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Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions
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Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions

A special issue of Cells (ISSN 2073-4409).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2019) | Viewed by 111284

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Rod Russell

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University, St. John's, NL, Canada
Interests: RNA viruses; virus assembly; virus entry; virus culture; pyroptosis; inflammasomes; programmed cell death

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The coevolution of viruses with their hosts has resulted in important and specific interactions that affect the survival of both species. Many such crucial virus–host interactions have been identified and characterized for many viruses and their hosts, but even more remain to be revealed. The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is one such virus for which we already know of many critical virus host interactions. On the cellular level, HCV is known to interact with multiple cellular receptors in order to gain entry into host cells, and we know of numerous virus-host interactions that are at play during other steps of the HCV life cycle, including replication and virus production. Despite all that we have learned, many questions still remain regarding HCV. For example, why does a small percentage of HCV-infected individuals manage to clear the virus without any therapeutic intervention? How does the virus cause liver pathogenesis and in many cases hepatocellular carcinoma? What will happen to the immune system once the virus has been eliminated from the body? Great strides have been made toward answering these and other important questions, but clear answers will require continued examination of virus-host interactions in the context of HCV infection. The answers to these questions will help us to better understand HCV and its pathogenesis, as well as that of other viruses.

The purpose of this Special Issue is to highlight recent findings regarding how HCV interacts with its host at the cellular and organism levels. The goal of this issue is to provide a broad scope that would include research papers and reviews related to specific interactions between viral and cellular components, as well virus–host interactions, directly or indirectly affecting pathogenesis and disease.

Dr. Rod Russell
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • entry
  • replication
  • assembly
  • microRNA
  • innate immunity
  • inflammasomes
  • programmed cell ceath
  • viral pathogenesis

Published Papers (22 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 4144 KiB  
Article
Differential Roles of Lipin1 and Lipin2 in the Hepatitis C Virus Replication Cycle
by Victoria Castro, Gema Calvo, Ginés Ávila-Pérez, Marlène Dreux and Pablo Gastaminza
Cells 2019, 8(11), 1456; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8111456 - 18 Nov 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3598
Abstract
Although their origin, nature and structure are not identical, a common feature of positive-strand RNA viruses is their ability to subvert host lipids and intracellular membranes to generate replication and assembly complexes. Recently, lipin1, a cellular enzyme that converts phosphatidic acid into diacylglycerol, [...] Read more.
Although their origin, nature and structure are not identical, a common feature of positive-strand RNA viruses is their ability to subvert host lipids and intracellular membranes to generate replication and assembly complexes. Recently, lipin1, a cellular enzyme that converts phosphatidic acid into diacylglycerol, has been implicated in the formation of the membranous web that hosts hepatitis C virus (HCV) replicase. In the liver, lipin1 cooperates with lipin2 to maintain glycerolipid homeostasis. We extended our previous study of the lipin family on HCV infection, by determining the impact of the lipin2 silencing on viral replication. Our data reveal that lipin2 silencing interferes with HCV virion secretion at late stages of the infection, without significantly affecting viral replication or assembly. Moreover, uninfected lipin2-, but not lipin1-deficient cells display alterations in mitochondrial and Golgi apparatus morphology, suggesting that lipin2 contributes to the maintenance of the overall organelle architecture. Finally, our data suggest a broader function of lipin2 for replication of HCV and other RNA viruses, in contrast with the specific impact of lipin1 silencing on HCV replication. Overall, this study reveals distinctive functions of lipin1 and lipin2 in cells of hepatic origin, a context in which they are often considered functionally redundant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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17 pages, 950 KiB  
Article
NS5A Gene Analysis by Next Generation Sequencing in HCV Nosocomial Transmission Clusters of HCV Genotype 1b Infected Patients
by Maria Concetta Bellocchi, Marianna Aragri, Luca Carioti, Lavinia Fabeni, Rosaria Maria Pipitone, Giuseppina Brancaccio, Maria Chiara Sorbo, Silvia Barbaliscia, Velia Chiara Di Maio, Fabrizio Bronte, Stefania Grimaudo, Walter Mazzucco, Ferdinando Frigeri, Marco Cantone, Antonio Pinto, Carlo Federico Perno, Antonio Craxì, Giovanni Battista Gaeta, Vito Di Marco and Francesca Ceccherini-Silberstein
Cells 2019, 8(7), 666; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8070666 - 02 Jul 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3406
Abstract
Background: The aim of the study was to investigate the intra-host variability through next-generation-sequencing (NGS) of the NS5A-gene in nosocomial transmission-clusters observed in two Italian hospitals among hepatitis C virus (HCV)-genotype-1b infected patients. Methods: HCV-sequencing was performed by Sanger-sequencing (NS3 + [...] Read more.
