Resources

1552 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Analysis of a Low-Voltage DC Distribution System

by Joon Han, Yun-Sik Oh, Gi-Hyeon Gwon, Doo-Ung Kim, Chul-Ho Noh, Tack-Hyun Jung, Soon-Jeong Lee and Chul-Hwan Kim

Resources 2015, 4(3), 713-735; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030713 - 11 Sep 2015

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 11168

Abstract

It is well known that the Low-Voltage DC (LVDC) distribution system is a promising topology as a future smart distribution system due to its high efficiency and reliability. However, there are still some challenges in the construction and implementation of an LVDC system. [...] Read more.

It is well known that the Low-Voltage DC (LVDC) distribution system is a promising topology as a future smart distribution system due to its high efficiency and reliability. However, there are still some challenges in the construction and implementation of an LVDC system. For practical application of the LVDC system, therefore, it is necessary to perform any simulation in advance by considering various conditions that can occur in an LVDC system. In order to provide a foundation for analyzing a DC system, this paper presents an LVDC distribution system model including essential components such as power electronic devices, Distributed Energy Resource (DER), and Energy Storage System (ESS), which can be considered for implementation in an LVDC system using Electro-Magnetic Transient Program (EMTP) software. Moreover, an analysis of the characteristic in both the steady state and the transient state is conducted in an LVDC distribution system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Energy Sources in Developing and Developed Regions)

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4020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modular PEM Fuel Cell SCADA & Simulator System

by Francisca Segura and José Manuel Andújar

Resources 2015, 4(3), 692-712; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030692 - 01 Sep 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8864

Abstract

The paper presents a Supervision, Control, Data Acquisition and Simulation (SCADA & Simulator) system that allows for real-time training in the actual operation of a modular PEM fuel cell system. This SCADA & Simulator system consists of a free software tool that operates [...] Read more.

The paper presents a Supervision, Control, Data Acquisition and Simulation (SCADA & Simulator) system that allows for real-time training in the actual operation of a modular PEM fuel cell system. This SCADA & Simulator system consists of a free software tool that operates in real time and simulates real situations like failures and breakdowns in the system. This developed SCADA & Simulator system allows us to properly operate a fuel cell and helps us to understand how fuel cells operate and what devices are needed to configure and run the fuel cells, from the individual stack up to the whole fuel cell system. The SCADA & Simulator system governs a modular system integrated by three PEM fuel cells achieving power rates higher than tens of kilowatts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Energy Sources in Developing and Developed Regions)

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2130 KiB

Open AccessConcept Paper

The Influence of Diesel Fuel Subsidies and Taxes on the Potential for Solar-Powered Hybrid Systems in Africa

by Paul Bertheau, Catherina Cader, Hendrik Huyskens and Philipp Blechinger

Resources 2015, 4(3), 673-691; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030673 - 31 Aug 2015

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6147

Abstract

Many people in African countries lack access to sufficient electricity supply due to missing infrastructure of the centralized conventional power generation system. In order to provide electricity to a wider part of the population, it is necessary to exploit the vast renewable resources [...] Read more.

Many people in African countries lack access to sufficient electricity supply due to missing infrastructure of the centralized conventional power generation system. In order to provide electricity to a wider part of the population, it is necessary to exploit the vast renewable resources in African countries. Therefore, this paper scrutinizes the economic advantages of photovoltaic-based hybrid systems over fossil fuel-based power generation. A simulation model is applied in order to calculate the cost advantage of hybrid systems compared to diesel-only systems for the entire continent on a long term basis by applying two scenarios: one based on world market diesel prices and the other one based on national diesel prices. The results indicate that average power generation costs per country can be reduced by up to 0.11 €/kWh considering world market diesel prices and by up to 0.48 €/kWh considering national diesel prices. Furthermore, the effect of diesel fuel subsidies and taxes on the renewable energy potential and the respective savings are examined. These findings may ameliorate the policy development according to fossil fuel subsidies and taxes and demonstrate the advantages of decentralized renewable hybrid systems especially in rural areas of Africa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Energy Sources in Developing and Developed Regions)

