Impact of Nitrogen Fertilization on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Water Loss in a Chronosequence of Three Douglas-Fir Stands in the Pacific Northwest
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Site Descriptions
2.2. Stand Fertilization
2.3. EC and Climate Measurements
2.4. Artificial Neural Networks
2.5. Comparison of ANN and MLR Models
3. Results
3.1. Environmental Variables
3.2. Seasonal and Interannual Variations of Observed C Fluxes and ET before and after Fertilization
3.3. Verification of the ANN Model and Its Comparison to the MLR Model
3.4. Effects of N addition on C exchange Fluxes, ET, WUE and LUE in a Chronosequence
Flux | Stand | Method | Calibration | Verification | Prediction | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regression equation | RMSE | R2 | Regression equation | RMSE | R2 | Regression equation | RMSE | R2 | |||
GPP | DF49 | MVMLR | y = 0.97x + 5.94 | 21 | 0.97 | y = 0.88x + 18.18 | 30 | 0.94 | y = 1.01x + 6.1 | 22 | 0.97 |
MVANN | y = x + 0.07 | 2 | 0.99 | y = 0.99x − 0.35 | 3 | 0.99 | y = 0.86x + 15.42 | 27 | 0.97 | ||
HDF88 | MVMLR | y = 0.92x + 8.65 | 21 | 0.92 | y = 0.84x − 2.36 | 36 | 0.91 | y = 0.82x + 16.47 | 33 | 0.88 | |
MVANN | y = x + 0.42 | 5 | 0.99 | y = 0.97x + 2.22 | 6 | 0.99 | y = 0.78x + 6.51 | 40 | 0.90 | ||
HDF00 | MVMLR | y = 0.82x + 8.23 | 24 | 0.82 | y = 0.36x + 48.16 | 62 | 0.55 | y = 0.43x + 68.56 | 59 | 0.61 | |
MVANN | y = 0.98x + 0.24 | 7 | 0.98 | y = 0.98x − 1.25 | 6 | 0.99 | y = 0.65x − 0.42 | 43 | 0.96 | ||
R | DF49 | MVMLR | y = 0.92x + 11.45 | 29 | 0.92 | y = 0.89x + 22.65 | 34 | 0.90 | y = 1.2x − 17.4 | 33 | 0.94 |
MVANN | y = 0.99x + 1.31 | 8 | 0.99 | y = x + 0.03 | 6 | 0.99 | y = 1.02x − 5.39 | 25 | 0.96 | ||
HDF88 | MVMLR | y = 0.92x + 9.71 | 16 | 0.92 | y = 0.73x + 26.58 | 25 | 0.92 | y = 0.59x + 43.8 | 33 | 0.78 | |
MVANN | y = x − 0.07 | 3 | 0.99 | y = 0.98x + 1.63 | 2 | 0.99 | y = 0.96x + 9.18 | 23 | 0.89 | ||
HDF00 | MVMLR | y = 0.84x + 14.57 | 23 | 0.84 | y = 0.66x+58.33 | 40 | 0.80 | y = 0.81x + 59.39 | 42 | 0.76 | |
MVANN | y = 0.99x + 2.53 | 3 | 0.99 | y = 1.01x − 0.98 | 3 | 0.99 | y = 0.89x − 1.03 | 28 | 0.91 | ||
NEP | DF49 | MVMLR | y = 0.71x + 8.56 | 19 | 0.76 | y = 0.55x + 4.65 | 24 | 0.82 | y = 0.59x − 2.14 | 35 | 0.64 |
MVANN | y =0.99x + 0.63 | 8 | 0.96 | y = 0.99x − 0.54 | 6 | 0.98 | y = 0.67x − 9.36 | 39 | 0.54 | ||
HDF88 | MVMLR | y = 0.93x − 0.65 | 12 | 0.86 | y = 1.01x − 13.44 | 23 | 0.81 | y = 1.08x − 5.52 | 24 | 0.80 | |
MVANN | y = 0.99x + 0.62 | 4 | 0.98 | y = 0.96x − 1.33 | 5 | 0.98 | y = 0.53x − 21 | 41 | 0.51 | ||
HDF00 | MVMLR | y = 0.67x − 15.4 | 17 | 0.34 | y = − 0.04x − 58.5 | 42 | 0.01 | y = − 0.21x − 55.3 | 53 | 0.02 | |
MVANN | y = 0.99x + 1.21 | 8 | 0.82 | y = 0.89x − 6.47 | 7 | 0.87 | y = 0.31x − 32.2 | 42 | 0.06 | ||