Background: The aim of the study was to investigate the intra-host variability through next-generation-sequencing (NGS) of the NS5A-gene in nosocomial transmission-clusters observed in two Italian hospitals among hepatitis C virus (HCV)-genotype-1b infected patients. Methods: HCV-sequencing was performed by Sanger-sequencing (NS3 + NS5A + NS5B) and by NGS (NS5A, MiSeq-Illumina) in 15 HCV-1b infected patients [five acute with onco-hematologic-disease and 10 (4/6 acute/chronic) with β-thalassemia]. Resistance-associated-substitutions (RAS) were analysed by Geno2pheno-algorithm. Nucleotide-sequence-variability (NSV, at 1%, 2%, 5%, 10% and 15% NGS-cutoffs) and Shannon entropy were estimated. Phylogenetic analysis was performed by Mega6-software and Bayesian-analysis. Results: Phylogenetic analysis showed five transmission-clusters: one involving four HCV-acute onco-hematologic-patients; one involving three HCV-chronic β-thalassemia-patients and three involving both HCV-acute and chronic β-thalassemia-patients. The NS5A-RAS Y93H was found in seven patients, distributed differently among chronic/acute patients involved in the same transmission-clusters, independently from the host-genetic IL-28-polymorphism. The intra-host NSV was higher in chronic-patients versus acute-patients, at all cutoffs analyzed (p < 0.05). Even though Shannon-entropy was higher in chronic-patients, significantly higher values were observed only in chronic β-thalassemia-patients versus acute β-thalassemia-patients (p = 0.01). Conclusions: In nosocomial HCV transmission-clusters, the intra-host HCV quasispecies divergence in patients with acute-infection was very low in comparison to that in chronic-infection. The NS5A-RAS Y93H was often transmitted and distributed differently within the same transmission-clusters, independently from the IL-28-polymorphism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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15 pages, 6011 KiB  
Article
Identification of Keratin 23 as a Hepatitis C Virus-Induced Host Factor in the Human Liver
by Volker Kinast, Stefan L. Leber, Richard J. P. Brown, Gabrielle Vieyres, Patrick Behrendt, Constanze Eßbach, Pavel Strnad, Florian W. R. Vondran, Markus Cornberg, Cora Wex, Thomas Pietschmann, Johannes Haybaeck, Daniel Todt and Eike Steinmann
Cells 2019, 8(6), 610; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8060610 - 18 Jun 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4781
Abstract
Keratin proteins form intermediate filaments, which provide structural support for many tissues. Multiple keratin family members are reported to be associated with the progression of liver disease of multiple etiologies. For example, keratin 23 (KRT23) was reported as a stress-inducible protein, whose expression [...] Read more.
Keratin proteins form intermediate filaments, which provide structural support for many tissues. Multiple keratin family members are reported to be associated with the progression of liver disease of multiple etiologies. For example, keratin 23 (KRT23) was reported as a stress-inducible protein, whose expression levels correlate with the severity of liver disease. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a human pathogen that causes chronic liver diseases including fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. However, a link between KRT23 and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has not been reported previously. In this study, we investigated KRT23 mRNA levels in datasets from liver biopsies of chronic hepatitis C (CHC) patients and in primary human hepatocytes experimentally infected with HCV, in addition to hepatoma cells. Interestingly, in each of these specimens, we observed an HCV-dependent increase of mRNA levels. Importantly, the KRT23 protein levels in patient plasma decreased upon viral clearance. Ectopic expression of KRT23 enhanced HCV infection; however, CRIPSPR/Cas9-mediated knockout did not show altered replication efficiency. Taken together, our study identifies KRT23 as a novel, virus-induced host-factor for hepatitis C virus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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18 pages, 3200 KiB  
Article
Heterologous Immunity between Adenoviruses and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV): Recombinant Adenovirus Vaccine Vectors Containing Antigens from Unrelated Pathogens Induce Cross-Reactive Immunity Against HCV Antigens
by Babita Agrawal, Nancy Gupta, Satish Vedi, Shakti Singh, Wen Li, Saurabh Garg, Jie Li and Rakesh Kumar
Cells 2019, 8(5), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8050507 - 26 May 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5085
Abstract
Host immune responses play an important role in the outcome of infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV). They can lead to viral clearance and a positive outcome, or progression and severity of chronic disease. Extensive research in the past >25 years into understanding [...] Read more.
Host immune responses play an important role in the outcome of infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV). They can lead to viral clearance and a positive outcome, or progression and severity of chronic disease. Extensive research in the past >25 years into understanding the immune responses against HCV have still resulted in many unanswered questions implicating a role for unknown factors and events. In our earlier studies, we made a surprising discovery that peptides derived from structural and non-structural proteins of HCV have substantial amino acid sequence homologies with various proteins of adenoviruses and that immunizing mice with a non-replicating, non-recombinant adenovirus vector leads to induction of a robust cross-reactive cellular and humoral response against various HCV antigens. In this work, we further demonstrate antibody cross-reactivity between Ad and HCV in vivo. We also extend this observation to show that recombinant adenoviruses containing antigens from unrelated pathogens also possess the ability to induce cross-reactive immune responses against HCV antigens along with the induction of transgene antigen-specific immunity. This cross-reactive immunity can (a) accommodate the making of dual-pathogen vaccines, (b) play an important role in the natural course of HCV infection and (c) provide a plausible answer to many unexplained questions regarding immunity to HCV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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14 pages, 3108 KiB  
Article
Endoplasmic Reticulum Detergent-Resistant Membranes Accommodate Hepatitis C Virus Proteins for Viral Assembly
by Audrey Boyer, Julie Dreneau, Amélie Dumans, Julien Burlaud-Gaillard, Anne Bull-Maurer, Philippe Roingeard and Jean-Christophe Meunier
Cells 2019, 8(5), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8050487 - 22 May 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3866
Abstract
During Hepatitis C virus (HCV) morphogenesis, the non-structural protein 2 (NS2) brings the envelope proteins 1 and 2 (E1, E2), NS3, and NS5A together to form a complex at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, initiating HCV assembly. The nature of the interactions in [...] Read more.
