Job Satisfaction among Secondary-School-Heads: A Gender Based-Comparative Study

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to examine and compare the job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. All the male and female secondary-school heads working in pubic secondary schools of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa constituted the population of the study. A total sample of 402 secondary-school heads was selected through multistage sampling technique in which 260 were males and 142 were females. Descriptive and quantitative research design was used. A standardized tool (i.e., “Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire” (MSQ)) was used for data collection. For statistical analysis, proper descriptive statistics (i.e., mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (i.e., independent samples t-test) were employed. The findings revealed that secondary-school heads were found dissatisfied with ability utilization, advancement, education policies and practices, creativity, compensation, supervision (HR), supervision (technical), and working conditions. There was no significant difference between the job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads with respect to overall intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors. Based on these findings, it was recommended that productive and effective measures should to be taken by the Ministry of Education Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to maintain and strengthen the employees’ level of satisfaction at each level. The Ministry of Education should devise compelling, productive, and effective education policies that are promising to the employees’ prosperity and organizational productivity.

1. Introduction

Job satisfaction is increasingly imperative in the working environment and has been associated with numerous factors, including efficiency, productivity, non-attendance, turnover, and so on. Employees’ job satisfaction is indispensable in confronting the dynamic and ever-increasing complications and challenges of maintaining profitability of an organization by keeping their employees regularly engaged and inspired [1]. The occupation of school head has become more demanding and intense. The importance of job satisfaction has been recognized as increasingly dire in educational settings because both head teachers and educators are managing the future of the society in which they work [2]. Therefore, the responsibilities of a school head are very crucial to ensure the successful performance of school by ensuring a favorable climate, provision of adequate resources, and ensuring strong relationships and satisfactory performance of students [3,4,5,6]. School heads cannot accomplish their duties and responsibilities successfully until they are satisfied and secure in a workplace. Leaders with problems can lead to various negative and undesirable consequences for organizations and its workforce, which negatively affect the overall organizational achievements. Therefore, job satisfaction is the dominant variable because it is directly related to organizational productivity and individuals’ prosperity.

The concept of job satisfaction was initially introduced in the Hawthorne investigations during the 1920s and 1930s by Elton Mayo at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago. Job satisfaction is a multifaceted and complex variable that can describe different things to different people. Job satisfaction is an employee’s feeling of attainment and accomplishment at work. It is generally perceived to be directly related to efficiency and individual’s prosperity. Job satisfaction is an undertaking one appreciates, enjoys, performs it effectively and being rewarded for one’s efforts. Job satisfaction also suggests excitement and pleasure with one’s work. Job satisfaction is the fundamental that contributes to appreciation, advancement, income, and the accomplishment of different goals that cause feeling of satisfaction [7]. Job satisfaction is also defined as the end condition of feeling, the feeling that is encountered after completing a task and may be negative or positive depending on the outcomes of the errand endeavored [8]. Likewise, job satisfaction is the set of emotions and beliefs that individuals have about their current job. Individuals’ level of job satisfaction can range from extraordinary satisfaction to outrageous disappointment. Individuals also can have different views about different facets of their professions, for example, the nature of work they do, their colleagues, managers or subordinates and their compensation [9]. Job satisfaction is a greater amount of a disposition, and inside state. It might, for example, be associated with an individual’s emotions of attainment having quantitative or qualitative nature [10]. Job satisfaction is one of the most grounded indicators of esteemed organizational productivity, organizational responsibility, and commitment [11]. Job satisfaction is viewed as a worker’s demeanor towards employment and the employment circumstances [12].

A number of research studies have been carried out to compare the job satisfaction of male and female individuals in different contexts [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23]. In some research studies, no significant difference was found between the job satisfaction of males and females while in many research studies it was found that males are more satisfied with their employment as compared to females. On the other hand, some research studies have found contrary outcomes in which they found that females are more satisfied with their job than males. Rast and Tourani [13] found that employees were moderately satisfied with their job and there was no significant difference between the job satisfaction of male and female employees. Mumtaz, Suleman and Ahmad [14] concluded that on the whole, higher secondary-school heads were found satisfied intrinsically and extrinsically with their job position except for five dimensions i.e., ability utilization, supervision (HR), supervision (technical), education policies and working conditions. Furthermore, no significant difference was found between male and female higher secondary-school heads’ satisfaction with regard to intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions of their job except for ability utilization and compensation. Similarly, Donohue and Heywood [15] found no significant difference between the job satisfaction of male and female individuals. Oshagbemi [24] investigated that gender has no substantial effect on job satisfaction. Likewise, Koyuncu, Burke, and Fiksenbaum [16] reported that there was no significant contrast in the job satisfaction of male and female instructors. Ali and Akhter [17] expressed that there was no huge distinction between the perspectives of male and female employees with respect to job satisfaction. On the other hand, Ghazi [18] found that female head teachers were more satisfied than males. In the same way, Mahmood [19] also found that female respondents were more satisfied with their employment than male respondents. Ali et al. [20] also concluded that there was a noteworthy contrast of employment satisfaction between male and female secondary-school teachers. Similalry, Brogan [25] expressed that there was a substantial contrast between the job satisfaction of male and female principals; male principals were more satisfied than females.