ET | DF49 | MVMLR | y = 0.96x + 1.26 | 4 | 0.96 | y = 0.91x − 0.82 | 6 | 0.94 | y = 1.05x − 10.3 | 5 | 0.93 |
MVANN | y = 0.99x + 0.34 | 1 | 0.99 | y = 0.98x + 0.36 | 1 | 0.99 | y = 1.04x − 2.1 | 6 | 0.9 | ||
HDF88 | MVMLR | y = 0.93x + 2.06 | 6 | 0.93 | y = 1.24x − 14.9 | 13 | 0.90 | y = 1.09x − 20.64 | 20 | 0.91 | |
MVANN | y = 0.99x + 0.21 | 1 | 0.99 | y = 0.99x − 0.08 | 1 | 0.99 | y = x + 0.56 | 5 | 0.95 | ||
HDF00 | MVMLR | y = 0.92x + 1.78 | 5 | 0.92 | y = 0.91x − 2.6 | 9 | 0.88 | y = 0.8x − 5.49 | 16 | 0.76 | |
MVANN | y = 0.99x − 0.03 | 1 | 0.99 | y = x + 0.23 | 1 | 0.99 | y = 0.83x + 3.62 | 9 | 0.84 |
Stand | Flux | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | Mean (2007–2010) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Measured | Modeled | N effect | Measured | Modeled | N effect | Measured | Modeled | N effect | Measured | Modeled | N effect | Measured | Modeled | N effect | ||
DF49 | GPP | 2095 | 1943 | +152 | 2111 | 1936 | +175 | 2103 | 1982 | +121 | 2138 | 1924 | +214 | 2112 | 1924 | +188 |
R | 1543 | 1644 | −101 | 1580 | 1694 | −114 | 1558 | 1710 | −152 | 1520 | 1690 | −170 | 1550 | 1690 | −140 | |
NEP | 552 | 300 | +253 | 531 | 242 | +289 | 545 | 273 | +272 | 618 | 235 | +383 | 562 | 235 | +327 | |
HDF88 | GPP | 1851 | 1435 | +416 | 1675 | 1406 | +269 | 1572 | 1316 | +256 | 1716 | 1456 | +260 | 1704 | 1456 | +248 |
R | 1714 | 1546 | +168 | 1457 | 1548 | −91 | 1326 | 1499 | −173 | 1365 | 1583 | −218 | 1466 | 1583 | −117 | |
NEP | 137 | −112 | +249 | 218 | −142 | +360 | 246 | −183 | +429 | 351 | −159 | +478 | 238 | −159 | +397 | |
HDF00 | GPP | 1126 | 691 | +435 | 1005 | 665 | +340 | 1083 | 759 | +324 | 1068 | 629 | +439 | 1071 | 629 | +442 |
R | 1566 | 1297 | +269 | 1396 | 1278 | +118 | 1314 | 1216 | +98 | 1418 | 1258 | +160 | 1424 | 1258 | +166 | |
NEP | −440 | −606 | +166 | −391 | −613 | +222 | −231 | −457 | +226 | −350 | −629 | +279 | −353 | −629 | +276 |
Stand | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | Mean (2007-2010) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Measured | Modeled | N effect | Measured | Modeled | N effect | Measured | Modeled | N effect | Measured | Modeled | N effect | Measured | Modeled | N effect | ||
DF49 | ET | 421 | 415 | +6 | 394 | 413 | −19 | 421 | 448 | −27 | 472 | 406 | +66 | 427 | 420.5 | +6.5 |
WUE | 4.98 | 4.68 | +0.3 | 5.36 | 4.69 | +0.67 | 5 | 4.42 | +0.58 | 4.53 | 4.74 | −0.21 | 4.9675 | 4.6325 | +0.335 | |
LUE | 0.0254 | 0.0235 | +0.0019 | 0.0241 | 0.0221 | +0.002 | 0.0216 | 0.0204 | +0.0012 | 0.0253 | 0.0228 | +0.0025 | 0.0241 | 0.0222 | +0.0019 | |
HDF88 | ET | 448 | 405 | +43 | 385 | 426 | −41 | 397 | 413 | −16 | 425 | 437 | −12 | 413.75 | 420.25 | −6.5 |
WUE | 4.13 | 3.54 | +0.59 | 4.35 | 3.3 | +1.05 | 3.96 | 3.19 | +0.77 | 4.04 | 3.33 | +0.71 | 4.12 | 3.34 | +0.78 | |
