure period of 01/07/86 to 31/12/87 compared with those born between 01/01/80 and 31/12/85 and 01/01/88 and 31/12/90. The excess risks in individual countries do not increase monotonically with the conventionally calculated doses. The dose effect relation is biphasic, increasing sharply at low doses and falling at high doses; a result which is discussed in relation to foetal/ cell death at higher doses and to the findings of Burlakova (1997) with regard to induction of DNA repair.
Since the cohort is chosen specifically on the basis of exposure to internal radionuclides, this result can be expressed as evidence for a significant error in the conventional modelling for such internal foetal exposures (Busby et al 2008), a matter which is also implicit in the various reports of child leukemia near nuclear sites highlighted by the recent KiKK study (Spix et al 2008).

Title: Advances in Cancer Immune Epidemiology
Authors: Tevfik Dorak¹ and Fatih Okcu²
Affiliations: ¹ HUMIGEN LLC, The Institute for Genetic Immunology, Hamilton, New Jersey, USA
² Texas Children's Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
Abstract: Most established environmental risk factors for cancer interfere with “genomic” and “immune” surveillance mechanisms counteracting cancer development. Genetic variation regulating these pathways in interaction with environmental factors modulates cancer susceptibility. Molecular cross-talk linking the surveillance mechanisms has also been characterized. The cancer immune surveillance concept has regained credibility following major advances in experimental and observational studies. New studies that have shown associations between frequent infections in infancy and increased risk for childhood leukemia and adult lymphoma have provided a new insight for immune surveillance. It is now better recognized that genetically determined suboptimal immune function may increase the risk for infections and cancer. As environmental equivalents, immunosuppressive phenomena and chronic stress increase the risk for cancer, the latter acting through changes in psychoneuro-immunologic pathways. Gender and age are other factors that may modify immune surveillance resulting in their correlations with cancer incidence. Males have lower levels of immune capacity evident by increased infection and cancer frequencies throughout their life. Aging and accompanying immune senescence is a contributory factor to increased cancer incidence in the elderly. Most cancers examined for associations with immune regulatory gene polymorphisms have yielded expected associations some with gender-specificity and some in interaction with environmental factors. The cumulative data overwhelmingly suggest an active immune surveillance mechanism in prevention of cancer. Since it is now better appreciated that genes and environment act concurrently and genetic variants are effect modifiers of environmental risk factors, future studies should be more informative and lead to public health measures for reduction of the cancer burden.

Type of Paper: Article
Title: Coding and Interrater Reliability for Critical Safety Behaviors in a Point-Of-View Video Observation Study of Tree Fallers at Work
Author: Gary Rischitelli and Terry Hammond; E-Mail: rischite@ohsu.edu
Abstract: Working as a faller in logging is one of the most dangerous jobs in Oregon. Considering direct observation to be the most reliable method to evaluate safe work practices, the Fallers Point of view Video Observation Study tested the feasibility of using a helmet camera worn by fallers to directly observe work behaviors in a remote environment, and compare safe behaviors among fallers at different skill levels. Video quality was clear and behavior plainly observed, though not completely within the eye of the camera. Two coding frameworks were applied to the video data, one to identify five critical action steps for safe falling, and one to evaluate awareness of the hazardous environment by coding for direction of view while falling each tree. A test for interrater reliability was conducted on the coding for direction of view, using a second, independent coder. Intraclass correlations between the coders were very high for views toward the tree (0.987), tree up (0.966), and ahead (0.946); good for views to the sides (0.744), and down (0.628); and fair for views back (0.413). Theoretical issues in faller safety are discussed, and equipment, procedures, and points of interest described for point-of-view video observation studies.

Type of Paper: Article
Title: Pair Models of HPV Transmission: When Do Partnership Dynamics Need to Be Included?
Author: Chris Bauch; E-Mail: cbauch@uoguelph.ca
Abstract: There are approximately 130 types of human papillomavirus, (HPV), of which 30-40 are transmitted via sexual contact. About 70 % of American adults will have at least one type of HPV during their lifetime. HPV types 16, 18 and some others can cause cervical cancer. A multivalent vaccine is now available in Canada, which is highly efficacious. A number of mathematical models have been developed to describe the spread of HPV and the impact of vaccination. However, virtually all of them assume a homogeneously mixing population and thus ignore the presence of partnerships. Previous "pair models" have explored the impact of partnerships on infection dynamics for general disease types. Here, we develop a pair model for an HPV-like infection and vaccination. We analyze the model to show that significant inaccuracies can be introduced when ignoring the existence of partnerships in mathematical models, in terms of projected HPV incidence under various vaccination strategies. Hence, for answering specific questions, these factors must be kept in mind when interpreting the output of HPV models that assume homogeneous mixing.