1.1. Theories and Models of Job Satisfaction

1.1.1. Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Hertzberg’s two-factor theory (also called Motivator Hygiene Theory) explains satisfaction and inspiration in the workplace. The theory states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are caused by many variables i.e., motivational or inspirational and cleanliness factors etc. Motivational factors are those facets of the employment that individuals need to accomplish and enrich with satisfaction. These variables are believed to be intrinsic for employment or work accomplishment. Hygiene factors are composed of workplace facets i.e., compensation, organization policies, supervisory practices, and other working situations [26]. Motivators or intrinsic (satisfier) variables are associated with the real execution of the work, or the content of the job. The motivators are the internal factors of employment that wish the workers to progress toward better accomplishments and contribute to job satisfaction and higher inspiration [27]. According to the theory, motivators and hygiene factors are non-exclusive. Satisfaction and dissatisfaction cannot be regarded as the inverse closures of one continuum. Subsequently, an increase in the level of employment fulfillment does not infer a diminishing in employment dissatisfaction as there are different factors influencing satisfaction and dissatisfaction among the individuals [28].

Intrinsic motivators i.e., responsibility, the thought-provoking nature of employment, and accomplishment are motivators which originate from inside a person [29]. The existence of intrinsic motivators contributes to job satisfaction, yet their non-existence will not contribute to job dissatisfaction [30]. In a teaching career, intrinsic factors play a rewarding role in boosting people to join a stated occupation [31]. To ensure individuals’ encouragement, fulfillment and inspiration about their employments, Herzberg and his colleagues guaranteed that the emphasis ought to be on variables connected with the nature of work, or outcomes directly achieved from the work, e.g., work itself, for self-improvement, recognition, accountability, and accomplishment. Therefore, fulfillment with the intrinsic facets of the job is long-lasting and, subsequently, enables individuals to keep their motivation for a long time [32].

1.1.2. Hierarchy of Need Theory

Maslow [33] was a renowned figure in the field of psychology. He was psychologist by occupation and believes that in the mission to satisfy the demands and requirements, people act and exhibit in a specific way. Humans attain fulfillment only when their needs are satisfied. His theory has three suppositions i.e., human needs never end, when one need is satisfied, the next hierarch of needs to be satisfied. Ultimately human needs can be divided into different levels depending the significance and when the level of need is satisfied, the next level of needs has to be satisfied to determine satisfaction [34]. Maslow’s hierarchical model of human needs can be utilized to identify the factors manipulating job satisfaction. The hierarchy of needs recognizes five distinctive levels of individual needs such as physiological needs, social needs, esteem needs, self-actualization needs and security needs [35].

Maslow’s need hierarchy outlines origination of individuals fulfilling their needs in a predefined order from bottom to top i.e., individuals are propelled to fulfill the lower needs before they attempt to fulfill the higher needs. Once a need is fulfilled, it is no more a powerful motivator. It is simply after the physiological and safety needs are practically fulfilled that the higher needs (social, esteem, and self-actualization) get to be the distinctly dominant concern [36]. Utilizing Maslow’s theory, supervisors can persuade and guarantee job satisfaction in their workers by ensuring that every individual’s need is fulfilled. Fulfillment of such needs can be possible through offering appropriate rewards. For instance, supervisors or mangers can fulfill workers’ physiological needs through arrangement of accommodation and a staff cafeteria. Likewise, workers’ security needs can be fulfilled through guaranteeing that workers are given compensation, retirement pension and medical facilities [35]. For social needs, managers can assure workers’ job satisfaction by empowering social association among the workers. Managers can plan challenging jobs, assign duties, and strengthen participation in decision making to fulfill workers’ esteem needs. The needs for self-actualization can be fulfilled through the arrangement of executive training, arrangement of difficulties and encouraging creativity. Managers can also keep up job satisfaction in their workers by ensuring that a satisfied need is persistently met [34].

1.1.3. The Expectancy Theory

Vroom was the first scholar who introduced the Expectancy Theory [10,37,38]. According to this theory, individuals possess set of goals (outcomes) in different ways, and can be inspired and boosted provided they have certain expectations. Based on their former experiences, individuals tend to create assumptions with respect to the level of their job performance. Workers also create assumptions in regard to performance related results. They tend to lean toward specific results over others. Therefore, before joining employment, they consider what they need to perform to get compensation, and how much the reward means to them [39]. There are different components that hinder an extraordinary performance, for instance, an individual’s personality, abilities, knowledge, or the manager’s recognitions. Underqualified and unskillful individuals will not be suitable in their performance, essentially by attempting. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory is also called the Valence or the Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE) Theory [34]. Expectancy is the level of an individual’s assurance that the choice of an alternate option will definitely contribute to desired outcomes [40]. Valence is the feeling individuals have about particular outcomes and is referred to as expected satisfaction from expected outcomes [10]. Instrumentality is an outcome-outcome relationship and is based on the belief that if the individuals perform one thing, then it will lead to another [37]. It is a belief of probability of the first outcome, outstanding job performance, achieving the second outcome and reward [41]. The fundamental principle of the Expectancy Theory is the perception of an individual’s objectives and the relationship between effort and performance, performance and reward, and reward and the individual’s objectives fulfillment. Individuals are encouraged, enlivened and satisfied to progress towards an outcome (goal) if they consider that their attempts will yield constructive and fruitful outcomes (phenomenal performance), which is followed by an outcome or reward that is valued (valence) [34].