During Hepatitis C virus (HCV) morphogenesis, the non-structural protein 2 (NS2) brings the envelope proteins 1 and 2 (E1, E2), NS3, and NS5A together to form a complex at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, initiating HCV assembly. The nature of the interactions in this complex is unclear, but replication complex and structural proteins have been shown to be associated with cellular membrane structures called detergent-resistant membranes (DRMs). We investigated the role of DRMs in NS2 complex formation, using a lysis buffer combining Triton and n-octyl glucoside, which solubilized both cell membranes and DRMs. When this lysis buffer was used on HCV-infected cells and the resulting lysates were subjected to flotation gradient centrifugation, all viral proteins and DRM-resident proteins were found in soluble protein fractions. Immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated direct protein–protein interactions between NS2 and E2 and E1 proteins, and an association of NS2 with NS3 through DRMs. The well-folded E1E2 complex and NS5A were not associated, instead interacting separately with the NS2-E1-E2-NS3 complex through less stable DRMs. Core was also associated with NS2 and the E1E2 complex through these unstable DRMs. We suggest that DRMs carrying this NS2-E1-E2-NS3-4A-NS5A-core complex may play a central role in HCV assembly initiation, potentially as an assembly platform. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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18 pages, 2290 KiB  
Article
Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection Impairs M1 Macrophage Differentiation and Contributes to CD8+ T-Cell Dysfunction
by Faria Ahmed, Andrea Ibrahim, Curtis L. Cooper, Ashok Kumar and Angela M. Crawley
Cells 2019, 8(4), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8040374 - 25 Apr 2019
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5082
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection causes generalized CD8+ T cell impairment, not limited to HCV-specific CD8+ T-cells. Liver-infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) contribute to the local micro-environment and can interact with and influence cells routinely trafficking through the liver, including CD8 [...] Read more.
Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection causes generalized CD8+ T cell impairment, not limited to HCV-specific CD8+ T-cells. Liver-infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) contribute to the local micro-environment and can interact with and influence cells routinely trafficking through the liver, including CD8+ T-cells. MDMs can be polarized into M1 (classically activated) and M2a, M2b, and M2c (alternatively activated) phenotypes that perform pro- and anti-inflammatory functions, respectively. The impact of chronic HCV infection on MDM subset functions is not known. Our results show that M1 cells generated from chronic HCV patients acquire M2 characteristics, such as increased CD86 expression and IL-10 secretion, compared to uninfected controls. In contrast, M2 subsets from HCV-infected individuals acquired M1-like features by secreting more IL-12 and IFN-γ. The severity of liver disease was also associated with altered macrophage subset differentiation. In co-cultures with autologous CD8+ T-cells from controls, M1 macrophages alone significantly increased CD8+ T cell IFN-γ expression in a cytokine-independent and cell-contact-dependent manner. However, M1 macrophages from HCV-infected individuals significantly decreased IFN-γ expression in CD8+ T-cells. Therefore, altered M1 macrophage differentiation in chronic HCV infection may contribute to observed CD8+ T-cell dysfunction. Understanding the immunological perturbations in chronic HCV infection will lead to the identification of therapeutic targets to restore immune function in HCV+ individuals, and aid in the mitigation of associated negative clinical outcomes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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11 pages, 2733 KiB  
Article
Microrna-130a Downregulates HCV Replication through an atg5-Dependent Autophagy Pathway
by Xiaoqiong Duan, Xiao Liu, Wenting Li, Jacinta A. Holmes, Annie J. Kruger, Chunhui Yang, Yujia Li, Min Xu, Haiyan Ye, Shuang Li, Xinzhong Liao, Qiuju Sheng, Dong Chen, Tuo Shao, Zhimeng Cheng, Batul Kaj, Esperance A. Schaefer, Shilin Li, Limin Chen, Wenyu Lin and Raymond T. Chungadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Cells 2019, 8(4), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8040338 - 10 Apr 2019
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3757
Abstract
We previously identified that miR-130a downregulates HCV replication through two independent pathways: restoration of host immune responses and regulation of pyruvate metabolism. In this study, we further sought to explore host antiviral target genes regulated by miR-130a. We performed a RT² Profiler™ PCR [...] Read more.
We previously identified that miR-130a downregulates HCV replication through two independent pathways: restoration of host immune responses and regulation of pyruvate metabolism. In this study, we further sought to explore host antiviral target genes regulated by miR-130a. We performed a RT² Profiler™ PCR array to identify the host antiviral genes regulated by miR-130a. The putative binding sites between miR-130a and its downregulated genes were predicted by miRanda. miR-130a and predicted target genes were over-expressed or knocked down by siRNA or CRISPR/Cas9 gRNA. Selected gene mRNAs and their proteins, together with HCV replication in JFH1 HCV-infected Huh7.5.1 cells were monitored by qRT-PCR and Western blot. We identified 32 genes that were significantly differentially expressed more than 1.5-fold following miR-130a overexpression, 28 of which were upregulated and 4 downregulated. We found that ATG5, a target gene for miR-130a, significantly upregulated HCV replication and downregulated interferon stimulated gene expression. miR-130a downregulated ATG5 expression and its conjugation complex with ATG12. ATG5 and ATG5-ATG12 complex affected interferon stimulated gene (ISG) such as MX1 and OAS3 expression and subsequently HCV replication. We concluded that miR-130a regulates host antiviral response and HCV replication through targeting ATG5 via the ATG5-dependent autophagy pathway. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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10 pages, 591 KiB  
Article
SVR12 Higher than 97% in GT3 Cirrhotic Patients with Evidence of Portal Hypertension Treated with SOF/VEL without Ribavirin: A Nation-Wide Cohort Study
by Alessandra Mangia, Giovanni Cenderello, Massimiliano Copetti, Gabriella Verucchi, Valeria Piazzolla, Celeste Lorusso, Rosanna Santoro, Maria Maddalena Squillante, Alessandra Orlandini, Rosalba Minisini and Alessia Ciancio
Cells 2019, 8(4), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8040313 - 04 Apr 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2981
Abstract
In clinical trials, a sofosbuvir/velpatasvir (SOF/VEL) pangenotypic single-tablet regimen was associated with high sustained virological response (SVR) rates at 12 weeks (SVR12) after the end of treatment, regardless of genotype and fibrosis stage. No real-life data on genotype 3 (GT3) cirrhotic patients with [...] Read more.
