Tempering Improves Flour Properties of Refined Intermediate Wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Flour and Kernel Moisture Uptake During Tempering
3.2. Color
3.3. Flour Composition
3.3.1. Ash, Insoluble Dietary Fiber, and Protein
3.3.2. Starch and Damaged Starch
3.4. Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO) Activity
3.5. Solvent Retention Capacity
3.6. Principal Component Analysis
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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30 °C | Incubation Time | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4 h | 8 h | 24 h | ||||
Target Moisture (%) | Kernel | Flour | Kernel | Flour | Kernel | Flour |
NT 1 | 8.85 ± 0.05 c | 8.94 ± 0.04 C* | 9.00 ± 0.05 c | 9.22 ± 0.15 C | 9.22 ± 0.02 c | 8.47 ± 0.02 B |
12 | 11.88 ± 0.27 b | 10.68 ± 0.07 B | 12.10 ± 0.06 b* | 10.09 ± 0.07 B | 11.51 ± 0.49 b | 10.7 ± 0.45 A |
14 | 13.93 ± 0.35 a | 12.06 ± 0.20 A | 14.07 ± 0.01 a* | 12.02 ± 0.23 A | 13.45 ± 0.48 a | 11.44 ± 0.20 A |
45 °C | 4 h | 8 h | 24 h | |||
Target Moisture (%) | Kernel | Flour | Kernel | Flour | Kernel | Flour |
NT | 8.72 ± 0.03 b | 8.59 ± 0.02 C* | 9.02 ± 0.25 c | 9.09 ± 0.14 C | 9.09 ± 0.03 c | 8.26 ± 0.10 C |
12 | 12.62 ± 0.06 a | 11.21 ± 0.11 B | 12.01 ± 0.06 b* | 11.05 ± 0.06 B | 11.76 ± 0.05 b | 11.17 ± 0.03 B |
14 | 13.42 ± 0.54 a | 12.32 ± 0.09 A | 13.61 ± 0.01 a* | 12.06 ± 0.14 A | 13.45 ± 0.01 a | 12.24 ± 0.03 A |
L | Incubation Time/Temperature | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4 h | 8 h | 24 h | ||||
Target Moisture (%) | 30 °C | 45 °C | 30 °C | 45 °C | 30 °C | 45 °C |
NT | 85.90 ± 0.63 b | 85.35 ± 0.86 b | 85.75 ± 0.43 b | 86.25 ± 0.31 | 84.70 ± 0.28 b | 86.11 ± 0.59 b |
12 | 88.34 ± 0.11 a | 87.89 ± 0.22 a | 88.09 ± 0.17 a | 88.03 ± 0.26 | 86.84 ± 1.25 ab | 87.76 ± 0.35 a |
14 | 88.57 ± 0.25 a | 88.25 ± 0.14 a | 88.72 ± 0.01 a | 88.51 ± 0.22 | 88.98 ± 0.04 a | 88.14 ± 0.07 a |
a | ||||||
NT | −6.19 ± 0.06 a | −5.99 ± 0.00 a | −5.86 ± 0.04 a | −6.07 ± 0.16 a | −5.52 ± 0.35 a | −6.10 ± 0.11 a |
12 | −6.93 ± 0.05 b | −7.05 ± 0.07 b | −6.83 ± 0.07 b | −6.93 ± 0.08 b | −6.58 ± 0.19 b | −6.78 ± 0.07 b |
14 | −7.15 ± 0.11 b | −7.14 ± 0.02 b | −7.06 ± 0.11 b | −7.23 ± 0.06 b | −7.08 ± 0.13 b | −7.09 ± 0.05 c |
b | ||||||
NT | 19.24 ± 0.69 b | 18.95 ± 0.11 c | 18.90 ± 0.29 c | 19.33 ± 0.23 c | 18.27 ± 0.65 | 19.24 ± 0.56 b |
12 | 20.32 ± 0.06 ab | 20.56 ± 0.03 b | 20.35 ± 0.31 b | 20.69 ± 0.48 b | 19.58 ± 1.14 | 20.51 ± 0.34 ab |
14 | 21.32 ± 0.33 a | 21.34 ± 0.36 a | 21.40 ± 0.07 a | 21.84 ±0.31 a | 21.32 ± 0.13 | 21.29 ± 0.35 a |
Incubation Time/Temperature | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Target Moisture (%) | 4 h | 8 h | 24 h | ||||
30 °C | 45 °C | 30 °C | 45 °C | 30 °C | 45 °C | ||
Ash | |||||||
NT 1 | 0.82 ± 0.00 aB | 0.80 ± 0.04 a | 0.90 ± 0.01 aB | 0.79 ± 0.01 a | 1.02 ± 0.05 aA | 0.77 ± 0.03 a | |
12 | 0.69 ± 0.01 b | 0.66 ± 0.01 bA | 0.70 ± 0.04 b | 0.59 ± 0.01 bB | 0.71 ± 0.02 b* | 0.63 ± 0.02 bA* | |