1.1.4. Adam’s Equity Theory

Adams [42] equity theory clarifies that individuals tend to compare between the input and the output of a job, which implies that they compare workload they undertook and the number of hours they work with the pay benefits, reward and others they received. When the ratio of the input and the output are not equal, individuals tend to be disappointed, creating job dissatisfaction. Individuals tend to compare among fellow friends whom they feel are of the same class while on the other hand, they experience job satisfaction when the ratio between the input and the output is equal and it gives an avenue for inspiration for the employee or the person to raise the level of contribution for better output or keep up the consistency of the employment. Researchers assume understandings from the Adam’s equity theory that the main idea is the balance between the service they render and the advantages they get. It is predominantly concerned with comparing workload and the benefits of the employees. Employees consider their salaries reasonable if the salaries are viewed as equal to those of other employees in other organizations. If the employees are perceived as similar to their own, then the motivated performance will also drop to the same value and so on. The theories predict that job satisfaction from both personality and situation factors depend on fairness of benefits [34].

2. Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to examine and compare the job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school-heads in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

3. Hypotheses of the Study

To achieve the research objectives, the following null hypotheses were tested:

Hypothesis 1 (H1).

There might be no significant difference between overall job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school-heads.

Hypothesis 2 (H2).

There might be no significant difference between overall of job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school-heads regarding intrinsic factors.

Hypothesis 3 (H3).

There might be no significant difference between overall of job satisfaction of male and female secondary school heads regarding extrinsic factors.

Hypothesis 4 (H4).

There might be no significant difference between the subscales of job satisfaction of male and female secondary school heads regarding intrinsic factors.

Hypothesis 5 (H5).

There might be no significant difference between the subscales of job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school-heads regarding extrinsic factors.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Population

In the current study, all the male and female secondary-school heads (Principals, Headmasters, Headmistresses, and In-charge heads) working in public secondary schools of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa constituted the population of the study. In the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, all the Government Boys Secondary Schools are headed by the male heads and Girls Secondary Schools are headed by female heads. According to the Annual Statistical Report of Government Schools published by Elementary and Secondary Education Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, there were 2108 public secondary schools in which 1386 were boys’ schools and 722 were girls’ schools. The total number of secondary-school heads working in these schools were 2108 in which 1386 were males and 722 were females [43].

4.2. Sample and Sampling Techniques

As the population was extensively scattered, it was not possible to select a sample through simple random sampling technique. Therefore, multistage sampling technique was adopted by the researchers for selecting sample. At the first stage, 10 (40%) out of 25 districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa i.e., Kohat, Karak, Bannu, Peshawar, Nowshera, Abbottabad, Charssada, Lakki Marwat, Hangu, and Malakand were selected randomly as a primary sampling unit. At the second stage, 60% boys’ and 60% girls’ secondary schools were selected through stratified sampling technique as secondary sampling unit. At the third stage, 75% male and 75% female heads were selected randomly as a tertiary sampling unit. In this way, the total sample comprised of 402 secondary-school heads in which 260 were males and 142 were females. The step-by-step multistage sampling procedure was explained in Figure 1. The detail of the population and sample size is given in the

Table 1. Description of Study Population and Sample Size.

Districts	No. of Schools				No. of Heads
	Total		Sample		Total		Sample
	Male	Female	Male	Female	Male	Female	Male	Female
Peshawar	85	55	51	33	51	33	38	25
Kohat	47	27	28	16	28	16	21	12
Bannu	59	40	35	24	35	24	26	18
Karak	56	26	37	16	37	16	28	12
Nowshera	66	29	40	17	40	17	30	13
Abbottabad	69	45	41	27	41	27	31	20
Lakki Marwat	56	21	34	13	34	13	26	10
Hangu	26	09	16	05	16	05	12	04
Malakand	45	29	27	17	27	17	20	13
Charssadda	61	33	37	20	37	20	28	15
Total	570	314	346	188	346	188	260	142

as under:

4.3. Research Design and Instrumentation

The study under investigation was a quantitative and descriptive one that attempts to examine and compare the job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads with respect to intrinsic and extrinsic factors in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The study was based on Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory on the grounds that it has important dimensions of satisfaction concerned with the nature of the work which Herzberg accepts to be the fundamental variables i.e., advancement, recognition, compensation, responsibility and contributing motivators with organizational policy and administration regarded as extrinsic factors. Both these aspects are thought to have the strength to ensure job satisfaction. To collect information from the participants, a descriptive survey research design was adopted. For this purpose, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) developed by Weiss, Dawis, England and Lofquist [44] was used as a research tool after taking formal permission from the authors. The MSQ is well-known research instrument used by the researchers all over the world for measuring the employees’ level of job satisfaction regarding intrinsic, extrinsic, and general facets. In the original version of the MSQ, there were 100 items with 20 dimensions each having five items. These 20 dimensions have been classified into intrinsic and extrinsic facets. Intrinsic facets of job satisfaction consist of 13 dimensions namely authority, ability utilization, activity, achievements, co-workers, creativity, independence, moral values, recognition, responsibility, social services, social status, and variety. On the other hand, the extrinsic aspects of job satisfaction are comprised of seven areas: advancement, education policy, compensation, security, supervision (human relations), supervision (technical) and working conditions. Both the extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of job satisfaction will lead towards general job satisfaction. Based on cultural and societal context, some minor changes were made in the MSQ and each dimension was reduced to 4 items. In addition, some wordings were rephrased for better understanding by the participants. The tool is designed on the five-point Likert scale i.e., very dissatisfied, dissatisfied, neither (neither satisfied or dissatisfied), satisfied, and very satisfied and were rated as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 respectively.