In clinical trials, a sofosbuvir/velpatasvir (SOF/VEL) pangenotypic single-tablet regimen was associated with high sustained virological response (SVR) rates at 12 weeks (SVR12) after the end of treatment, regardless of genotype and fibrosis stage. No real-life data on genotype 3 (GT3) cirrhotic patients with portal hypertension are available. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of SOF/VEL in GT3 cirrhotics with portal hypertension. Patients with GT3 and advanced cirrhosis were treated for 12 weeks with SOF/VEL without ribavirin at five different centers in Italy from June 2017 to August 2018 and their SVR12 was assessed. Of the 227 GT3 cirrhotics evaluated, 205 met the inclusion criteria and 111 had transient elastography results ≥20 KPa. SVR12 was 97.6% (95% CI 94.4–98.9), rates were 99.1% (95% CI 95.7–99.8) in patients with ≥20 KPa and 95.8% (95% CI 89.5–98.3) in those with <20 KPa (p = 0.18). Analyzed by presence of esophageal varices, the SVR12 rates were 98.4% (95% CI 91.4–99.7) and 97.1% (95% CI 92.9–98.9) in patients without and with varices, respectively (p = 1.0). In real life, SOF/VEL GT3 cirrhotic patients with evidence of portal hypertension can achieve SVR12 levels comparable to those of patients without portal hypertension. These SVR12 rates are similar to what is reported in compensated cirrhosis treated within clinical trials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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17 pages, 14461 KiB  
Article
Hepatitis C Virus Non-Structural Protein 5A (NS5A) Disrupts Mitochondrial Dynamics and Induces Mitophagy
by Alagie Jassey, Ching-Hsuan Liu, Chun A. Changou, Christopher D. Richardson, Hsue-Yin Hsu and Liang-Tzung Lin
Cells 2019, 8(4), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8040290 - 29 Mar 2019
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 6113
Abstract
Mitophagy is a selective form of autophagy, targeting damaged mitochondria for lysosomal degradation. Although HCV infection has been shown to induce mitophagy, the precise underlying mechanism and the effector protein responsible remain unclear. Herein, we demonstrated that the HCV non-structural protein 5A (NS5A) [...] Read more.
Mitophagy is a selective form of autophagy, targeting damaged mitochondria for lysosomal degradation. Although HCV infection has been shown to induce mitophagy, the precise underlying mechanism and the effector protein responsible remain unclear. Herein, we demonstrated that the HCV non-structural protein 5A (NS5A) plays a key role in regulating cellular mitophagy. Specifically, the expression of HCV NS5A in the hepatoma cells triggered hallmarks of mitophagy including mitochondrial fragmentation, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, and Parkin translocation to the mitochondria. Furthermore, mitophagy induction through the expression of NS5A led to an increase in autophagic flux as demonstrated by an accumulation of LC3II in the presence of bafilomycin and a time-dependent decrease in p62 protein level. Intriguingly, the expression of NS5A concomitantly enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and treatment with an antioxidant attenuated the NS5A-induced mitophagy event. These phenomena are similarly recapitulated in the NS5A-expressing HCV subgenomic replicon cells. Finally, we demonstrated that expression of HCV core, which has been documented to inhibit mitophagy, blocked the mitophagy induction both in cells harboring HCV replicating subgenomes or expressing NS5A alone. Our results, therefore, identified a new role for NS5A as an important regulator of HCV-induced mitophagy and have implications to broadening our understanding of the HCV-mitophagy interplay. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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14 pages, 1266 KiB  
Article
Hepatitis C Direct Acting Antivirals and Ribavirin Modify Lipid but not Glucose Parameters
by Mary-Anne Doyle, Chrissi Galanakis, Erin Mulvihill, Angela Crawley and Curtis L. Cooper
Cells 2019, 8(3), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8030252 - 15 Mar 2019
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3356
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis C (HCV) infection perturbs lipid and glucose metabolism. The influence of direct acting antiviral (DAA) treatment and ribavirin on these measures was evaluated. Furthermore, the effect of HCV cure on these parameters was assessed. Participants were allocated to one of three [...] Read more.