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1360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Groundwater Quality Changes in a Karst Aquifer of Northeastern Wisconsin, USA: Reduction of Brown Water Incidence and Bacterial Contamination Resulting from Implementation of Regional Task Force Recommendations

by Kevin Erb, Eric Ronk, Vikram Koundinya and John Luczaj

Resources 2015, 4(3), 655-672; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030655 - 27 Aug 2015

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9076

Abstract

In the Silurian Dolostone region of eastern Wisconsin, the combination of thin soils and waste application (animal manure, organic waste) has led to significant groundwater contamination, including Brown Water Incidents (BWIs—contamination resulting in a color or odor change in well water) and detections [...] Read more.

In the Silurian Dolostone region of eastern Wisconsin, the combination of thin soils and waste application (animal manure, organic waste) has led to significant groundwater contamination, including Brown Water Incidents (BWIs—contamination resulting in a color or odor change in well water) and detections of pathogen indicator bacteria such as E. coli and others. In response, a Karst Task Force (KTF) was convened to identify risks and recommend solutions. This article looks at the impact eight years after the 2007 Karst Task Force report—both the actions taken by local resource managers and the changes to water quality. We present the first regional analysis of the 2007 Karst Task Force report and subsequent regulatory changes to determine if these regulations impacted the prevalence of wells contaminated with animal waste and the frequency of BWIs. While all of the counties in the KTF area promoted increased awareness, landowner/manager and waste applicator education alone did not result in a drop in BWIs or other water quality improvements. The two counties in the study that adopted winter manure spreading restrictions on frozen or snow-covered ground showed statistically significant reductions in the instances of BWIs and other well water quality problems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Quantity and Quality)

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231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Drinking Water Quality and Occurrence of Giardia in Finnish Small Groundwater Supplies

by Tarja Pitkänen, Tiina Juselius, Eija Isomäki, Ilkka T. Miettinen, Matti Valve, Anna-Liisa Kivimäki, Kirsti Lahti and Marja-Liisa Hänninen

Resources 2015, 4(3), 637-654; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030637 - 21 Aug 2015

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6223

Abstract

The microbiological and chemical drinking water quality of 20 vulnerable Finnish small groundwater supplies was studied in relation to environmental risk factors associated with potential sources of contamination. The microbiological parameters analyzed included the following enteric pathogens: Giardia and Cryptosporidium, Campylobacter species, [...] Read more.

The microbiological and chemical drinking water quality of 20 vulnerable Finnish small groundwater supplies was studied in relation to environmental risk factors associated with potential sources of contamination. The microbiological parameters analyzed included the following enteric pathogens: Giardia and Cryptosporidium, Campylobacter species, noroviruses, as well as indicator microbes (Escherichia coli, intestinal enterococci, coliform bacteria, Clostridium perfringens, Aeromonas spp. and heterotrophic bacteria). Chemical analyses included the determination of pH, conductivity, TOC, color, turbidity, and phosphorus, nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, iron, and manganese concentrations. Giardia intestinalis was detected from four of the water supplies, all of which had wastewater treatment activities in the neighborhood. Mesophilic Aeromonas salmonicida, coliform bacteria and E. coli were also detected. None of the samples were positive for both coliforms and Giardia. Low pH and high iron and manganese concentrations in some samples compromised the water quality. Giardia intestinalis was isolated for the first time in Finland in groundwater wells of public water works. In Europe, small water supplies are of great importance since they serve a significant sector of the population. In our study, the presence of fecal indicator bacteria, Aeromonas and Giardia revealed surface water access to the wells and health risks associated with small water supplies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Quantity and Quality)

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1203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Innovative Device to Convert Olive Mill Wastewater into a Suitable Effluent for Feeding Purple Non-Sulfur Photosynthetic Bacteria

by Pietro Carlozzi, Giulia Padovani, Patrizia Cinelli and Andrea Lazzeri

Resources 2015, 4(3), 621-636; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030621 - 19 Aug 2015

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6206

Abstract

A device (prototype) with a working volume of 200 L was used to deplete olive mill wastewater (OMW) of polyphenols. The OMW transformed into feedstock by means of the device was then used for feeding a lab-scale photobioreactor, just for testing the production [...] Read more.