4.4. Pilot Testing

A pilot study is a trial ahead of the running of the actual study. Its aim is to check the time taken to complete the questionnaire, whether it is too long or too short, too simple or excessively troublesome, and to check the precision of the items, and to wipe out ambiguities or misconceptions in wording. A pilot study is carried out to explore weaknesses in research design and instruments and to provide proxy data for selecting probability sample [45]. The original version of the MSQ is the standardized instrument having exceptional validity and reliability which is extensively used by the investigators globally. However, it was modified with respect to societal and cultural contexts of the population area. Therefore, a pilot study was conducted in 25 government secondary schools to remove the misapprehensions, misconceptions, and ambiguities in the modified MSQ. In this way, the researchers circulated the modified MSQ among 25 participants (15 males and 10 females) and their responses were recorded. The final version of the modified MSQ was developed based on the experts’ suggestions and was found valid and suitable for the current research study.

4.5. Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability are the most important aspects of research study that any investigator ought to be worried about when suggesting design, analysis, and assessment of the study. Validity is a fundamental key for effective and successful outcomes of a research study. Therefore, without validation of instrument, research is worthless. Hence, validity is a condition for qualitative as well as for quantitative/naturalistic research [46]. Therefore, validity of the modified MSQ was checked by a board of six professionals possessing doctorate degrees having extraordinary experience. The modified MSQ was found suitable and practicable for the current research study.

Reliability of the Modified Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ): The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) is also highly reliable standardized tool which is used to measure job satisfaction of the employees of different organizations. The original MSQ was modified in the light of culture context so it was imperative to confirm its reliability for the current research study. Cronbach’s Alpha was used to calculate the reliability of the MSQ which is given as under:

Table 2. Average Internal Consistency Reliability Analysis (Cronbach’s Alpha) of the Modified Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ).

Main Divisions of MSQ	Subscales of MSQ	No. of Items	Cronbach’s Alpha
Intrinsic Factors	Ability Utilization	04	0.897
	Achievement	04	0.823
	Activeness	04	0.795
	Authority	04	0.783
	Co-workers	04	0.813
	Creativity	04	0.929
	Independence	04	0.896
	Moral Values	04	0.914
	Recognition	04	0.836
	Responsibility	04	0.917
	Social Service	04	0.867
	Social Statues	04	0.764
	Variety	04	0.886
Extrinsic Factors	Advancement	04	0.919
	Education Policies and Practices	04	0.837
	Compensation	04	0.923
	Security	04	0.788
	Supervision (HR)	04	0.869
	Supervision (Technical)	04	0.927
	Working Condition	04	0.891
Mean		04	0.860

shows the Average Internal Consistency Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) of the subscales of the modified MSQ. Cronbach’s Alpha for each subscale indicates that each subscale has a high reliability coefficient. Furthermore, the analysis reveals that the overall Internal Consistency Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) of the modified MSQ was calculated to be 0.86 which confirms that MSQ is remarkably reliable research instrument for current research study.

4.6. Data Collection and Analysis

Data collection process was commenced on 15 September 2016 and completed on 15 February 2017. In some districts, data was collected through personal visits due to the accessibility of the researchers. However, data was also collected through postal services in remote areas where access of the researchers was not possible. Due to follow-up study and extraordinary efforts of the researchers to contact the participants again and again, 100% responses were received. Raw data was organized, classified, tabulated, and analyzed. Descriptive statistics (i.e., mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics (i.e., Independent Samples t-test) were employed for the statistical treatment of the data through Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 17.

5. Results

The purpose of the study was to analyze and compare the job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads with respect to intrinsic and extrinsic factors in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The study was quantitative and descriptive and therefore, descriptive survey research design was used. To seek the responses from the participants, a standardized tool i.e., the “Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire” (MSQ) was used. Raw data was collected, organized, classified, tabulated, and analyzed. For statistical analysis, proper descriptive statistics (i.e., mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics (i.e., independent samples t-test) were employed through statistical software SPSS version 17. The detail is given as under:

5.1. Descriptive Analysis Regarding Job Satisfaction of Overall, Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads

Table 3. Descriptive Analysis of Job Satisfaction of Overall, Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads with Respect to Intrinsic Factors.