Type of Paper: Review
Title: The Heart Failure Epidemic
Author: Véronique L. Roger
Affiliation: Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine and the Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA; E-Mail: roger.veronique@mayo.edu
Abstract: Heart failure has been singled out as an emerging epidemic, which could be the result of increased incidence and/or increased survival leading to increased prevalence. Knowledge of the responsibility of each factor in the genesis of the epidemic is crucial for prevention. Population-based studies have shown that, over time, the incidence of heart failure remained overall stable, while survival improved. Therefore, the heart failure epidemic is chiefly one of hospitalizations. Data on temporal trends in the incidence and prevalence of heart failure according to ejection fraction and how it may have changed over time suggest that the prevalence of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction increased over time.
Keywords: epidemiology; heart failure; population studies.

Type of Paper: Review
Title: Spatial Modeling in Environmental and Public Health Research
Authors: Michael Jerrett ¹, Sara Gale ² and Caitlin Kontgis ¹
Affiliations: ¹ Division of Environmental Health Science, University of California, Berkeley, 710 University Hall (Office and GIS Lab), Berkeley, CA, USA; E-Mail: jerrett@berkeley.edu (M.J.)
² Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, 710 University Hall (Office and GIS Lab), Berkeley, CA, USA
Abstract: This paper has to aims: 1) to summarize various geographic information science methods; and 2) provide a review of studies that have employed such methods. Though not meant to be a comprehensive review, this paper explains when certain methods are useful in epidemiological studies and also serves as an overview of the growing field of spatial epidemiology.
Keywords: GIS, spatial modeling, air pollution, autocorrelation, overlay, spatial regression, remote sensing

Type of Paper: Review
Title: Effects of Climatic Conditions and Air Pollution on Pregnancy Outcomes
Authors: Mohamed Laaidi ¹, Ariane Boumendil ¹, Hady Kaba ¹, Patricia Martel-Samb ², Patrick Rozenberg ³ and Philippe Aegerter ^1,2
Affiliations: ¹ University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines UPRES EA 2506, Hopital Ambroise Paré, 9 Avenue Charles de Gaulle, 92100 Boulogne, France; E-Mail: mohamed.laaidi@uvsq.fr (M.L.)
² Clinical Research Unit (AP-HP), Hopital Ambroise Paré, 9 Avenue Charles de Gaulle. 92100 Boulogne, France
³ Department of Obstetrics, CH Poissy-St-Germain, Rue du Champ Gaillard, 78303 Poissy Cedex, France
Abstract: A systematic review of the literature on the effects of climatic conditions and air pollution on pregancy outcomes, ie low birth weight (LBW), preterm delivery (PTD) and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), was conducted. The selection of the original articles was carried out from the Medline database over the 1980-2009 period. Results were analyzed separately for each outcome because of differences in pathogenic mechanisms. In most studies, birthweight and prematurity present a seasonal variation, partly explained by the variations of the temperature, sometimes by the barometric pressure. The most studied pollutants are the NO₂, SO₂, O₃, the particles, CO, then the organic matter in suspension, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), or indirectly coal heating, the proximity of the road traffic or the vicinity of an industrial park. The studies show associations with various pollutants, sometimes for current levels, even if odds ratios remain often weak (1,03 to 2,88). The heterogeneity of results can be explained by the environmental conditions, by the cultural and socio-economic context, and mainly by the methods implemented : experimental designs and definitions of issues of pregnancy, selection criteria, confounding factors, estimation of the concentrations of pollutants, critical exposure window. Such variability of approaches makes the synthesis difficult, but indicates that research must be but somewhat standardised through guidelines yet adapted to the local context. A better assessment of the influence of the environmental factors then a more effective prevention, could contribute to limit problems of fetal development, to better manage the emergency services, and consequently to reduce the health expenditure.
Keywords: prematurity; fetal development; pollution; climate