A device (prototype) with a working volume of 200 L was used to deplete olive mill wastewater (OMW) of polyphenols. The OMW transformed into feedstock by means of the device was then used for feeding a lab-scale photobioreactor, just for testing the production of bioH₂. The main novelty of this prototype consists in the combination of several adsorbent matrices and the exploitation of their synergic action. In this investigation, three matrices have been used: active carbon, Azolla and zeolite. The device was operated at an olive oil company located in the heart of the Chianti zone (Province of Florence, Italy). The efficiency of polyphenol removal obtained using the device was ≥96%. The multi-matrix effluent (MM_eff) generated was then used to obtain three different culture broths containing 25%, 50% and 100% of MM_eff, respectively. The diluted (with water) culture broths were suitable for hydrogen generation, with the highest hydrogen production rate (12.7 mL H₂/L_culture/h) being obtained using 50% MM_eff. The hydrogen yields were: 334 mL H₂/L of MM_eff, when feeding the photofermenter with pure effluent (100%); 1308 mL H₂/L of MM_eff, with the half-diluted effluent (50%, v/v); and 432 mL H₂/L of MM_eff, with the highest-diluted effluent (25%, v/v). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Energy Sources in Developing and Developed Regions)

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276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resource Targets in Europe and Worldwide: An Overview

by Bettina Bahn-Walkowiak and Sören Steger

Resources 2015, 4(3), 597-620; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030597 - 11 Aug 2015

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6208

Abstract

For 20 years, the number of resource policy approaches with direct and indirect relations to raw materials, resource and material efficiency has grown enormously at national and international level. This discussion paper makes an inventory of different political and regulatory approaches that contain [...] Read more.

For 20 years, the number of resource policy approaches with direct and indirect relations to raw materials, resource and material efficiency has grown enormously at national and international level. This discussion paper makes an inventory of different political and regulatory approaches that contain a direct or indirect reference to resources such as construction materials, industrial minerals, or metals. They are examined and evaluated regarding foci and resource priorities as well as further categories such as target lines, governance levels, indicators used, integration into wider target systems, specification, and implementation. The aim is to provide an overview of the spectrum of resource objectives in international, European, and national strategies, programs, and initiatives. The closer analysis of raw material targets embedded in the policy programs and legal approaches reveals that most goals lack a time frame and a concrete vision, thus remain at a strategic level. To complement the overview, the state of research in the field of modeling and simulation is briefly discussed. Concluding remarks concerning their relation to the objectives identified and the task of target setting complete the discussion. Full article

6531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Columbia River Basalt Group Aquifer in Sustained Drought: Insight from Geophysical Methods

by Mark W. Piersol and Kenneth F. Sprenke

Resources 2015, 4(3), 577-596; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030577 - 24 Jul 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6990

Abstract

Aquifers within the Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG) provide a critical water supply throughout much of the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Increased pumping has resulted in water level declines in this region. Recharge into this aquifer system is generally not well [...] Read more.

Aquifers within the Columbia River Basalt Group (CRBG) provide a critical water supply throughout much of the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Increased pumping has resulted in water level declines in this region. Recharge into this aquifer system is generally not well understood. Recent suggestions of probable decades-long droughts in the 21st century add to this problem. We show that geophysical methods can provide useful parameters for improved modeling of aquifers in a primary CRBG aquifer located on the eastern edge of the Columbia Plateau. Groundwater models depend in part on the area, thickness, porosity, storativity, and nature of confinement of this aquifer, most of which are poorly constrained by existing well information and previous stress tests. We have made use of surface gravity measurements, borehole gravity measurements, barometric efficiency estimates, earth tidal response, and earthquake seismology observations to constrain these parameters. We show that the aquifer, despite its persistent drawdown, receives a great deal of recharge annually. Much of the recharge to the aquifer is due to leakage from overlying flows, ultimately tied to precipitation, an important result for future aquifer management in times of sustained drought. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Quantity and Quality)