Intrinsic Factors of Job Satisfaction	Overall		Male		Female
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Ability Utilization	2.33	1.29	2.35	1.29	2.38	1.29
Achievement	3.62	1.44	3.67	1.39	3.54	1.51
Activity	3.62	1.44	3.64	1.43	3.58	1.46
Authority	3.56	1.47	3.63	1.45	3.43	1.49
Education Policies and Practices	2.40	1.17	2.70	1.06	2.32	1.34
Compensation	2.33	1.15	2.41	1.07	2.23	1.28
Co-workers	3.60	1.36	3.67	1.29	3.46	1.35
Creativity	2.78	1.31	2.42	1.03	3.43	1.49
Independence	3.67	1.36	3.64	1.32	3.75	1.42
Moral Values	3.62	1.39	3.73	1.30	3.42	1.53
Recognition	3.07	1.44	3.45	1.33	2.39	1.36
Responsibility	3.74	1.33	3.82	1.22	3.53	1.48
Variety	3.44	1.51	3.43	1.32	3.46	1.48
Mean	3.21	1.36	3.27	1.27	3.15	1.42

reflects descriptive analysis of the subscales of job satisfaction of overall, male, and female secondary-school heads with respect to intrinsic factors. Overall secondary-school heads were found satisfied intrinsically with their employment. They were satisfied with responsibility, independence, achievement, activity, moral values, co-workers, authority, variety, and recognition. On the other hand, they were found dissatisfied with compensation, ability utilization, education policies and practices, and creativity. In case of male secondary-school heads, they were found satisfied intrinsically with their job position. They were satisfied with nine subscales such as responsibility, moral values, achievement, co-workers, independence, activity, authority, recognition, and variety. On the other hand, they were found dissatisfied with ability utilization, compensation, creativity, and education policies and practices. Female secondary-school heads showed satisfaction intrinsically with their job position. They were satisfied with nine subscales i.e., independence, social service, activity, achievement, responsibility, authority, variety, co-workers, creativity, moral values. Conversely, they were found displeased with compensation, education policies and practices, ability utilization, and recognition.

Table 4. Descriptive Analysis of Job Satisfaction of Overall, Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads with Respect to Extrinsic Factors.

Subscales of Job Satisfaction	Overall		Male		Female
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Advancement	2.41	1.38	2.40	1.41	2.42	1.31
Security	3.67	1.39	3.74	1.35	3.54	1.44
Social Service	3.65	1.41	3.62	1.38	3.71	1.46
Social Status	3.73	1.33	3.71	1.28	3.78	1.38
Supervision (HR)	2.41	1.10	2.44	1.02	2.34	1.23
Supervision (Technical)	2.44	1.14	2.48	1.15	2.37	1.19
Working Conditions	2.39	1.02	2.43	0.94	2.35	1.12
Mean	2.96	1.25	2.97	1.22	2.93	1.30

portrays descriptive analysis of the subscales of job satisfaction of overall, male, and female secondary-school heads with respect to extrinsic factors. In case of overall secondary-school heads, they were found dissatisfied extrinsically with their employment. They were only satisfied with social status, security, and social service. On the other hand, they were dissatisfied with working conditions, supervision (HR), advancement, and supervision technical. In case of male secondary-school heads, on the whole, they were found dissatisfied extrinsically with their employment. They were only satisfied with security, social status, and social service. Conversely, they were found dissatisfied with advancement, working conditions, supervision (HR), and supervision technical. In case of female secondary-school heads, in general, they also showed dissatisfaction extrinsically with their job position. They were only satisfied with social status, social service, and security. Conversely, they were found displeased with supervision (HR), working conditions, supervision (technical), and advancement.

5.2. Hypotheses Testing & Independent Samples t-test Analysis Regarding Job Satisfaction of Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads

Hypothesis 1.

There might be no significant difference between overall job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school-heads.

Based on independent samples t-test analysis,

Table 5. Independent Samples t-test Analysis of overall Job Satisfaction between Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads.

Gender	n	Mean	SD	SEd	t-Value	p-Value
Male	260	3.17	1.25	0.14	0.739 *	0.461
Female	142	3.07	1.38

* Non-Significant; df = 400; table t-value at 0.05 = 1.966.

indicates that calculated t-value was found to be 0.739 which is statistically non-significant (p > 0.05) as it is smaller than the tabulated t-value at 0.05. Thus, the null hypothesis “there might be no significant difference between overall job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads” was accepted. It clearly reveals that there is no significant difference between the overall job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads. In addition, the mean score values plainly show that both male and female secondary-school heads were equally satisfied with their job positions.

Hypothesis 2.

There might be no significant difference between overall of job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school-heads regarding intrinsic factors.

Table 6. Independent Samples t-test Analysis of Overall Job Satisfaction between Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads Regarding Intrinsic Factors.

Gender	n	Mean	SD	SEd	t-Value	p-Value
Male	260	3.27	1.27	0.14	0.868 *	0.386
Female	142	3.15	1.42

* Non-Significant; df = 400; table t-value at 0.05 = 1.966.

depicts that calculated t-value was found to be 0.868 which is statistically non-significant (p > 0.05) as it is smaller than the table t-value at 0.05. Thus, the null hypothesis “there might be no significant difference between overall job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads regarding intrinsic factors” was accepted. It plainly indicates that there is no significant difference between the overall job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads with respect to intrinsic factors. Additionally, the mean score values plainly show that both male and female secondary-school heads were equally satisfied intrinsically with their job positions.

Hypothesis 3.