Chronic hepatitis C (HCV) infection perturbs lipid and glucose metabolism. The influence of direct acting antiviral (DAA) treatment and ribavirin on these measures was evaluated. Furthermore, the effect of HCV cure on these parameters was assessed. Participants were allocated to one of three 12-week treatment groups: non-cirrhotic genotype 1a-paritaprevir/ritonavir/ombitasvir/dasabuvir (PrOD) plus ribavirin; non-cirrhotic 1b-PrOD; compensated cirrhotic 1a or 1b-PrOD plus ribavirin. Fasting insulin, glucose, lipid and apolipoprotein measures were assessed at baseline, Treatment Weeks 4 and 12, and 12 and 24 weeks post-dosing. Twenty-three of 24 participants achieved SVR (PP= 23/24, 96% SVR). Overall, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and triglyceride levels all increased in treatment and post-dosing. However, LDL-C levels decreased during treatment in ribavirin recipients. Fasting glucose, insulin, and HOMA-IR were unchanged during treatment and 12 weeks post-treatment. By 12 weeks post-treatment, controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) scores, a measure of steatosis, increased from baseline (mean 30.3 ± 63.5, p = 0.05). This regimen was safe and highly effective and did not influence glucose metabolism. Ribavirin exposure may mitigate some on-treatment lipid changes. Further mechanistic studies are needed to understand how ribavirin impacts lipid pathways, as there could be therapeutic implications. The metabolic pathophysiology of increased CAP score with HCV treatment requires explanation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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28 pages, 3786 KiB  
Article
The Immunogenicity in Mice of HCV Core Delivered as DNA Is Modulated by Its Capacity to Induce Oxidative Stress and Oxidative Stress Response
by Juris Jansons, Irina Sominskaya, Natalia Petrakova, Elizaveta S. Starodubova, Olga A. Smirnova, Ekaterina Alekseeva, Ruta Bruvere, Olesja Eliseeva, Dace Skrastina, Elena Kashuba, Marija Mihailova, Sergey N. Kochetkov, Alexander V. Ivanov and Maria G. Isaguliants
Cells 2019, 8(3), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8030208 - 28 Feb 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3871
Abstract
HCV core is an attractive HCV vaccine target, however, clinical or preclinical trials of core-based vaccines showed little success. We aimed to delineate what restricts its immunogenicity and improve immunogenic performance in mice. We designed plasmids encoding full-length HCV 1b core and its [...] Read more.
HCV core is an attractive HCV vaccine target, however, clinical or preclinical trials of core-based vaccines showed little success. We aimed to delineate what restricts its immunogenicity and improve immunogenic performance in mice. We designed plasmids encoding full-length HCV 1b core and its variants truncated after amino acids (aa) 60, 98, 152, 173, or up to aa 36 using virus-derived or synthetic polynucleotides (core191/60/98/152/173/36_191v or core152s DNA, respectively). We assessed their level of expression, route of degradation, ability to trigger the production of reactive oxygen species/ROS, and to activate the components of the Nrf2/ARE antioxidant defense pathway heme oxygenase 1/HO-1 and NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase/Nqo-1. All core variants with the intact N-terminus induced production of ROS, and up-regulated expression of HO-1 and Nqo-1. The capacity of core variants to induce ROS and up-regulate HO-1 and Nqo-1 expression predetermined their immunogenicity in DNA-immunized BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice. The most immunogenic was core 152s, expressed at a modest level and inducing moderate oxidative stress and oxidative stress response. Thus, immunogenicity of HCV core is shaped by its ability to induce ROS and oxidative stress response. These considerations are important in understanding the mechanisms of viral suppression of cellular immune response and in HCV vaccine design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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16 pages, 1989 KiB  
Article
Dysregulation of the Immune System in HIV/HCV-Coinfected Patients According to Liver Stiffness Status
by Pilar Garcia-Broncano, Luz Maria Medrano, Juan Berenguer, Juan González-García, Mª Ángeles Jiménez-Sousa, Ana Carrero, Victor Hontañón, Josep M. Guardiola, Manuel Crespo, Carmen Quereda, José Sanz, Ana Belen García-Gómez, Jose Luis Jimenez, Salvador Resino and The GESIDA 3603b Study Group
Cells 2018, 7(11), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells7110196 - 02 Nov 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4156
Abstract
Background: Advanced cirrhosis is related to alterations in immunity. We aimed to evaluate the levels of peripheral CD4+ T cells (Tregs) and plasma cytokine in patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus (HIV/HCV) according to liver fibrosis stages [evaluated [...] Read more.
Background: Advanced cirrhosis is related to alterations in immunity. We aimed to evaluate the levels of peripheral CD4+ T cells (Tregs) and plasma cytokine in patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus (HIV/HCV) according to liver fibrosis stages [evaluated as liver stiffness measure (LSM)] and their linear relationship. Methods: We performed a cross-sectional study on 238 HIV/HCV-coinfected patients (119 had <12.5 kPa, 73 had 12.5–25 kPa, and 46 had >25 kPa). Peripheral T-cell subsets were phenotyped by flow cytometry, plasma biomarkers were assessed by multiplex immunoassays, and LSM was assessed by transient elastography. Results: We found HIV/HCV-coinfected patients had higher values of CD4+ Tregs (p < 0.001), memory Tregs (p ≤ 0.001), and plasma cytokine levels [IFN-γ (p ≤ 0.05) and IL-10 (p ≤ 0.01)] compared with healthy donors and HIV-monoinfected patients. In the multivariate analysis, higher LSM values were associated with reduced levels of IL-10 (adjusted arithmetic mean ratio (aAMR) = 0.83; p = 0.019), IL-2 (aAMR = 0.78; p = 0.017), TNF-α (aAMR = 0.67; p < 0.001), and IL-17A (aAMR = 0.75; p = 0.006). When we focus on HIV/HCV-coinfected patients analyzed by LSM strata, patients with ≥25 kPa had lower values of IL-2 (aAMR = 0.66; p = 0.021), TNF-α (aAMR = 0.565; p = 0.003), and IL-17A (aAMR = 0.58; p = 0.003) than patients with <12.5 kPa. Conclusion: HIV/HCV-coinfected patients showed an immunosuppressive profile compared to healthy controls and HIV-monoinfected patients. Additionally, HIV/HCV-coinfected patients with advanced cirrhosis (LSM ≥ 25 kPa) had the lowest plasma values of cytokines related to Th1 (IL-2 and TNF-α) and Th17 (IL-17A) response. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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Review

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27 pages, 388 KiB  
Review
Humanized Mouse Models for the Study of Hepatitis C and Host Interactions
by Kylie Su Mei Yong, Zhisheng Her and Qingfeng Chen
Cells 2019, 8(6), 604; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8060604 - 17 Jun 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3916
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is commonly attributed as a major cause of chronic hepatotropic diseases, such as, steatosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. As HCV infects only humans and primates, its narrow host tropism hampers in vivo studies of HCV-mammalian host interactions and [...] Read more.