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1725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Groundwater Abstraction for Irrigation and Its Impacts on Low Flows in a Watershed in Northwest Germany

by Hartmut Wittenberg

Resources 2015, 4(3), 566-576; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030566 - 21 Jul 2015

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5991

Abstract

Low flows of the Ilmenau River (1434 km²) in northwest Germany have decreased by about 25% over the last 50 years. In the same period, moderate climate changes have taken place and annual groundwater abstractions for sprinkler irrigation have increased by [...] Read more.

Low flows of the Ilmenau River (1434 km²) in northwest Germany have decreased by about 25% over the last 50 years. In the same period, moderate climate changes have taken place and annual groundwater abstractions for sprinkler irrigation have increased by up to 50 hm³ (million m³), with a strong variation due to the respective prevailing weather conditions. Time-series analyses with multiple regression analysis allow detecting and quantifying different influences on low flows. It is also shown that farmers allocate irrigation water volumes carefully according to seasonal precipitation and temperatures. Decline of groundwater levels in summer and the low flow situation are aggravated by the cumulative effect of higher irrigation in drier years. Groundwater recharge and recovery of the water table have been observed subsequently during the winter season. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Quantity and Quality)

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218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Goals to Action: The Efforts for Increasing Energy Efficiency and Integration of Renewable Sources in Eskilstuna, Sweden

by Iana Vassileva, Richard Thygesen, Javier Campillo and Sebastian Schwede

Resources 2015, 4(3), 548-565; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030548 - 15 Jul 2015

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5718

Abstract

Cities’ energy usage accounts for two thirds of global primary energy consumption. Energy efficiency in urban areas is, therefore, one of the most important topics to consider when dealing with urban sustainability. This paper evaluates the goals for increasing energy efficiency and use [...] Read more.

Cities’ energy usage accounts for two thirds of global primary energy consumption. Energy efficiency in urban areas is, therefore, one of the most important topics to consider when dealing with urban sustainability. This paper evaluates the goals for increasing energy efficiency and use of renewable energy sources in the areas of transportation, buildings and consumers’ awareness, as stated in the Climate action plan, for the municipality of Eskilstuna, Sweden. The efforts of the municipality to successfully reach their energy efficiency goals, are described in this paper including future perspectives. The results show that although the municipality counts with the advantage of owning and working together with the local housing company and energy provider, in order to reach the established goals, additional strategies need to be considered. For an increased use of renewable energy sources, analysis of rooftops suitable for photovoltaic (PV) installation should be carried out as well as the integration of goals for self-consumption. In the transport field, the city needs to prepare for large-scale electric vehicle (EV) market penetration and to consider different bike or car sharing options. Finally, more specific awareness campaigns are needed to engage the citizens in reducing their energy consumption and living a more sustainable life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Energy Sources in Developing and Developed Regions)

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5957 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geothermal Energy Potential in Low Enthalpy Areas as a Future Energy Resource: Identifying Feasible Targets, Quebec, Canada, Study Case

by Jacek Majorowicz and Vasile Minea

Resources 2015, 4(3), 524-547; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030524 - 15 Jul 2015

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7791

Abstract

Heat flow of the sedimentary succession of the Eastern Canada Sedimentary Basins varies from 40 mW/m² close to the exposed shield in the north to high 60–70 mW/m² in the southwest–northeast St. Lawrence corridor. As high fluid flow rates are required [...] Read more.