There might be no significant difference between overall of job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school-heads regarding extrinsic factors.

Based on inferential analysis,

Table 7. Independent Samples t-test Analysis of Overall Job Satisfaction between Male and Female Secondary-School-Heads Regarding Extrinsic Factors.

Gender	n	Mean	SD	SEd	Mean Diff:	t-Value	p-Value
Male	260	2.97	1.22	0.13	0.04	0.307 *	0.759
Female	142	2.93	1.30

* Non-Significant; df = 400; table t-value at 0.05 = 1.966.

reflects that calculated t-value was found to be 0.307 which is statistically non-significant (p > 0.05) because it is smaller than the table t-value at 0.05. Thus, the null hypothesis “there might be no significant difference between overall job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads regarding extrinsic factors” was accepted. It undoubtedly reveals that there is no significant difference between the overall job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads regarding extrinsic factors. Furthermore, the mean score values plainly show that both male and female secondary-school heads were equally dissatisfied extrinsically with their employment.

Hypothesis 4.

There might be no significant difference between the subscales of job satisfaction of male and female secondary school heads regarding intrinsic factors.

Table 8. Inferential Analysis (Independent Samples t-test) of Job Satisfaction between Male and Female Secondary-Secondary-School-Heads Regarding Intrinsic Factors.

Sub-Scales of Job Satisfaction	Male		Female		t-Value	p-Value
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Ability Utilization	2.35	1.29	2.38	1.29	-0.223	0.824
Achievement	3.67	1.39	3.54	1.51	0.869	0.385
Activity	3.64	1.43	3.58	1.46	0.399	0.690
Authority	3.63	1.45	3.43	1.49	1.309	0.191
Education Policies and Practices	2.70	1.06	2.32	1.34	3.122 *	0.002
Compensation	2.41	1.07	2.23	1.28	1.502	0.134
Co-workers	3.67	1.29	3.46	1.35	1.535	0.126
Creativity	2.42	1.03	3.43	1.49	-7.99 *	0.000
Independence	3.64	1.32	3.75	1.42	-0.777	0.437
Moral Values	3.73	1.30	3.42	1.53	2.144 *	0.033
Recognition	3.45	1.33	2.39	1.36	7.58 *	0.000
Responsibility	3.82	1.22	3.53	1.48	2.109 *	0.036
Variety	3.43	1.32	3.46	1.48	-0.209	0.835
Mean	3.27	1.27	3.15	1.42	0.868	0.386

* Significant; df = 400; table t-value at 0.05 = 1.966.

describes the inferential analysis of intrinsic subscales of job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads. The outcomes revealed that there is significant difference between five subscales of job satisfaction among male and female heads i.e., education policies and practices, creativity, moral values, recognition, and responsibility. Male secondary-school heads were more dissatisfied with education policies and practice and creativity and more satisfied with moral values and responsibility than female secondary-school heads. Furthermore, both male and female secondary-school heads showed similar satisfaction/dissatisfaction with ability utilization, achievement, activity, authority, compensation, coworkers, independence, and variety. Hence the null hypothesis was partially accepted.

Hypothesis 5.

There might be no significant difference between the subscales of job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school-heads regarding extrinsic factors.

Table 9. Inferential Analysis (Independent Samples t-test) of Job Satisfaction between Male and Female Secondary-Secondary-School-Heads regarding Extrinsic Factors.

Sub-Scales of Job Satisfaction	Male		Female		t-Value	p-Value
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Advancement	2.40	1.41	2.42	1.31	-0.139	0.889
Security	3.74	1.35	3.54	1.44	1.386	0.166
Social Service	3.62	1.38	3.71	1.46	-0.612	0.541
Social Status	3.71	1.28	3.78	1.38	-0.510	0.611
Supervision (HR)	2.44	1.02	2.34	1.23	0.872	0.384
Supervision (Technical)	2.48	1.15	2.37	1.19	0.905	0.366
Working Conditions	2.43	0.94	2.35	1.12	0.761	0.447
Mean	2.97	1.22	2.93	1.30	0.307	0.759

* Significant; df = 400; table t-value at 0.05 = 1.966.

indicates the inferential analysis of the extrinsic subscales of job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads. The findings revealed that there is no significant difference between the extrinsic subscales of job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads. In each case, the calculated t-value was found less than the table t-value (t = 1.966) at 0.05. Hence the null hypothesis was accepted. Both male and female secondary-school heads were equally satisfied/dissatisfied extrinsically with advancement, security, social service, social Status, supervision (HR), supervision (technical), and working conditions.

6. Discussion

The purpose of the study was to examine and compare the job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads with respect to extrinsic and intrinsic factors in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It was a descriptive and quantitative study and therefore, descriptive survey research design was used. To collect information from the participants, a standardized tool i.e., the “Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire” (MSQ) was used. Raw data was collected, organized, classified, tabulated, and analyzed through proper descriptive statistics (i.e., mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics (i.e., independent samples t-test). The result revealed that overall secondary-school heads were found satisfied intrinsically and dissatisfied extrinsically. They were satisfied with twelve intrinsic and extrinsic subscales i.e., achievement, activity, authority, co-workers, independence, moral values, recognition, responsibility, security, social service, social status, variety while they were dissatisfied with eight intrinsic and extrinsic subscales i.e., ability utilization, advancement, education policies and practices, compensation, creativity, supervision (HR), supervision (technical), and working conditions.