14 | 0.68 ± 0.04 b | 0.67 ± 0.02 b | 0.71 ± 0.03 b* | 0.65 ± 0.03 b* | 0.70 ± 0.03 b | 0.64 ± 0.01 b | |
Insoluble dietary fiber | |||||||
NT | 5.81 ± 0.39 a | 7.45 ± 0.12 aA | 6.83 ± 0.55 a | 6.93 ± 0.24 aA | 8.50 ± 1.18 a | 6.46 ± 0.31 aB | |
12 | 4.39 ± 0.51 b | 3.90 ± 0.22 b | 4.07 ± 0.50 b | 4.31 ± 0.41 b | 4.55 ± 0.43 b | 3.65 ± 0.17 b | |
14 | 2.37 ± 0.02 cB | 3.97 ± 0.28 bA | 2.79 ± 0.96 bB* | 4.00 ± 0.00 bA* | 4.69 ± 0.12 bA | 3.22 ± 0.18 bB | |
Protein | |||||||
NT | 19.25 ± 0.10 | 19.45 ± 0.06 aAB | 19.35 ± 0.14 | 19.57 ± 0.08a A | 19.01 ± 0.06 b | 19.28 ± 0.03 B | |
12 | 19.34 ± 0.19 | 19.19 ± 0.02 b | 19.39 ± 0.05 | 19.21 ± 0.03 b | 19.37 ± 0.04 a | 19.26 ± 0.02 | |
14 | 19.04 ± 0.05 | 19.11 ± 0.10 b | 19.48 ± 0.29 | 18.99 ± 0.06 c | 19.16 ± 0.06 b | 19.27 ± 0.09 |
Lactic Acid SRC | Incubation Time/Temperature | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4 h | 8 h | 24 h | ||||
Target Moisture (%) | 30 °C | 45 °C | 30 °C | 45 °C | 30 °C | 45 °C |
NT 1 | 93.7 ± 1.3 bA | 96.9 ± 1.7 bA | 88.9 ± 0.0 B | 88.1 ± 0.9 bB | 92.8 ± 0.8 bA | 94.0 ± 0.8 A |
12 | 100.8 ± 1.1 aA* | 107.2 ± 0.9 a* | 95.5 ± 0.4 B | 105.5 ± 0.9 a | 97.8 ± 0.8 bB* | 105.4 ± 0.7 * |
14 | 103.2 ± 0.2 a | 102.8 ± 1.4 a | 106.5 ± 8.0 | 104.4 ± 1.3 a | 112.2 ± 6.1 a | 109.6 ± 7.5 |
Sodium carbonate SRC | ||||||
NT | 111.0 ± 0.2 * | 115.9 ± 1.2 aB* | 112.6 ± 3.9 * | 129.0 ± 3.9 aA* | 121.8 ± 4.7 a* | 132.7 ± 1.9 aA* |
12 | 109.2 ± 1.5 * | 113.6 ± 0.3 ab* | 108.1 ± 2.1 * | 110.9 ± 3.1 b* | 105.2 ± 2.8 b | 112.1 ± 0.6 b |
14 | 108.4 ± 0.8 | 110.1 ± 1.5 b | 111.5 ± 1.4 | 113.7 ± 0.2 b | 110.5 ± 3.2 ab* | 114.2 ± 1.4 b* |
Sucrose SRC | ||||||
NT | 131.1 ± 1.4 b | 130.4 ± 4.5 b | 123.3 ± 0.5 b | 126.7 ± 3.7 | 142.5 ± 14.2 | 143.8 ± 17.6 |
12 | 149.3 ± 3.2 a | 150.2 ± 0.1 a | 124.9 ± 2.2 b | 132.2 ± 8.0 | 128.8 ± 10.9 | 139.9 ± 3.4 |
14 | 147.0 ± 6.2 a | 147.4 ± 1.3 a | 139.6 ± 3.9 a | 143.7 ± 0.9 | 141.3 ± 3.7 | 140.9 ± 3.2 |
Water SRC | ||||||
NT | 89.1 ± 0.4 | 88.4 ± 1.6 b | 91.6 ± 1.5 a | 86.3 ± 0.4 b | 94.5 ± 3.6 * | 87.9 ± 1.0 b* |
12 | 87.4 ± 1.5 * | 91.9 ± 1.0 aA* | 86.3 ± 0.8 b | 86.8 ± 1.7 bB | 86.0 ± 3.2 | 89.1 ± 0.0 bAB |
14 | 89.6 ± 0.9 * | 93.1 ± 0.0 aAB* | 89.1 ± 0.9 ab* | 91.4 ± 0.5 aB* | 92.1 ± 5.1 | 94.0 ± 0.8 aA |
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Tyl, C.; Bharathi, R.; Schoenfuss, T.; Annor, G.A. Tempering Improves Flour Properties of Refined Intermediate Wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium). Foods 2019, 8, 337. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8080337
Tyl C, Bharathi R, Schoenfuss T, Annor GA. Tempering Improves Flour Properties of Refined Intermediate Wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium). Foods. 2019; 8(8):337. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8080337
Chicago/Turabian StyleTyl, Catrin, Radhika Bharathi, Tonya Schoenfuss, and George Amponsah Annor. 2019. "Tempering Improves Flour Properties of Refined Intermediate Wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium)" Foods 8, no. 8: 337. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8080337