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is commonly attributed as a major cause of chronic hepatotropic diseases, such as, steatosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. As HCV infects only humans and primates, its narrow host tropism hampers in vivo studies of HCV-mammalian host interactions and the development of effective therapeutics and vaccines. In this context, we will focus our discussion on humanized mice in HCV research. Here, these humanized mice are defined as animal models that encompass either only human hepatocytes or both human liver and immune cells. Aspects related to immunopathogenesis, anti-viral interventions, drug testing and perspectives of these models for future HCV research will be discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
20 pages, 611 KiB  
Review
The Role of Micronutrients in the Infection and Subsequent Response to Hepatitis C Virus
by Sunil Gupta, Scott A. Read, Nicholas A. Shackel, Lionel Hebbard, Jacob George and Golo Ahlenstiel
Cells 2019, 8(6), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8060603 - 17 Jun 2019
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 7339
Abstract
Micronutrient deficiencies develop for a variety of reasons, whether geographic, socioeconomic, nutritional, or as a result of disease pathologies such as chronic viral infection. As micronutrients are essential for a strong immune response, deficiencies can significantly dampen both the innate and the adaptive [...] Read more.
Micronutrient deficiencies develop for a variety of reasons, whether geographic, socioeconomic, nutritional, or as a result of disease pathologies such as chronic viral infection. As micronutrients are essential for a strong immune response, deficiencies can significantly dampen both the innate and the adaptive arms of antiviral immunity. The innate immune response in particular is crucial to protect against hepatitis C virus (HCV), a hepatotropic virus that maintains chronic infection in up to 80% of individuals if left untreated. While many micronutrients are required for HCV replication, an overlapping group of micronutrients are also necessary to enact a potent immune response. As the liver is responsible for the storage and metabolism of many micronutrients, HCV persistence can influence the micronutrients’ steady state to benefit viral persistence both directly and by weakening the antiviral response. This review will focus on common micronutrients such as zinc, iron, copper, selenium, vitamin A, vitamin B12, vitamin D and vitamin E. We will explore their role in the pathogenesis of HCV infection and in the response to antiviral therapy. While chronic hepatitis C virus infection drives deficiencies in micronutrients such as zinc, selenium, vitamin A and B12, it also stimulates copper and iron excess; these micronutrients influence antioxidant, inflammatory and immune responses to HCV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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27 pages, 1047 KiB  
Review
Hepatitis C Virus Infection: Host–Virus Interaction and Mechanisms of Viral Persistence
by DeGaulle I. Chigbu, Ronak Loonawat, Mohit Sehgal, Dip Patel and Pooja Jain
Cells 2019, 8(4), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8040376 - 25 Apr 2019
Cited by 80 | Viewed by 15287
Abstract
Hepatitis C (HCV) is a major cause of liver disease, in which a third of individuals with chronic HCV infections may develop liver cirrhosis. In a chronic HCV infection, host immune factors along with the actions of HCV proteins that promote viral persistence [...] Read more.
Hepatitis C (HCV) is a major cause of liver disease, in which a third of individuals with chronic HCV infections may develop liver cirrhosis. In a chronic HCV infection, host immune factors along with the actions of HCV proteins that promote viral persistence and dysregulation of the immune system have an impact on immunopathogenesis of HCV-induced hepatitis. The genome of HCV encodes a single polyprotein, which is translated and processed into structural and nonstructural proteins. These HCV proteins are the target of the innate and adaptive immune system of the host. Retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)-like receptors and Toll-like receptors are the main pattern recognition receptors that recognize HCV pathogen-associated molecular patterns. This interaction results in a downstream cascade that generates antiviral cytokines including interferons. The cytolysis of HCV-infected hepatocytes is mediated by perforin and granzyme B secreted by cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) and natural killer (NK) cells, whereas noncytolytic HCV clearance is mediated by interferon gamma (IFN-γ) secreted by CTL and NK cells. A host–HCV interaction determines whether the acute phase of an HCV infection will undergo complete resolution or progress to the development of viral persistence with a consequential progression to chronic HCV infection. Furthermore, these host–HCV interactions could pose a challenge to developing an HCV vaccine. This review will focus on the role of the innate and adaptive immunity in HCV infection, the failure of the immune response to clear an HCV infection, and the factors that promote viral persistence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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17 pages, 551 KiB  
Review
Restoration of HCV-Specific Immune Responses with Antiviral Therapy: A Case for DAA Treatment in Acute HCV Infection
by Julia L. Casey, Jordan J. Feld and Sonya A. MacParland
Cells 2019, 8(4), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8040317 - 05 Apr 2019
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4413
Abstract
Worldwide, 71 million individuals are chronically infected with Hepatitis C Virus (HCV). Chronic HCV infection can lead to potentially fatal outcomes including liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. HCV-specific immune responses play a major role in viral control and may explain why approximately 20% [...] Read more.