Heat flow of the sedimentary succession of the Eastern Canada Sedimentary Basins varies from 40 mW/m² close to the exposed shield in the north to high 60–70 mW/m² in the southwest–northeast St. Lawrence corridor. As high fluid flow rates are required for a successful geothermal application, the most important targets are deep existing permeable aquifers rather than hard rock, which would need to be fracked. Unfortunately, the ten most populated Québec urban centers are in the areas where the Grenville (Canadian Shield) is exposed or at shallow depths with sedimentary cover where temperatures are 30 °C or less. The city of Drummondville will be the exception, as the basement deepens sharply southwest, and higher temperatures reaching >120 °C are expected in the deep Cambrian sedimentary aquifers near a 4–5-km depth. Deep under the area where such sediments could be occurring under Appalachian nappes, temperatures significantly higher than 140 °C are predicted. In parts of the deep basin, temperatures as high as 80 °C–120 °C exist at depths of 3–4 km, mainly southeast of the major geological boundary: the Logan line. There is a large amount of heat resource at such depths to be considered in this area for district heating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Energy Sources in Developing and Developed Regions)

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1515 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Short Time Period of Operation of Horizontal Ground Heat Exchangers

by Salsuwanda Selamat, Akio Miyara and Keishi Kariya

Resources 2015, 4(3), 507-523; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030507 - 13 Jul 2015

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4686

Abstract

Ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems have been proven to have higher efficiency compared to conventional air source heat pump systems for space heating and cooling applications. While vertical ground heat exchangers (GHE) are favorable in GSHP installation, this type of configuration requires [...] Read more.

Ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems have been proven to have higher efficiency compared to conventional air source heat pump systems for space heating and cooling applications. While vertical ground heat exchangers (GHE) are favorable in GSHP installation, this type of configuration requires higher capital costs as opposed to horizontal configuration. Numerical simulation has been used to accurately predict the thermal performance of GHE. In this paper, numerical analysis of thermal performance for slinky horizontal GHE loops in different orientations and operation modes is discussed. It was found that the loop orientation is not so important due to the little effect it has on thermal performance. While the mean heat exchange rate of copper loop increases 48% compared to HDPE loop, the analysis supports the common claim that heat exchange rate is predominantly limited by the thermal conductivity of the ground. With the same amount of circulation work, the mean heat exchange rate increases by 83%–162% when operated in parallel loops operations. The performance in these operations can be further optimized to 10%–14% increase when spacing between adjacent loops was provided. The spacing helps to minimize interference of heat flow that would penalize the overall thermal performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Energy Sources in Developing and Developed Regions)

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1308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Renewable Energy Development in Small Island Developing States of the Pacific

by Matthew Dornan

Resources 2015, 4(3), 490-506; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030490 - 08 Jul 2015

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 11005

Abstract

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the Pacific over the last decade have established some of the most ambitious renewable energy targets in the world. The promotion of renewable energy has been motivated by a desire to lessen dependence on fossil fuels, given [...] Read more.

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the Pacific over the last decade have established some of the most ambitious renewable energy targets in the world. The promotion of renewable energy has been motivated by a desire to lessen dependence on fossil fuels, given the adverse economic impacts of high oil prices on these countries. Efforts to attract development assistance and to strengthen the position of Pacific SIDS in climate change negotiations have likely also played a role. This paper explores the development of renewable energy resources in the Pacific through a public policy lens. The ambitious renewable energy targets established by Pacific SIDS are argued to be appropriate in some cases, but in other cases are criticised on economic grounds. A potential trade-off is identified between the risk mitigation benefits and poverty alleviation benefits of different renewable technology investments, with questions raised about whether support for the former rather than the latter by development partners is appropriate. A number of institutional and financial challenges to the development of renewable energy resources in Pacific SIDS are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Alternative Energy Sources in Developing and Developed Regions)

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1049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Energy-Water Nexus: Spatially-Resolved Analysis of the Potential for Desalinating Brackish Groundwater by Use of Solar Energy

by Jill B. Kjellsson and Michael E. Webber

Resources 2015, 4(3), 476-489; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030476 - 29 Jun 2015

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5804

Abstract

This research looks at coupling desalination with renewable energy sources to create a high-value product (treated water) from two low value resources (brackish groundwater and intermittent solar energy). Desalination of brackish groundwater is already being considered as a potential new water supply in [...] Read more.