LUE | 0.0214 | 0.0166 | +0.0048 | 0.0176 | 0.0148 | +0.0028 | 0.0145 | 0.0121 | +0.0024 | 0.0176 | 0.015 | +0.0026 | 0.017775 | 0.014625 | +0.00315 | |
HDF00 | ET | 283 | 312 | −29 | 288 | 244 | +44 | 360 | 338 | +22 | 364 | 431 | −67 | 323.75 | 331.25 | −7.5 |
WUE | 3.97 | 2.22 | +1.75 | 3.49 | 2.73 | +0.76 | 3.01 | 2.24 | +0.77 | 2.93 | 1.46 | +1.47 | 3.35 | 2.1625 | +1.1875 | |
LUE | 0.0146 | 0.0089 | +0.0057 | 0.0117 | 0.0077 | +0.004 | 0.0129 | 0.009 | +0.0039 | 0.013 | 0.0077 | +0.0053 | 0.01305 | 0.008325 | +0.004725 |
4. Discussion
4.1. Effects of N Fertilization on Gross Primary Productivity
4.2. Effects of N Fertilization on Ecosystem Respiration
4.3. Effects of N fertilization on Net Ecosystem Production
Stand | Flux | Study | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DF49 | NEP | This study (ANN) | 253 | 289 | 272 | 383 |
Jassal et al. [53] | 168 | 78 | ||||
Chen et al. [52] | 250 | |||||
GPP | This study (ANN) | 152 | 175 | 121 | 214 | |
Jassal et al. [53] | 203 | 139 | ||||
Chen et al. [52] | 157 | |||||
R | This study (ANN) | −101 | −114 | −152 | −170 | |
Jassal et al. [53] | 35 | 61 | ||||
Chen et al. [52] | −93 | |||||
HDF88 | NEP | This study (ANN) | 249 | 360 | 429 | 478 |
Jassal et al. [53] | 182 | 179 | ||||
GPP | This study (ANN) | 416 | 269 | 256 | 260 | |
Jassal et al. [53] | 615 | 366 | ||||
R | This study (ANN) | 168 | −91 | −173 | −218 | |
Jassal et al. [53] | 433 | 187 | ||||
HDF00 | NEP | This study (ANN) | 166 | 222 | 226 | 279 |
Jassal et al. [53] | −3 | −82 | ||||
GPP | This study (ANN) | 435 | 340 | 324 | 439 | |
Jassal et al. [53] | 305 | 329 | ||||
R | This study (ANN) | 269 | 118 | 98 | 160 | |
Jassal et al. [53] | 308 | 411 |
4.4. Effects of N fertilization on ET, WUE and LUE
4.5. Modeling Uncertainty and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dou, X.; Chen, B.; Black, T.A.; Jassal, R.S.; Che, M. Impact of Nitrogen Fertilization on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Water Loss in a Chronosequence of Three Douglas-Fir Stands in the Pacific Northwest. Forests 2015, 6, 1897-1921. https://doi.org/10.3390/f6061897
Dou X, Chen B, Black TA, Jassal RS, Che M. Impact of Nitrogen Fertilization on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Water Loss in a Chronosequence of Three Douglas-Fir Stands in the Pacific Northwest. Forests. 2015; 6(6):1897-1921. https://doi.org/10.3390/f6061897
Chicago/Turabian StyleDou, Xianming, Baozhang Chen, T. Andrew Black, Rachhpal S. Jassal, and Mingliang Che. 2015. "Impact of Nitrogen Fertilization on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Water Loss in a Chronosequence of Three Douglas-Fir Stands in the Pacific Northwest" Forests 6, no. 6: 1897-1921. https://doi.org/10.3390/f6061897