Worldwide, 71 million individuals are chronically infected with Hepatitis C Virus (HCV). Chronic HCV infection can lead to potentially fatal outcomes including liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. HCV-specific immune responses play a major role in viral control and may explain why approximately 20% of infections are spontaneously cleared before the establishment of chronicity. Chronic infection, associated with prolonged antigen exposure, leads to immune exhaustion of HCV-specific T cells. These exhausted T cells are unable to control the viral infection. Before the introduction of direct acting antivirals (DAAs), interferon (IFN)-based therapies demonstrated successful clearance of viral infection in approximately 50% of treated patients. New effective and well-tolerated DAAs lead to a sustained virological response (SVR) in more than 95% of patients regardless of viral genotype. Researchers have investigated whether treatment, and the subsequent elimination of HCV antigen, can reverse this HCV-induced exhausted phenotype. Here we review literature exploring the restoration of HCV-specific immune responses following antiviral therapy, both IFN and DAA-based regimens. IFN treatment during acute HCV infection results in greater immune restoration than IFN treatment of chronically infected patients. Immune restoration data following DAA treatment in chronically HCV infected patients shows varied results but suggests that DAA treatment may lead to partial restoration that could be improved with earlier administration. Future research should investigate immune restoration following DAA therapies administered during acute HCV infection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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21 pages, 885 KiB  
Review
Hepatitis C Virus Genetic Variability, Human Immune Response, and Genome Polymorphisms: Which Is the Interplay?
by Daniele Lapa, Anna Rosa Garbuglia, Maria Rosaria Capobianchi and Paola Del Porto
Cells 2019, 8(4), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8040305 - 03 Apr 2019
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4742
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is the main cause of chronic hepatitis, affecting an estimated 150 million people worldwide. Initial exposure to HCV is most often followed by chronic hepatitis, with only a minority of individuals spontaneously clearing the virus. The induction of [...] Read more.
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is the main cause of chronic hepatitis, affecting an estimated 150 million people worldwide. Initial exposure to HCV is most often followed by chronic hepatitis, with only a minority of individuals spontaneously clearing the virus. The induction of sustained and broadly directed HCV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, together with neutralizing antibodies (nAb), and specific genetic polymorphism have been associated with spontaneous resolution of the infection. However, due to its high variability, HCV is able to overwhelm the host immune response through the rapid acquisition of mutations in the epitopes targeted by T cells and neutralizing antibodies. In this context, immune-mediated pressure represents the main force in driving HCV evolution. This review summarizes the data on HCV diversity and the current state of knowledge about the contributions of antibodies, T cells, and host genetic polymorphism in driving HCV evolution in vivo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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14 pages, 865 KiB  
Review
Strategies to Circumvent Host Innate Immune Response by Hepatitis C Virus
by Tapas Patra, Ratna B. Ray and Ranjit Ray
Cells 2019, 8(3), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8030274 - 22 Mar 2019
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5881
Abstract
Innate immune responses generate interferons, proinflammatory cytokines, complement activation, and natural killer (NK) cell response. Ultimately, this leads to the induction of a robust virus-specific adaptive immunity. Although the host innate immune system senses and responds to eliminate virus infection, hepatitis C virus [...] Read more.
Innate immune responses generate interferons, proinflammatory cytokines, complement activation, and natural killer (NK) cell response. Ultimately, this leads to the induction of a robust virus-specific adaptive immunity. Although the host innate immune system senses and responds to eliminate virus infection, hepatitis C virus (HCV) evades immune attack and establishes persistent infection within the liver. Spontaneous clearance of HCV infection is associated with a prompt induction of innate immunity generated in an infected host. In this review, we have highlighted the current knowledge of our understanding of host–HCV interactions, especially for endogenous interferon production, proinflammatory response, NK cell response, and complement activation, which may impair the generation of a strong adaptive immune response for establishment of chronicity. The information may provide novel strategies in augmenting therapeutic intervention against HCV. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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31 pages, 3308 KiB  
Review
HCV Pit Stop at the Lipid Droplet: Refuel Lipids and Put on a Lipoprotein Coat before Exit
by Gabrielle Vieyres and Thomas Pietschmann
Cells 2019, 8(3), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8030233 - 12 Mar 2019
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 7195
Abstract
The replication cycle of the liver-tropic hepatitis C virus (HCV) is tightly connected to the host lipid metabolism, during the virus entry, replication, assembly and egress stages, but also while the virus circulates in the bloodstream. This interplay coins viral particle properties, governs [...] Read more.