Based on gender analysis, male secondary-school heads were found satisfied intrinsically and dissatisfied extrinsically with their job. They were satisfied with twelve intrinsic and extrinsic subscales i.e., achievement, activity, authority, co-workers, independence, moral values, recognition, responsibility, security, social service, social status, variety, and they were dissatisfied with ability utilization, advancement, education policies and practices, compensation, creativity, supervision (HR), supervision (technical), and working conditions. On the other hand, female secondary-school heads were also found satisfied intrinsically and dissatisfied extrinsically with their job position on the whole. They were satisfied with twelve intrinsic and extrinsic subscales i.e., achievement, activity, authority, co-workers, independence, moral values, responsibility, creativity, security, social service, social status, and variety, and they were dissatisfied with ability utilization, advancement, education policies and practices, recognition, compensation, creativity, supervision (HR), supervision (technical), and working conditions. The results are consistent with the findings of Iqbal, Arif, and Abbas [47] and Rajendran and Veerasekaran [21] who acknowledged that the respondents showed slight satisfaction with the key eight sub-scales of their job i.e., ability utilization, education policies, advancement, compensation, independence, creativity, recognition and working condition. Ali et al. [20] found that on the whole academic and administrative employees were satisfied with responsibility, authority, security, achievement, recognition, and variety while they exhibited low satisfaction with creativity, independence, and ability utilization. Also, they found that they were not satisfied with three facets of their job i.e., advancement, education policies and compensation. It obviously reveals that the outcomes of this research study support the findings of the current study in many facets however it contradicts in a few facets i.e., supervision (HR), supervision (specialized), advancement, compensation and working conditions. Likewise, the investigation of David and Wesson [48] reported that advancement opportunities were not common in public sector organizations therefore discourage the competent and qualified workforces from remaining in the employment.

Ayele [34] claimed that organizational policy and its management has a sound association with the organizational effectiveness and employees’ performance. The outcomes of the study revealed that secondary-school heads were not pleased with education policies which have antagonistic and adverse influences on school achievements. They responded that education policies and practices are not effectively implemented which contributes to negative consequences for school achievements. Furthermore, they added that the policies and practices toward employees of school system were disappointing. Also, they responded that employees of education were mistreated. The findings are in line with the findings of Mahmood [19] who found that secondary-school teachers were less satisfied with education policies. Likewise, the findings support the results of Green [49] who concluded that the chairpersons encountered minimal satisfaction with education policies. Ghazi [18] investigated that government policies were not in the support of workers. Furthermore, he found that freezing of house rent, appointments of non-departmental officers, stoppage of advance increments and move-over in service, contract basis appointments policy, scrutiny committees, army surveys, political interference, new terminating rules, privatization of institutions, frequent change of curriculum and assessment system without proper guidelines were the key grounds for low satisfaction.

A few investigators believe that job satisfaction is emphatically concerned with the opportunities for advancement [50]. The investigation of David and Wesson [48] revealed that restricted advancement opportunities were common in public sector organizations, in this manner demoralizing the qualified employees from staying in the employment. Abdullah, Uli, and Parasuraman [22] claimed that failure to acquire advancement or promotion is a hit to a person’s self-regard causing dissatisfaction and disappointment in work. The findings of the current study reveal that secondary-school heads were dissatisfied with advancement. They have no opportunities for the advancement on their job. Promotion policies are unsatisfactory. As per Grace and Khala [51], compensation package is the most vital factor regarding job satisfaction. Wage, pay or salary is viewed as a noteworthy reward to inspire the employees and their behavior towards the achievement of employers’ goals [24]. Hygiene factors such as compensation is a fundamental indicator of employment fulfillment. Therefore, pay will influence employees’ level of job satisfaction [52,53,54]. The current study revealed that secondary-school heads were not pleased with their compensation and they were given insufficient salaries as compared to their job responsibilities. Their salary packages were not equivalent with those having the same job and scale in other departments. The findings also support the results of Ali [55] who found that the entire academic and administrative staff were displeased with their compensation.

Performance and proficiency of the workforce may be improved by considering them and their necessities. The outcomes of the present investigation uncovered that secondary-school heads were disappointed with supervision (human relations) and supervisions (technical). They responded that District Education Officers (DEOs) lack technical knowledge and were incompetent in making effective decisions. Their ways of delegation of work to others and their ways of training their employees were unsatisfactory. Furthermore, they responded that DEOs handle their employees ineffectively. They were not serious in redressing the issues of their employees. The outcomes of the study support the findings of Toker [56] who concluded that respondents exhibited the lowest level of satisfaction with supervision-technical, and supervision-human relations. Meanwhile the findings negate the findings of Mahmood [19] and Ghazi [18] who found that most of the respondents showed satisfaction with supervision (human relations) and supervision (technical). Conversely, Ghazi et al. [57] concluded that instructors were neutral in responding with respect to supervision (technical).