This research looks at coupling desalination with renewable energy sources to create a high-value product (treated water) from two low value resources (brackish groundwater and intermittent solar energy). Desalination of brackish groundwater is already being considered as a potential new water supply in Texas. This research uses Texas as a testbed for spatially-resolved analysis techniques while considering depth to brackish groundwater, water quality, and solar radiation across Texas to determine the locations with the best potential for integrating solar energy with brackish groundwater desalination. The framework presented herein can be useful for policymakers, regional planners, and project developers as they consider where to site desalination facilities coupled with solar photovoltaics. Results suggest that the northwestern region of Texas—with abundant sunshine and groundwater at relatively shallow depths and low salinity in areas with freshwater scarcity—has the highest potential for solar powered desalination. The range in capacity for solar photovoltaic powered reverse osmosis desalination was found to be 1.56 × 10^—6 to 2.93 × 10^—5 cubic meters of water per second per square meter of solar panel (m3/s/m2). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Groundwater Quantity and Quality)

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1404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

OrganicWaste for Compost and Biochar in the EU: Mobilizing the Potential

by Daniel Meyer-Kohlstock, Tonia Schmitz and Eckhard Kraft

Resources 2015, 4(3), 457-475; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030457 - 25 Jun 2015

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 8455

Abstract

While several EU member states have working compost markets, only about one third of the bio-waste, around 35 Mio tons is used to produce compost, and to some degree, biogas. The major part is still incinerated or landfilled together with other waste. This [...] Read more.

While several EU member states have working compost markets, only about one third of the bio-waste, around 35 Mio tons is used to produce compost, and to some degree, biogas. The major part is still incinerated or landfilled together with other waste. This paper proposes the improvement of existing and the creation of new compost markets based on the integration of biochar and the implementation of obligatory recycling targets with flexible implementation approaches. Based on a literature review, the production of compost with biochar reduces some of the nitrogen and carbon losses and accelerates the composting process. This indicates economical benefits for the compost producer and the farmer, as well as reduced greenhouse gas emissions. An obligation to recycle organic waste, may it be on a national or on EU level, together with the implementation of appropriate collection systems, could provide the economic and societal base to mobilize the currently unused bio-waste. Should this scenario be realized, the annual amount of biochar-compost out of bio-waste could be used to serve around 3.7% of all arable land in the EU. This would demand no large-scale application, but instead specific uses for specific soil-crop constellations. Full article

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361 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stakeholder Perceptions of Unit Based Waste Disposal Schemes in Ontario, Canada

by Calvin Lakhan

Resources 2015, 4(3), 434-456; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources4030434 - 25 Jun 2015

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5076

Abstract

This study examines stakeholder perceptions of pay as you throw schemes (PAYT) in Ontario, Canada. Using a combination of panel and semi-structured survey data from provincial municipalities, focus is placed on analyzing: (a) the effects of PAYT systems on municipal recycling rates and [...] Read more.

This study examines stakeholder perceptions of pay as you throw schemes (PAYT) in Ontario, Canada. Using a combination of panel and semi-structured survey data from provincial municipalities, focus is placed on analyzing: (a) the effects of PAYT systems on municipal recycling rates and program costs (b) stakeholder perceptions on the perceived effectiveness of PAYT policy (c) how locality affects PAYT program costs and affect municipal recycling rates and (d) the impact of Ontario’s “one Blue Box per household” provision on PAYT schemes. The results of the analysis show that while the implementation of PAYT schemes do increase municipal recycling rates, there are opportunities for further improvement. In Ontario, the effectiveness of PAYT policy is impaired by inconsistent enforcement, administrative burden, and the inadequate capacity of household recycling bins (“blue bins”). Full article

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Resources, Volume 4, Issue 3 (September 2015) – 16 articles , Pages 434-735

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