The replication cycle of the liver-tropic hepatitis C virus (HCV) is tightly connected to the host lipid metabolism, during the virus entry, replication, assembly and egress stages, but also while the virus circulates in the bloodstream. This interplay coins viral particle properties, governs viral cell tropism, and facilitates immune evasion. This review summarizes our knowledge of these interactions focusing on the late steps of the virus replication cycle. It builds on our understanding of the cell biology of lipid droplets and the biosynthesis of liver lipoproteins and attempts to explain how HCV hijacks these organelles and pathways to assemble its lipo-viro-particles. In particular, this review describes (i) the mechanisms of viral protein translocation to and from the lipid droplet surface and the orchestration of an interface between replication and assembly complexes, (ii) the importance of the triglyceride mobilization from the lipid droplets for HCV assembly, (iii) the interplay between HCV and the lipoprotein synthesis pathway including the role played by apolipoproteins in virion assembly, and finally (iv) the consequences of these complex virus–host interactions on the virion composition and its biophysical properties. The wealth of data accumulated in the past years on the role of the lipid metabolism in HCV assembly and its imprint on the virion properties will guide vaccine design efforts and reinforce our understanding of the hepatic lipid metabolism in health and disease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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10 pages, 248 KiB  
Review
Viral Persistence and Chronicity in Hepatitis C Virus Infection: Role of T-Cell Apoptosis, Senescence and Exhaustion
by Muttiah Barathan, Rosmawati Mohamed, Yean K. Yong, Meganathan Kannan, Jamuna Vadivelu, Alireza Saeidi, Marie Larsson and Esaki Muthu Shankar
Cells 2018, 7(10), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells7100165 - 12 Oct 2018
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4789
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) represents a challenging global health threat to ~200 million infected individuals. Clinical data suggest that only ~10–15% of acutely HCV-infected individuals will achieve spontaneous viral clearance despite exuberant virus-specific immune responses, which is largely attributed to difficulties in recognizing [...] Read more.
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) represents a challenging global health threat to ~200 million infected individuals. Clinical data suggest that only ~10–15% of acutely HCV-infected individuals will achieve spontaneous viral clearance despite exuberant virus-specific immune responses, which is largely attributed to difficulties in recognizing the pathognomonic symptoms during the initial stages of exposure to the virus. Given the paucity of a suitable small animal model, it is also equally challenging to study the early phases of viral establishment. Further, the host factors contributing to HCV chronicity in a vast majority of acutely HCV-infected individuals largely remain unexplored. The last few years have witnessed a surge in studies showing that HCV adopts myriad mechanisms to disconcert virus-specific immune responses in the host to establish persistence, which includes, but is not limited to viral escape mutations, viral growth at privileged sites, and antagonism. Here we discuss a few hitherto poorly explained mechanisms employed by HCV that are believed to lead to chronicity in infected individuals. A better understanding of these mechanisms would aid the design of improved therapeutic targets against viral establishment in susceptible individuals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)

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9 pages, 1084 KiB  
Case Report
Clinical, Virological Characteristics, and Outcomes of Treatment with Sofosbuvir/Ledipasvir in Two Pediatric Patients Infected by HCV Genotype 4
by Nadia Marascio, Maria Mazzitelli, Grazia Pavia, Aida Giancotti, Giorgio Settimo Barreca, Chiara Costa, Vincenzo Pisani, Giuseppe Greco, Francesca Serapide, Enrico Maria Trecarichi, Francesco Casalinuovo, Maria Carla Liberto, Giovanni Matera and Carlo Torti
Cells 2019, 8(5), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells8050416 - 05 May 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2962
Abstract
Direct-acting antiviral drugs to cure infections with Hepatitis C virus (HCV) achieve a sustained virological response (SVR) in more than 90% of adult patients. At present, clinical trials are ongoing and real-life data are still limited in children. Herein, we report two cases [...] Read more.
Direct-acting antiviral drugs to cure infections with Hepatitis C virus (HCV) achieve a sustained virological response (SVR) in more than 90% of adult patients. At present, clinical trials are ongoing and real-life data are still limited in children. Herein, we report two cases of pediatric patients treated with fixed-dose combination of sofosbuvir/ledipasvir, already approved to treat HCV4 genotype. Both young girls achieved SVR even though HCV4 isolates carried L28M and M31L NS5A resistance-associated substitutions (RASs). Therefore, possible effects of these RASs merit further study, especially in children. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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5 pages, 978 KiB  
Brief Report
The Hepatitis C Virus-Induced Membranous Web in Liver Tissue
by Emmanuelle Blanchard and Philippe Roingeard
Cells 2018, 7(11), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells7110191 - 01 Nov 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3188
Abstract
Host cell membrane rearrangements induced by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) have been exclusively studied in vitro. These studies have shown that HCV induces double-membrane vesicles (DMVs), which probably serve to separate replication sites from the cytoplasmic sensors of the innate immune [...] Read more.
Host cell membrane rearrangements induced by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) have been exclusively studied in vitro. These studies have shown that HCV induces double-membrane vesicles (DMVs), which probably serve to separate replication sites from the cytoplasmic sensors of the innate immune response. We report for the first time the observation of HCV-induced membrane rearrangements in liver biopsy specimens from patients chronically infected with HCV. Unlike observations performed in vitro, the membranous web detected in liver tissue seems essentially made of clusters of single-membrane vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and close to lipid droplets. This suggests that the DMVs could be a hallmark of laboratory-adapted HCV strains, possibly due to their ability to achieve a high level of replication. Alternatively, the concealment of viral RNA in DMVs may be part of innate immune response mechanisms particularly developed in hepatoma cell lines cultured in vitro. In any case, this constitutes the first report showing the differences in the membranous web established by HCV in vitro and in vivo. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hepatitis C Virus and Host Interactions)
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