In any organization, better working conditions are the most essential aspect of employment which positively affect employees’ job satisfaction. According to Robbins [58], working condition has practical and positive effects on an employees’ job satisfaction on the grounds that employees desire physical surroundings that are safe, disinfected, conducive and friendly for work. The outcomes of the present study show that secondary-school heads were not pleased with the working conditions. They responded that there was lack of basic facilities such as poor power supply, lack of furniture, lack of water facility, no boundary walls, poor arrangement of sanitation, under-staffing, lack of advance library etc. which play an obstructive role in achieving institutional goals. The findings also support the findings of Mahmood [19] who found that respondents were not pleased with the working conditions. Correspondingly, Ali [55] concluded that the entire administrative and academic workforce were disappointed with the working condition.

Based on comparative analysis, there was no significant difference between the overall job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads. Both male and female secondary-school heads showed similar satisfaction/dissatisfaction with respect to overall intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors. However, male secondary-school heads were more dissatisfied with education policies and practices and creativity and more satisfied with moral values and responsibility than female secondary-school heads. The results are consistent with the findings of Oshagbemi [24] who found that gender has no substantial effect on job satisfaction. Likewise, Koyuncu, Burke, and Fiksenbaum [16] reported that there was no significant contrast in job satisfaction between male and female instructors. Similarly, Ali and Akhter [17] expressed that there was no huge distinction between the perspectives of male and female employees with respect to job satisfaction. In the same way, Vorina, Simonič, and Vlasova [59] concluded that there was no statistically significant difference in job satisfaction with respect to gender. On the contrary, the findings contradict with Ali et al. [20] who found that there was a noteworthy contrast of job satisfaction between male and female secondary-school teachers. Research shows that females were reported to have high level of job satisfaction than males. Hauret and Williams [23] claimed that females continue to show higher levels of job satisfaction than males in some countries, and the difference exists even after controlling many personal and job characteristics as well as working conditions. Ghazi [18] found that female head teachers scored more than the males. In the same way, Mahmood [19] also concluded that female respondents were more pleased and contented with their employment when contrasted with male respondents. Correspondingly, Mocheche, Bosire, and Raburu, [60] concluded that female teachers showed slightly higher scores in job satisfaction than male teachers. On the other hand, Brogan [25] announced that there was a substantial contrast between the job satisfaction of male and female principals; male principals were more satisfied than females.

7. Conclusions

Job satisfaction of employees in any organization is the leading variable for accomplishing organizational goals. An occupationally satisfied leader can develop the organization by ensuring vibrant environment, providing sufficient resources, ensuring good relations and an effective teaching-learning process. The findings reveal that both male and female secondary-school heads were satisfied intrinsically and dissatisfied extrinsically. In case of subscales analysis, male secondary-school heads were found satisfied with twelve intrinsic and extrinsic subscales i.e., achievement, activity, authority, co-workers, independence, moral values, recognition, responsibility, security, social service, social status, and variety, and they were dissatisfied with ability utilization, advancement, education policies and practices, compensation, creativity, supervision (HR), supervision (technical), and working conditions. On the other hand, female secondary-school heads were also satisfied with twelve intrinsic and extrinsic subscales i.e., achievement, activity, authority, co-workers, independence, moral values, responsibility, creativity, security, social service, social status, and variety, and they were dissatisfied with ability utilization, advancement, education policies and practices, recognition, compensation, creativity, supervision (HR), supervision (technical), and working conditions. Comparatively, overall, there was no significant difference between the job satisfaction of male and female secondary-school heads with respect to overall intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors. However, male secondary-school heads were more dissatisfied with education policies and practices and creativity and more satisfied with moral values and responsibility than female secondary-school heads.

8. Recommendations

• The findings reveal that overall secondary-school heads were satisfied with their employment position. However, productive and effective measures should to be taken by the Ministry of Education to maintain and strengthen the employees’ level of satisfaction at each level.
• The Ministry of Education should devise compelling, productive and effective education policies that are promising to the employees’ prosperity and organizational productivity. All the stakeholders should be taken into confidence during the process of policy formulation, particularly schools’ heads and teachers, in order to provide valuable suggestions and experiences regarding school overall performance.
• Constructive and effective measures should be taken by the Ministry of Education to ensure conducive and stimulating working conditions through provision of fundamental physical and educational facilities. Also, special financial budget should be reserved for ensuring the provision of fundamental facilities to improve the working conditions. In this way, stress among secondary-school heads will be reduced to some extent.
• Secondary-school heads were not satisfied with supervision (technical) therefore, it is recommended that a technical supervisory support should be provided on priority basis to enhance their level of satisfaction.
• Secondary-school heads should be granted a special salary package, fringe benefits, incentives, and special DA/TA allowances to raise and strengthen their level of satisfaction. Furthermore, their service structure should be reviewed, and proper timescale should be announced and implemented immediately to boost their rapid promotion in order to raise the level of their job satisfaction for better outcomes.

9. Limitations

This study has a few limitations. It has been conducted in only 10 out of 25 districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, which is a limitation of the study. The result may differ from other districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Different demographic variables i.e., age, academic and professional qualification, job experience, locality etc. were not considered in this study. Therefore, if someone wanted to conduct such type of study with respect to these demographic variables, then it is possible that the outcomes may slightly differ from the findings of current study.